B.

Sc (Computer Science)
II Semester – Environmental Studies

STUDY MATERIAL

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

URUMU DHANALAKSHMI COLLEGE
Nationally Re-Accredited with A Grade by NAAC
TIRUCHIRAPPALLI-19

January 2020
 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

UNIT: 1 The Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

Definition, scope and importance.
Need for public awareness

UNIT: 2 Natural Resources:

Renewable and non-renewable resources:
Natural resources and associated problems.

a) Forest resources: use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. Timber

extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people.
b) Water resources: Use and over-utilization of surface and ground water, floods,
drought, conflicts over water, dams benefits and problems.
c) Mineral resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting and
using mineral resources, case studies.
d) Food resources: World food problems, changes caused by agriculture and
overgrazing, effects of modern agriculture, fertilizer-pesticide problems, water
logging, salinity, case studies.

e) Energy resources: Growing energy needs, renewable and non renewable energy
sources, use of alternate energy sources. Case studies.
f) Land resources: Land as a resources, land degradation, man induced Landslides,
soil erosion and desertification.

Role of an individual in conservation of natural resources.

Equitable use of resources for sustainable lifestyles.

UNIT: 3 Ecosystems

Concept of an ecosystem.
Structure and function of an ecosystem.
Producers, consumers and decomposers
Energy flow in the ecosystem
Ecological succession.
Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids
Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the
following ecosystem: -
a. Forest ecosystem
b. Grassland ecosystem
c. Desert ecosystem
d. Aquatic ecosystems, (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries)
UNIT: 4 Biodiversity and its conservation

Introduction – Definition : Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity

Biogeographical classification of India
Value of biodiversity : consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical,
aesthetic and option values
Biodiversity at global, National and local levels
India as a mega-diversity nation
Hot-spots of biodiversity
Threats to biodiversity : habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife
conflicts.
Endangered and endemic species of India
Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of
biodiversity.

UNIT: 5 Environmental Pollution

Definition
Causes, effects and control measures of :
a. Air Pollution
b. Water Pollution
c. Soil Pollution
d. Marine Pollution
e. Noise pollution
f. Thermal Pollution
g. Nuclear hazards

Solid waste Management: Causes, effects and control measures of urban

and industrial wastes.
Role of an individual in prevention of pollution
Pollution case studies
Disaster management: floods, earthquake, cyclone and landslides.
Ill-Effects of Fireworks: Firework and Celebrations, Health Hazards,
Types of Fire, Firework and Safety
UNIT: 6 Social Issues and the Environment

From Unsustainable to Sustainable development.

Urban problems related to energy.
Water conservation, rain water harvesting, watershed management.
Resettlement and rehabilitation of people; its problems and concerns.
Case studies
Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions.
Climate change, global warming, acid rain, ozone layer depletion,
nuclear accidents and holocaust. Case studies.
Wasteland reclamation.
Consumerism and waste products.
Environment Protection Act.
Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act.
Wildlife Protection Act.
Forest Conservation Act.
Issues involved in enforcement of environmental legislation
Public awareness.

UNIT: 7 Human Population and the Environment

Population growth, variation among nations.

Population explosion – Family Welfare Programmes
Environment and human health
Human Rights - Value Education
HIV/ AIDS - Women and Child Welfare
Role of Information Technology in Environment and human health
Case studies.

UNIT: 8 Field Work

Visit to a local area to document environmental assets-river / forest/

grassland/ hill / mountain
References:

