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CHAPTER

LOGARITHMS
3

Animation 3.1:Laws of logarithms

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Students Learning Outcomes

3.1 Scientific Notation
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
There are so many numbers that we use in science and technical
• express a number in standard form of scientific notation and vice
work that are either very small or very large. For instance, the distance
versa.
from the Earth to the Sun is 150,000,000 km approximately and a
• define logarithm of a number y to the base a as the power to which
hydrogen atom weighs 0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001,7 gram.
a must be raised to give the number (i.e., ax = y ⇔ logay = x, a > 0,
While writing these numbers in ordinary notation (standard notation)
• a ≠ 1 and y > 0).
there is always chance of making an error by omitting a zero or
• define a common logarithm, characteristic and mantissa of log of
writing more than actual number of zeros. To overcome this problem,
a number.
scientists have developed a concise, precise and convenient method
• use tables to find the log of a number.
to write very small or very large numbers, that is called scientific
• give concept of antilog and use tables to find the antilog of a
notation of expressing an ordinary number.
number.
A number written in the form a x 10n, where 1 < a < 10 and n is an
• differentiate between common and natural logarithm.
integer, is called the scientific notation.
• prove the following laws of logarithm
The above mentioned numbers (in 3.1) can be conveniently written
• loga(mn) = logam + logan,
m in scientific notation as 1.5 x 108 km and 1.7 x 10-24 gm respectively.
• loga ( ) =
n
logam – logan,
• logamn = nlogam,
Example 1
• logam logmn = logan.
Write each of the following ordinary numbers in scientific notation
• apply laws of logarithm to convert lengthy processes of
(i) 30600 (ii) 0.000058
multiplication, division and exponentiation into easier processes
of addition and subtraction etc.
Solution
30600 = 3.06 x 104 (move decimal point four places to the left)
Introduction
0.000058 = 5.8 x 10-5 (move decimal point five places to the right)

The difficult and complicated calculations become easier by using

Observe that for expressing a number in scientific notation
logarithms.
(i) Place the decimal point after the first non-zero digit of given
Abu Muhammad Musa Al Khwarizmi first gave the idea of logarithms.
number.
Later on, in the seventeenth century John Napier extended his work
(ii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i), by 10n if we shifted
on logarithms and prepared tables for logarithms He used “e” as
the decimal point n places to the left
the base for the preparation of logarithm tables. Professor Henry
(iii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i) by 10-n if we shifted
Briggs had a special interest in the work of John Napier. He prepared
the decimal point n places to the right.
logarithim tables with base 10. Antilogarithm table was prepared by
(iv) On the other hand, if we want to change a number from scientific
Jobst Burgi in 1620 A.D.
notation to ordinary (standard) notation, we simply reverse the
process.
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Example 2 loga y = x, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and y > 0.

Change each of the following numbers from scientific notation to i.e., the logarithm of a number y to the base ‘a’ is the index x of the
ordinary notation. (i) 6.35 % 106 (ii) 7.61 % 10-4 power to which a must be raised to get that number y.
The relations ax = y and logay = x are equivalent. When one relation
Solution is given, it can be converted into the other. Thus
(i) 6.35 % 106 = 6350000 (move the decimal point six places
to the right)
(ii) 7.61 % 10-4 = 0.000761 (move the decimal point four places ax = y ⇔ logay = x
to the left)

EXERCISE 3.1
ax = y and loga y = x are respectively exponential and logarithmic
Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation. form of the same relation.
To explain these remarks ,we observe that
(i) 5700 (ii) 49,800,000 (iii) 96,000,000 32= 9 is equivalent to 1og3 9 = 2
(iv) 416.9 (v) 83,000 (vi) 0.00643
(vii) 0.0074 (viii) 60,000,000 (ix) 0.00000000395 1
and 2-1= is equivalent to log2 = -1
(x) 275,000 2 Logarithm of a negative
0.0025 number is not defined at
this stage.
Similarly, we can say that
Express the following numbers in ordinary notation.
log327 = 3 is equivalent to 27 = 33
(i) 6 x 10-4 (ii) 5.06 x 1010
(iii) 9.018 x 10-6 (iv) 7.865 x 108 Example 3
Find 1og42, i.e., find log of 2 to the base 4.
3.2 Logarithm
Solution
Logarithms are useful tools for accurate and rapid computations. Let 1og42 = x.
Logarithms with base 10 are known as common logarithms and Then its exponential form is 4x = 2
those with base e are known as natural logarithms. We shall define i.e., 22x = 21 ⇒ 2x = 1
logarithms with base a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
∴ x= ⇒ log42 =