1. Agarwal, K.C. 2001 Environmental Biology, Nidi Public Ltd Bikaner.

2. Bharucha Erach, The Biodiversity of India, Mapin Publishing Pvt ltd, Ahamedabad –
380013, India, E-mail: [email protected](R)
3. Brunner R.C. 1989, Hazardous Waste Incineration, McGraw Hill Inc 480 p
4. Clark R.S. Marine Pollution, Clanderson Press Oxford (TB)
5. Cunningham, W.P.Cooper, T.H.Gorhani E & Hepworth, M.T. 2001.
6. De A.K. Environmental Chemistry, Wiley Eastern Ltd
7. Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment (R)
8. Gleick, H.P. 1993. Water in crisis, Pacific Institute for Studies in Dev., Environment &
Security. Stockholm Env. Institute Oxford University, Press 473p.
9. Hawkins, R.E. Encyclopedia of India Natural History, Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay (R)
10. Heywood, V.H & Watson, R.T. 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge
University Press 1140 p.
11. Jadhav, H & Bhosale, V.M. 1995. Environmental Protection and Laws Himalaya Pub.
House, Delhi 284 p.
12. Mckinney, M.L. & Schoch R.M. 1996. Environmental Science systems & Solutions,
Web enhanced edition 639 p.
13. Mhaskar A.K. Matter Hazardous, Techno-Science Publications (TB)
14. Miller T.G. Jr. Environmental Science, Wadsworth Publishing Co. (TB)
15. Odum, E.P. 1971 Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Saunders Co. USA. 574 p
16. Rao MN & Datta, A.K. 1987 Waste Water treatment, Oxford & IBH Publication Co. Pvt
Ltd 345 p.
17. Sharma B.K. 2001 Environmental chemistry Goel Publ House, Meerut.
18. Survey of the Environment, The Hindu (M ).
19. Townsend C. Harper, J and Michael Begon, Essentials of Ecology, Blackwell science
(TB)
20. Trivedi R.K. Handbook of Environmental Laws, Rules, Guidelines, Compliances and
Standards, Vol. I and II, Enviro Media (R).
21. Trivedi R.K. and P.K. Goel, Introduction to air pollution, Techno-Science Publications
(TB).
22. Wagner K.D. 1998 Environmental Management. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia USA
499 p
(M) Magazine (R) Reference (TB) Textbook
*************
 Content
Unit No. Unit Name Page
No.
1 1.1DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1
1.1.1 Definition 1
1.1.2 Scope 2
1.1.3 Importance 3
1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS 4
1.2.1 Institutions in Environment 6
1.2.2 People in Environment 7
2 2.1 INTRODUCTION 8
2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE 8
RESOURCES
2.2.1 Natural resources and associated problems 8
2.2.2 Non-renewable resources 8
2.2.3 Renewable resources 9
a) Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, 9
case studies. Timber extraction, mining, dams and their
effects on forests and tribal people
b) Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and 16
ground water,floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams –
benefits and problems.
Mineral
c) Resources: Use and exploitation,
Mineral Resources: environmental
Use and exploitation, effects of
environmental 23
extracting and using mineral resources, case studies.
effects of extracting and using mineral resources, case
d) studies.
Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse 24
by agriculture and grazing, Effects of modern agriculture,
Fertilizer/ pesticide problems, Water logging and salinity
e) Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non 27
renewable,Use of Alternate energy sources, Case studies
2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF 31
NATURAL RESOURCES
2.4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR 31
33
SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES
3 3.1 CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM 34
3.1.1 Understanding ecosystems 35
3.1.2 Characteristics of Ecosystem 35
3.1.3 Classification of Ecosystem 35
3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM 36
3.3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS 37
3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM 40
3.4.1 The water cycle 40
3.4.2 The Carbon cycle 40
3.4.3 The Oxygen cycle 41
3.4.4 The Nitrogen cycle 41
3.4.5 The energy cycle 41
3.4.6 Integration of cycles in nature 42
3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 42
3.6 FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL 43
PYRAMIDS
3.6.1 The food chains 43
3.6.2 The food webs 46
3.6.3 The ecological pyramids 47
3.7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC 56
FEATURES,
3.7.1 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Forest ecosystem 56
3.7.2 Aquatic ecosystems 57
3.7.3 Grassland ecosystem 59
4 UNIT 4: BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION 60

4.1 INTRODUCTION – DEFINITION: GENETIC, SPECIES, 60

ECOSYSTEM
4.1.1 DIVERSITY
Genetic diversity 60
4.1.2 Species diversity 61
4.1.3 Ecosystem diversity 61
4.2: BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA 62
4.3: CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, 64
ETHICAL, AESTHETIC AND OPTION VALUES
4.3.1 Consumptive value 64
4.3.2 Productive value 64
4.3.3Non Consumptive value 65
4.3.4Option value 65
4.3.5Existence value 66
4.3.6Aesthetic value 66
4.4BIODIVERSITY 66
4.5INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION 66
4.6HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY 67
4.7THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, 68
POACHING OF WILDLIFE,MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
4.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA 70
4.8.1ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA 70
4.8.2 ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA 71
4.9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: IN-SITU AND 72
EX-SITU
4.9.1 In-situ conservation 73
4.9.2 Ex-situ conservation 74
5 UNIT 5: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 76
5.1 DEFINITION 76
5.2 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL MEASURES OF 77
5.2.1 Water Pollution 81
5.2.2Thermal Pollution 84
5.2. 3.Soil Pollution 87
5.2.4Noise Pollution 90
5.2.5Marine Pollution 93
5.2.6Nuclear hazards 94
5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT: CAUSES, EFFECTS 97
5.4 ROLE
AND CONTROL MEASURES
OF INDIVIDUALS IN POLLUTION 98
5.5
OFDISCARDING
URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL
PREVENTION WASTE CASEWASTE
STUDIES 99
5.6DISASTER MANAGEMENT: FLOOD CYCLONES,
LANDSLIDES 101
5.7 EARTHQUAKES, CYCLONES, LANDSLIDES 103
6 UNIT 6: SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 105
6.1 FROM UNSUSTAINABLE TO SUSTAINABLE 105
DEVELOPMENT
6.2URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY 106
6.3WATER CONSERVATION, RAIN WATER 107
HARVESTING, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
6.3.1 Water conservation 108
6.3.2 Rain water harvesting 110
6.3.3 Watershed management 112
6.4RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF 113
PEOPLE; ITS PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS. CASE
STUDIES
 6.5ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS: ISSUES AND POSSIBLE 116
SOLUTIONS
6.6CLIMATE CHANGE, GLOBAL WARMING, ACID 118
RAIN, OZONE LAYER DEPLETION, NUCLEAR
ACCIDENTS AND NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST. CASE
STUDIES change
6.6.1Climate 118
6.6.2Global warming 119
6.6.3 Acid rain 121
6.6.4Ozone layer depletion 123
6.6.5Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 125
6.7WASTELAND RECLAMATION 127
6.8CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS 129
6.9ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT 130
6.10AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) 131
ACT
6.11WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF 131
POLLUTION)
6.12 WILDLIFE ACT
PROTECTION ACT 132
6.13 FOREST CONSERVATION ACT 132
6.14 STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD 132
6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS 133
7 UNIT 7 HUMAN POPULATION 134
7.1 POPULATION GROWTH, VARIATION AMONG 134
POPULATION EXPLOSION – FAMILY WELFARE
NATIONS
7.2 137
PROGRAM
7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN HEALTH 139
7.4 HUMAN RIGHTS 140
7.5 VALUE EDUCATION 141
7.6 HIV/AIDS WOMEN AND CHILD WELFARE 143
ROLE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH
7.7REMOTE SENSING 143
7.8 COMPUTER FIELD ENVIRONMENTAL AND 145
HUMAN HEALTH
8 UNIT 8: FIELD WORK 147
VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSETS,
RIVER/FOREST/GRASSLANDS/HILL/MOUNTAIN
 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

UNIT-1
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

1.1.1 DEFINITION
• The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means to
‘encircle or surround’.
• Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical conditions
that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and development of people,
animals and plants”
• This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment as
well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.
• It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a particular
occurrence and all the things that surrounds us.

SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
• The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture,
public health, sanitary engineering etc.
• It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the sources,
reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in the air, water,
soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
• As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different environments
like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental studies is inter
disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology, politics, policy studies,
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 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to understand the humanity’s effects
on the natural world.
• This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental issues
and citizens and experts in many fields.
• By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the
interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that enables
them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.

1.1.2 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of
areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
• Natural resources- their conservation and management
• Ecology and Biodiversity
• Environmental pollution and control
• Human population and environment
• Social issues in relation to development and environment
These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct
relevance to every section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields
that are broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various
environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for
developing cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws
related to environment, need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be
able to plead the cases related to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing
emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have
ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental

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 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

managers would be in great demand in the coming years.

(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like
television, radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which
environmentally educated persons are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are engaging
environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling environment related
problems.

1.1.3 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

• The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental
degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized,
empowered and experts are involved in sustainable development.
• Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.
• At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and complexity
day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues are studied
besides giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.
• The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:

1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:

It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation
Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the
developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed
3 |BSc (Computer Science) Environmental Studies
 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

to move ‘dirty’ factories to South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in
ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither
practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an
alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
• A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound
and sustainable development.
• A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

• A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over- consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our
activities cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name
of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development. Our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.

1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts
considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of development.

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 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although
population control does automatically lead to development, yet the development leads
to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and
environmental degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority of our people
are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food,
fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor w ho depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge of environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High
yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater.
Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to
restore the water quality of our rivers and other water bodies. Suitable strategies for
conservation of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean
should be developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing
demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large irrigation projects were
made. Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace local people, damage flora and
fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada, Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become
areas of political and scientific debate. Forests in India have been shrinking for several
centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once
green, stand today as waste lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative
cover. The tribal communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give
them sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving
forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be integrated
with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities. The strategies
for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.

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 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha
possess any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and
85 suffers from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are
completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land, of which
over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of livestock have to
be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as pasture land,
most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is
degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of
almost 150 mha This degradation is to be avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of environmental
problems. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of India’s 3,245 towns
and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment facilities. Hence, coping
with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of
treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been identified
as the worst in terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but
their implement is not so easy. The reason is their implementation needs great resources,
technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people are to be made aware of
these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.

1.2.1 INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT

Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local,
national, regional and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with
environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organization include
government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1,
• The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
• World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
• Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
• C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
• Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
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• Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education & Research,

Pune
• The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
• Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
• Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
• The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
• Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

1.2.2 PEOPLE IN ENVIRONMENT

There are several internationally known environ- mental thinkers.Among those

who have made landmarks, the names that ar e usually men- tioned
areCharles Darwin, Ralph Emerson, Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel
Carson and EO Wilson.Each of these thinkers looked at the environment from a
completely different perspective. Charles Darwin wrote the ‘Origin of Species’,
which brought to light the close relationship between habitats and spe- cies.It brought
about a new thinking of man’s relationship with other species that was based on
evolution. Alfred Wallace came to the same conclusions during his work. Ralph
Emerson spoke of the dangers of commerce to our envi- ronment way back in the
1840s. Henry Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilder- ness should be preserved
after he lived in the wild for a year. He felt that most people did not care for nature and
would sell it off for a small sum of money. John Muir is remembered as having saved
the great ancient sequoia trees in California’a forests.

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2. NATURAL RESOURCES UNIT-2

2.1 INTRODUCTION
• Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by nature which are
necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
• Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals, climate and
solar energy (non- living or abiotic part).
• They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural
needs at the individual and community levels.

2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES.

2.2.1 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:

• The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
• A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The
‘developing nations’ also over use many resources because of their greater human
population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of the
developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing countries.
• Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
2.2.2 NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES:
• The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are known as non-
renewable resources. These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be
increased.
• These resources include fossil fuels (petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold,
silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates
etc.).Once a non-renewable resource is consumed, it is gone forever.

• Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.