3.2.1 Logarithm of a Real Number

Deductions from Definition of Logarithm
If ax = y, then x is called the logarithm of y to the base ‘a’ and is 1. Since a0 = 1, loga1 = 0 2. Since a1 = a, logaa = 1
written as

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3.2.2 Definitions of Common Logarithm, Characteristic

and Mantissa Definition of Common Logarithm Observe that

In numerical calculations, the base of logarithm is always taken The logarithm of any number consists of two parts:
as 10. These logarithms are called common logarithms or Briggesian (i) An integral part which is positive for a number greater than 1 and
logarithms in honour of Henry Briggs, an English mathematician and negative for a number less than 1, is called the characteristic of
astronomer, who developed them. logarithm of the number.
(ii) A decimal part which is always positive, is called the mantissa of
Characteristic and Mantissa of Log of a Number the logarithm of the number.
Consider the following
103 = 1000 ⇔ log 1000 =3
102 = 100 ⇔ log 100 =2 (i) Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number > 1
10 = 10 ⇔
1
log 10 =1 The first part of above table shows that if a number has one
100 = 1 ⇔ log 1 =0 digit in the integral part, then the characteristic is zero; if its integral
10–1 = 0.1 ⇔ log 0.1 = –1 part has two digits, then the characteristic is one; with three digits in
10 = 0.01
–2
⇔ log 0.01 = –2 the integral part, the characteristic is two, and so on.
10–3 = 0.001 ⇔ log 0.001 = –3 In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number
greater than 1 is always one less than the number of digits in the
Note: integral part of the number.
When a number b is written in the scientific notation, i.e., in the
By convention, if only the common logarithms are used form b = a x10n where 1 < a < 10, the power of 10 i.e., n will give the
throughout a discussion, the base 10 is not written. characteristic of log b.

Also consider the following table Examples

For the numbers the logarithm is Characteristic of

Number Scientific Notation
the Logarithm
Between 1 and 10 a decimal
Between 10 and 100 1 + a decimal 1.02 1.02 x100 0
99.6 9.96 x 101 1
Between 100 and 1000 2 + a decimal
102 1.02 x 102 2
Between 0.1 and 1 –1 + a decimal 1662.4 1.6624 x 103 3
Between 0.01 and 0.1 –2 + a decimal
Between 0.001 and 0.01 –3 + a decimal

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Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number < 1 logarithmic tables. These tables have been constructed to obtain the
The second part of the table indicates that, if a number has no logarithms up to 7 decimal places. For all practical purposes, a four-
zero immediately after the decimal point, the characteristic is –1; if it figure logarithmic table will provide sufficient accuracy.
has one zero immediately after the decimal point, the characteristic A logarithmic table is divided into 3 parts.
is –2; if it has two zeros immediately after the decimal point, the (a) The first part of the table is the extreme left column headed by
characteristic is –3; etc. blank square. This column contains numbers from 10 to 99
In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number corresponding to the first two digits of the number whose
less than 1, is always negative and one more than the number of zeros logarithm is required.
immediately after the decimal point of the number. (b) The second part of the table consists of 10 columns, headed by
0, 1, 2, ...,9. These headings correspond to the third digit from
the left of the number. The numbers under these columns
Example
record mantissa of the logarithms with decimal point omitted
Write the characteristic of the log of following numbers by
for simplicity.
expressing them in scientific notation and noting the power of 10.
(c) The third part of the table further consists of small columns
0.872, 0.02, 0.00345 known as mean differences columns headed by 1, 2, 3, ...,9.
These headings correspond to the fourth digit from the left of
Solution the number. The readings of these columns are added to the
mantissa recorded in second part (b) above.
Characteristic of
Number Scientific Notation
the Logarithm
When the four-figure log table is used to find the mantissa of the
0.872 8.72 x 10-1 -1 logarithm of a number, the decimal point is ignored and the number
0.02 2.0 x 10-2 -2 is rounded to four significant figures.
0.00345 3.45 x 10-3 -3
3.2.3 Using Tables to find log of a Number

When a number is less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm is The method to find log of a number is explained in the
written by convention, as 3, 2 or 1 instead of -3, -2 or -1 respectively following examples. In the first two examples, we shall confine to
(3 is read as bar 3 ) to avoid the mantissa becoming negative. finding mantissa only.