A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable

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 Department of Computer Science, Urumu Dhanalakshmi College, Tiruchirappalli

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected after they are
used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources, which occur in the
earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum, copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g.
Phosphate sock and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica etc.)
B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be recycled in any
way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements

2.2.3 RENEWABLE RESOURCES:

• The resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known as renewable
resource. These resources are able to increase their abundance through reproduction and
utilization of simple substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle
but can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers (e.g. Cotton,
jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
• In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable resources.
• Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a renewable
resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human scale.

(a) FOREST RESOURCES

• A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other woody
vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means ‘outside’. India’s
Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists estimate that India should
ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have about 12% thus we need not only
to protect our existing forests but also to increase our forest cover.

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FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

USES OF FOREST
1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses
1. Commercial uses:
• Wood – used as a fuel
• Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture timber etc.
• Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
• Many plants – Medicines
• Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
• Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.

2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.

• Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen which is essential for
life.
• Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house gas. It is absorbed
by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of global warming caused by CO2 is
reduced.
• Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil erosion. They also act as
wind breaks.
• Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant
sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.Pollution
• moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and help in preventing air and
noise pollution.
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• Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about 33%
of total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest material occurs.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an increased demand

for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest materials is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:
1. Increasing agricultural production.
2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural or manmade activities (i.e.) destruction
of forests.
Causes of deforestation:
4. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation through two ways.
• Through submergence of forest area.
• Destruction of forest area.
Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.
5. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and lime stone.
6. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various purposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.
7. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.
8. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specific tree
plantation. Ex: Teak
9. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
10. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land

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Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:

1. Economic loss
2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species

4. Reduction in stream flow

5. Increases the rate of global warming

6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate

7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.

8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.

9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / severity.

10. Breaks the water cycle

11. Breaks the nutrient cycle

PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR) METHODS OF

CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
• New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees cut down
for timber
• Use of wood forfuel should be discouraged.
• Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
• Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
• Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
• Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people into the islands
from mainland.
• Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
• Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.
Case study:
Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and plantation
of monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing their fertility, hence,
Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.

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MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS TIMBER EXTRACTION

Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called timber.
The products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and thus it has
acquired value within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in deforestation and in the
fragmentation of the last remaining forests. It harms valuable species of trees, birds and wild
animals. In spite of this, it is sometimes necessary to extract timber, so as to meet the needs of a
developing country. During the extraction of timber, cutting, felling and handling should be done
selectively, carefully and in a planned manner, in order to save the remaining forests and biodiversity.
Effects of Timber Extraction
The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:
1. Poor logging results in a degraded forest.
2. Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
3. Loss of biodiversity.
4. Climatic changes such as less rains.
5. New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas and cut the
remaining trees.
6. It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because some species
of plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar habitat to survive.
7. Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
8. Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.
9. Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting of trees on
upstream.
Case Study-Chipko Movement
The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram Swarajya Mandal
in Gopeshwar brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests.

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The first Chipko Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai led the
Bishnoi women against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In this attempt to save
the trees, she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband, three daughters and 363 people.
The movement was given this name because the village women embraced or hugged the trees to
stop them from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar Pradesh, the Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi
of Advani who protected the hill forests from the contractors axe men.

DAMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important role in
communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic development.
Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams. Hydropower,
another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19% of the world’s total electric power
supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s two most populous countries – China and
India –have built around 57% of the world’s large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much beneficial
purpose.
Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of
forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.
Effects of dams on forest:
• Thousands of hectares of forestwill be cleared.
• Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
• Spreading of water borne diseases.
• Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.
Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people
1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.
2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.

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5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will be affected by
many diseases.

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a result of
the demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and homes in the
submergence area. This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced thousands of tribal folk,
whose lives and livelihoods were linked to the river, the forests and their agricultural lands. While
they and the fishermen at the estuary, have lost their homeland, rich farmers downstream will get
water for agriculture. The question is why should the local tribals be made homeless, displaced and
relocated to benefit other people? Why should the less fortunate be made to bear the costs of
development for better off farmers? It is a question of social and economic equity as well as the
enormous environmental losses, including loss of the biological diversity of the inundated forests
in the Narmada valley.

MINING
The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal from the earth is
called as mining.
Types of mining
• Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits
• Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits
Steps involved in mining
1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals
The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining, which
needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

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Effects of mining
1. Pollute soil, water and air.
2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water is logged
which contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.

(b) WATER RESOURCES

Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country is for
irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and domestic consumption.
1. USES
a. Is essential for all forms of life.
b. Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental
activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
c. No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by 1% we feel
thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.

2. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:
Water from various water bodies

Evaporated by solar energy Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds Falls again on earth as rain or

snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

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3. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

UNDERGROUND WATER
Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer of sand
and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate, then the
sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings
b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.
3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid regions for
agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem: a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers
c. Change the speed and direction of water.
4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to the intrusion
of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture.

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5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.

6. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much faster than
can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
7. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore water
containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many more areas
are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase
significantly during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited
freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at 3800 cubic
kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission on Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more water
than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to
grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains, does not bother its
liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes down the
rivers and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area permitting it to seep into
the ground. This charges the underground stores of water in natural aquifers. This can be used
in drought years if the stores have been filled during a good monsoon. This soil and water
management and afforestation are long-term measures that reduce the impact of droughts.
The destruction of forests influences the regulation of natural water cycle. The removal of
dense and uniform cover over the hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage basins.
Nations situated in tropical climates including India experience disastrous floods caused by
the indiscriminate deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which
otherwise used for human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation

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6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in subsurface reservoirs.
The building construction activities are sealing the permeable zone, reducing the area for percolation
of rainwater into subsurface and increase in surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating electricity, and
for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by creating large dams. Dams
support 30 to 40% of this area.

4. FLOOD
It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds the carrying
capacity of the channel within its bank.
CAUSES OF FLOOD
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level of flood
raises.
EFFECT OF FLOOD
1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.
2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization.
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
1. Floods can be controlled by dams.
2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through appropriate
afforestation in the catchment area.

5. DROUGHT
Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to
1. Inadequate rain fall
2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of groundwater.

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Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may be
termed as a drought. Drought causes serious damages to plants, animals and human life.
CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population.
3. Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due
to over exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes the quality
of water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and adversely affects
human and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time, hence
industrial and commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.
2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop failures in
dry area.

6. DAMS
Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits derived from
them have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and to help the drought
prone areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to

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cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small dams.
Multiple small dams have less impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as wetlands and
flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild plant and animal species,
particularly is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.
• Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and land
submergence
• Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces
agricultural productivity
• Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and
ecosystems, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
• Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of
tribal people.
• Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
• Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and livelihood
• Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal
people
• Dislodging animal populations
• Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
• Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
• Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological hazards
due to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone diseases, such as
malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis.

7. SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

• Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects
• Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands

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• Soil management, micro-catchment development and afforestation permits recharging of

underground aquifer, thus reducing the need for large dams
• Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agriculturaluse.
• Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes
• Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments
• Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of growing
water intensive cash crops ; control of water logging.
• Pricing water at its real value makes people use it more responsibility and efficiently and
reduces wastage
• In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management practices,
making bunds along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain moisture and make it
possible to revegetate degraded areas
• Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling
• Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.
• Protect existing tanks
• Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing
• “Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity
• Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic watershed
management.
• Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and creating
local accountability.
• The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote sustainable
watershed management and invest in technologies that will increase efficiency in irrigation,
industrial usage and improve water harvesting techniques.

8. WATER CONFLICTS
1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and international disputes.
National conflicts:
a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.
b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala

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International conflicts:
Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA

(C) MINERAL RESOURCES

Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are called
as minerals.
9. USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al&Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and ornaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system

10. ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

1. Devegetation:
• Topsoil and vegetation get removed
• Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
• Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted into
sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the surface
water, which kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits air pollutants
and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting of
buildings and bending of rail tracks.