Note: Example 1
2.3748 does not mean -2.3748. In 2.3748, 2 is negative but .3748 Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 43.254
is positive; Whereas in -2.3748 both 2 and .3748 are negative.
Solution
(ii) Finding the Mantissa of the Logarithm of a Number Rounding off 43.254 we consider only the four significant digits
While the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is written 4325
merely by inspection, the mantissa is found by making use of
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1. We first locate the row corresponding to 43 in the log tables and Example 3
2. Proceed horizontally till we reach the column corresponding to 2. Find (i) log 278.23 (ii) log 0.07058
The number at the intersection is 6355.
3. Again proceeding horizontally till the mean difference column Solution
corresponding to 5 intersects this row, we get the number 5 at the (i) 278.23 can be round off as 278.2
intersection. The characteristic is 2 and the mantissa, using log tables, is .4443
4. Adding the two numbers 6355 and 5, we get .6360 as the mantissa ∴ log 278.23 = 2.4443
of the logarithm of 43.25. (ii) The characteristic of log 0.07058 is -2 which is written as 2 by
convention. Using log tables the mantissa is .8487, so that
Example 2 log 0.07058 = 2.8487
Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 0.002347
3.2.4 The Concept of Antilogarithm and Use of Antilog
Solution Tables
Here also, we consider only the four significant digits 2347
We first locate the row corresponding to 23 in the logarithm tables The number whose logarithm is given is called antilogarithm.
and proceed as before. i.e., if logay = x, then y is the antilogarithm of x, or y = antilog x
Along the same row to its intersection with the column corresponding
to 4 the resulting number is 3692. The number at the intersection of Finding the Number whose Logarithm is Known
this row and the mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 13. We ignore the characteristic and consider only the mantissa. In the
Hence the sum of 3692 and 13 gives the mantissa of the logarithm of antilogarithm page of the log table, we locate the row corresponding
0.002347 as 0.3705 to the first two digits of the mantissa (taken together with the decimal
point). Then we proceed along this row till it intersects the column
Note: corresponding to the third digit of the mantissa. The number at the
intersection is added with the number at the intersection of this row
The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of
and the mean difference column corresponding to the fourth digit of
significant digits have the same mantissa. e.g., the mantissa
the mantissa.
of log of numbers 0.002347 and 0.2347 is 0.3705
Thus the significant figures of the required number are obtained.
Now only the decimal point is to be fixed.
For finding the common logarithm of any given number, (i) If the characteristic of the given logarithm is positive, that number
increased by 1 gives the number of figures to the left of the decimal
(i) Round off the number to four significant digits. point in the required number.
(ii) Find the characteristic of the logarithm of the number by inspection. (ii) If the characteristic is negative, its numerical value decreased by
(iii) Find the mantissa of the logarithm of the number from the log 1 gives the number of zeros to the right of the decimal point in the
tables. required number.
(iv) Combine the two.
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Example (iii) log5 n = 2 (iv) 10p = 40