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11. EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS

1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits
2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.

12. MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.
2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.

13. CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN UDAIPUR

200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of
explosives are used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and
wild life.

(D) FOOD RESOURCES

Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.

1. TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

1. Crop plants: Grains mostly constitute about 76% of the world’s food. Ex:
Rice, Wheat and Maize
2. Range lands: Produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing animals.
Ex: Fruits, milk and meat
3. Ocean: Fisheries – 7% of world’s food
2. WORLD FOOD PROBLEM
1. In the earth’s surface, 79% is water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert,
mountain and barren land) . Less % cultivated land, at the same time population
explosion is high therefore world food problem arises.
2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity
affects agricultural land.
3. Urbanization affects agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and

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other vegetable is difficult.

3. TYPES OF NUTRITION
1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large
amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as
vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food and agricultural organization (FAO)
of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global
state is 2500 calories/day.
2. Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy needs
suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary calorie.
Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.
3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals,
vitamins, iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases.
Effect of mal nutrition:

India 3rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished.
World food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the
number of under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

4. OVER GRAZING
It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.

EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation
• Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
• Exposed soil gets compacted
• Soil moisture reduces.
• Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
• Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded
by the action of wind and rain fall.
3. Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.

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5. AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for
human use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding
and raising livestock, dairying and forestry.
TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture
1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute
traditional agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for
their income.
2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides
and water to produce large amount of single crops.
EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
1. Problems in using fertilizers
a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and Haryana
deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer causes blue baby
syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the lakes called
eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of the species is less and
they decompose easily and pollute the water which affects the aquatic life.
2. Problems in using pesticides
1. Death of non target organism.
2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on concentrating
in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.

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Causes of water logging:

1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage
Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus
6. CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA
In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes premature
delivery and low birth weight infant.

Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola
companies are selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU
limits. This damages the nervous system,.

(E) ENERGY RESOURCES

1. ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
• Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s population
but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.
• Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to energy
consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.
• Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor country
GNP and energy consumption are less.
2. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
3. RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.
Merits of renewable energy resources
4. Unlimited supply
5. Provides energy security.
6. Fits into sustainable development concept.
7. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
8. Decentralized energy production.

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Types of renewable energy resources

1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:
• Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type semi conductor
(Si doped with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms bottom layer.

• Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to the conduction
band which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor. Potential difference
between the two layers is created which causes flow of electrons.

Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.

b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar battery. It is
used in remote areas where continuous power supply is a problem.
c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint with glass lid.
Inside the box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water is allowed to flow, it is
heated up and flows out into a storage tank from which water is supplied through pipes.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the wind
is called wind energy It’s speed is high.
a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it rotates
continuously. And rotational motion of the blade drives number of machines like water
pump, flour mills and electric generators.
b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together in a definite
pattern – it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of electricity.
Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr
Advantages:

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1. It does not cause air pollution

2. Very cheap
3. Ocean energy:
Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and moon
which produce enormous amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean. Low
tides – fall of water in the ocean. Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal barrage.
During high tides sea water enters into the reservoirs and rotates the turbine, produce
electricity. During low tides water from reservoir enters into the sea rotate the turbine
produce electricity.
Ocean thermal energy:
Temperature difference between surface water and deeper level water in ocean generates
electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called
ocean thermal energy.
Condition: Temperature difference should be 200C.
Process: Ammonia is converted into vapours on the surface of warm water, it increases
the vapour pressure which rotate the turbine and generates electricity. Deeper level cold
water is pumped to cool and condense the vapour in to liquid.
3. Geo thermal energy: Temperature of the earth increases at a of 20 –750C per/km when
we move down the earth. The energy utilised from the high temperature present inside the
earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural geysers: Hot water or steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally
is called natural geysers.
Artificial geysers: Artificially a drill hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe
into it. The hot water or steam is used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.
4. Bio mass energy:
Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy
Bio gas: Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the
major constituent. It is obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant
wastes in the presence of water.