Find the numbers whose logarithms are (i) 1.3247 (ii) 2.1324 5. Evaluate

Solution
(i) 1.3247
Reading along the row corresponding to .32 (as mantissa 6. Find the value of x from the following statements.
= 0.3247), we get 2109 at the intersection of this row with the column x
(i) log2x = 5 (ii) log819 = x (iii) log648 =
corresponding to 4. The number at the intersection of this row and 2
(iv) logx64 = 2 (v) log3x = 4
the mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 3. Adding 2109 and
3 we get 2112.
3.3 Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm
Since the characteristic is 1 it is increased by 1 (because there
should be two digits in the integral part) and therefore the decimal
In 3.2.2 we have introduced common logarithm having base
point is fixed after two digits from left in 2112.
10. Common logarithm is also known as decadic logarithms named
Hence antilog of 1.3247 is 21.12.
after its base 10. We usually take logx to mean log10x , and this type
(ii) 2.1324
of logarithm is more convenient to use in numerical calculations.
Proceeding as in (i) the significant figures corresponding to the
John Napier prepared the logarithms tables to the base e. Napier’s
mantissa 0.1324 are 1356. Since the characteristic is 2, its numerical
logarithms are also called Natural Logarithms He released the first
value 2 is decreased by 1. Hence there will be one zero after the
ever log tables in 1614. loge x is conventionally given the notation In x.
decimal point.
In many theoretical investigations in science and engineering, it is
Hence antilog of 2.1324 is 0.01356.
often convenient to have a base e, an irrational number, whose value
is 2.7182818...
EXERCISE 3.2
3.4 Laws of Logarithm
1. Find the common logarithm of each of the following numbers.
(i) 232.92 (ii) 29.326
In this section we shall prove the laws of logarithm and then
(iii) 0.00032 (iv) 0.3206 apply them to find products, quotients, powers and roots of numbers.
2. If log 31.09 = 1.4926, find values of the following
(i) log 3.109, (ii) log 310.9, (iii) log 0.003109,
(iv) log 0.3109 without using tables.

3. Find the numbers whose common logarithms are

(i) 3.5621 (ii) 1.7427
4. What replacement for the unknown in each of following will make
the statement true?
(i) log3 81 = L (ii) loga 6 = 0.5
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(i) loga(mn) = logam + logan Hence y = antilog 3.0912 = 0.001234

Proof
Let logam = x and logan = y
Writing in exponential form ax = m and ay = n.
∴ ax % ay = mn
i.e., ax+y = mn Proof
or loga(mn) = x + y = logam + logan Let logam = x and logan = y
Hence loga(mn) = logam + logan Then ax = m and ay = n

Note:
(i) loga(mn) ≠ logam x logan
(ii) logam + logan ≠ loga(m + n)
(iii) loga(mnp ...) =logam + logan + logap + …
The rule given above is useful in finding the product of two or
more numbers using logarithms. We illustrate this with the following
examples. Note:

Example 1
Evaluate 291.3 % 42.36

Solution Note that

logaa = 1
Let x = 291.3 % 42.36
Then log x = log (291.3 % 42.36) Example 1
= log 291.3 + log 42.36 , (logamn = logam + logan)
= 2.4643 + 1.6269 = 4.0912
x = antilog 4.0912 = 12340
Solution
Example 2
Evaluate 0.2913 % 0.004236.

Solution
Let y = 0.2913 % 0.004236
Then log y = log 0.2913 + log 0.004236 Thus x = antilog 0.8374 = 6.877
= 1.4643 + 3.6269
= 3.0912
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Example 2 (iv) Change of Base Formula

Solution Proof
Let logb n = x so that n = bx
Taking log to the base a, we have
or log y = log 0.002913 - log 0.04236 loga n = logabx = x loga b = logb n loga b
log y = 3.4643 - 2.6269 Thus loga n = logb n loga b …… (i)
= 3 + (0.4643 - 0.6269) - 2 Putting n = a in the above result, we get
= 3 - 0.1626 - 2 logb a % loga b = loga a = 1
= 3 + (1 - 0.1626) - 1 - 2, (adding and subtracting 1)
= 2.8374 [ 3 - 1 - 2 = -3 -1 - (-2) = -2 = 2 ]
Therefore, y = antilog 2.8374 = 0.06877

(iii) loga(mn) = n logam

Using the above rule, a natural logarithm can be converted to a
common logarithm and vice versa.
Proof
Let logamn = x, i.e., ax = mn
and logam = y, i.e., ay = m
Then ax = mn = (ay)n
i.e., ax = (ay)n = ayn ⇒ x = ny
i.e.,logamn = n loga m
The values of loge 10 and log10 e are available from the tables:
and log10 e = log 2.718 = 0.4343
Example 1

Example:
Solution
Calculate log23 % 1og38

Solution:
We know that

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3.5 Application of Laws of Logarithm in

Numerical Calculations

So far we have applied laws of logarithm to simple type of

products, quotients, powers or roots of numbers. We now extend their
application to more difficult examples to verify their effectiveness in
simplification.
Note:

(i) During conversion the product form of the change of base rule Example 1
may often be convenient. Show that
(ii) Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, e
or 10, and are useful for solving equations in which the unknown
appears as the exponent of some other quantity.
Solution

EXERCISE 3.3
= 7[log 16 - log 15] + 5[log 25 - log 24] + 3[log 81 - log 80]
1. Write the following into sum or difference = 7[log 24 - log (3 x 5)] + 5[log 52 - log (23 x 3)] + 3[log 34 -
log (24 x 5)]
= 7[4 log 2 - log 3 - log 5] + 5[2 log 5 - 3 log 2 - log 3] + 3[4
log 3 - 4 log2 - log 5]
= (28 - 15 - 12) log 2 + (-7 - 5 + 12) log 3 + (-7 + 10 - 3)log 5
= log 2 + 0 + 0 = log 2 = R.H.S.
2. Express log x – 2 log x + 3 log (x + 1) – log (x2 – 1) as a single Example 2
logarithm. Evaluate:
3. Write the following in the form of a single logarithm.
(i) log 21 + log 5 (ii) log 25 – 2 log 3 Solution
(iii) 2 log x – 3 log y (iv) log 5 + log 6 – log2
4. Calculate the following:
(i) log32 % 1og281 (ii) log53 % 1og325
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771, log 5 = 0.6990, then find the
values of the following
(i) log 32 (ii) log 24 (iii) log
(iv) log (v) log 30
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2. A gas is expanding according to the law pvn = C. Find C when

p = 80, v = 3.1 and

3. The formula p = 90 (5)-q/10 applies to the demand of a product,

where q is the number of units and p is the price of one unit.
How many units will be demanded if the price is Rs 18.00?
22
4. If A = pr2, find A, when p = and
7
r = 15

1 22
or y = antilog 1.4762 = 0.2993 5. If V = p
3
r2h, find V, when p = , r
7
= 2.5 and h = 4.2

Example 3 REVIEW EXERCISE 3

Given A = Aoe-kd. If k = 2, what should be the value of d to make
1. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer.

Solution
Given that A = Aoe-kd. ⇒ 2. Complete the following:
(i) For common logarithm, the base is ……..
1
Substituting k = 2, and , we get =
2
e-2d (ii) The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called
Taking common log on both sides, the …..
log101 - log102 = -2d log10e, where e = 2.718 (iii) The decimal part of the common logarithm of a number is called
0 - 0.3010 = -2d (0.4343) the ….
(iv) If x = log y, then y is called the ........... of x.
(v) If the charactcristic of the logarithm of a number is 2, that
number will have ......... zero(s) immediately after the decimal
EXERCISE 3.4 point.
(vi) If the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is 1, that
1. Use log tables to find the value of number will have digits in its integral part.

3. Find the value of x in the following:

(i) log3 x = 5 (ii) log4256 = x

(iii) (iv)

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4. Find the value of x in the following: • The number corresponding to a given logarithm is known as
(i) log x = 2.4543 (ii) log x = 0.1821 antilogarithm.
(iii) log x = 0.0044 (iv) logx = 1.6238 • loge10 = 2.3026 and log10e = 0.4343
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 and log 5 = 0.6990, then find the • Laws of logarithms.
values of the following: (i) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n
m
(ii) loga ( ) = loga m - logan
n
(i) log 45 (ii) log 16 (iii) log 0.048 (iii) loga (mn) = n loga m
15
(iv) loga n = logb n - loga b
6. Simplify the following:

SUMMARY

• If ax = y, then x is called the logarithm of y to the base a and is

written as x = loga y, where a > 0, a ≠ 1 and y > 0.
• If x = loga y, then ax = y.
• If the base of the logarithm is taken as 10, it is known as
common logarithm and if the base is taken as e(c2.718)
then it is known as natural or Naperian logarithm.
• The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called
the characteristic and the decimal part the mantissa.
• (i) For a number greater than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm
• is equal to the number of digits in the integral part of the
number minus one.
• (ii) For a number less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm
is always negative and is equal to the number of zeros
immediately after the decimal point of the number plus one.
• When a number is less than 1, the characteristic is always written
as 3, 2, 1 (instead of -3, -2, -1) to avoid the mantissa becoming
negative
• The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of significant
digits have the same mantissa.
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