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Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass. Ex: Ethanol, methanol
Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.
Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.
Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars
and buses.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. It
has high calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.

NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:

Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
Disadvantages:
1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes global warming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and small
amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In the world
level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the world crude oil
reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.

3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking can
be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and odorless gas,
but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.

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4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and other
hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: Dr.H.Bhabha is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10
nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear energy
can be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear
fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter nuclei on
bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released through chain
reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three
neutrons; in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of propagation
of the reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together
at extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large amount
of energy is released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

CASE STUDY
Wind energy in India: India generating 1200 MW electricity using the wind energy.
Largest wind farm situated near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It produces 380 MW
electricity.
Hydrogen fuel car: General motor company of china discovered a experimental car ( fuel
H2) can produce no emission only water droplets and vapors come out of the exhaust
pipe. This car will be commercially available by 2010.

2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVA- TION OF NATURAL

RESOURCES

• Until fairly recently mankind acted as if he could go on for ever exploiting the ecosystems

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and natural resources such as soil, water, forests and grasslands on the Earth’s surface and
extract- ing minerals and fossil fuels from underground. But, in the last few decades, it has
become in- creasingly evident that the global ecosystem has the capacity to sustain only a
limited level of utilization. Biological systems cannot go on re- plenishing resources if they
are overused or mis- used. At a critical point, increasing pressure de- stabilizes their natural
balance. Even biological resources traditionally classified as ‘renewable’such as those from
our oceans, forests, grass- lands and wetlands, are being degraded by over- use and may be
permanently destroyed. And no natural resource is limitless. ‘Non-renewable’ resources will
be rapidly exhausted if we con- tinue to use them as intensively as at present.

• The two most damaging factors leading to the current rapid depletion of all forms of
natural resources are increasing ‘consumerism’ on the part of the affluent sections of society,
and rapid population growth. Both factors are the results of choices we make as individuals.
As individu- als we need to decide;

• What will we leave to our children? (Are we thinking of short-term or long-term gain?)

• Is my material gain someone else’s loss?

Greed for material goods has become a way of life for a majority of people in the developed
world. Population growth and the resulting shortage of resources most severely affects
people in the developing countries. In nations such as ours, which are both developing
rap- idly, and suffering from a population explosion, both factors are responsible for
environmental degradation. We must ask ourselves if we have
perhaps reached a critical flash point, at which economic ‘development’ affects the lives of
people more adversely than the benefits it pro- vides.

What can you do to save electricity?

• Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave the room.

• Use tube lights and energy efficient bulbs that save energy rather than bulbs. A 40- watt
tube light gives as much light as a 100 watt bulb.

• Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on tubes and bulbs decreases lighting levels by 20 to 30
percent.

• Switch off the television or radio as soon as the program of interest is over.

• A pressure cooker can save up to 75 per- cent of energy required for cooking. It is also
faster.

• Keeping the vessel covered with a lid dur- ing cooking, helps to cook faster, thus sav- ing
energy.

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2.4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE

LIFESTYLES

• Reduction of the unsustainable and unequal use of resources, and control of our population
growth are essential for the survival of our na- tion and indeed of human kind everywhere.
Our environment provides us with a variety of goods and services necessary for our day-to-day
lives, but the soil, water, climate and solar energy which form the ‘abiotic’ support that we
derive from nature, are in themselves not distributed evenly throughout the world or within
countries. A new economic order at the global and at na-tional levels must be based on the
ability to dis- tribute benefits of natural resources by sharing them more equally among the
countries as well as among communities within countries such as our own. It is at the local
level where people subsist by the sale of locally collected resources, that the disparity is greatest.
‘Development’ has not reached them and they are often unjustly accused of ‘exploiting’
natural resources. They must be adequately compensated for the re- moval of the sources to
distant regions and thus develop a greater stake in protecting natural resources.

• There are several principles that each of us can adopt to bring about sustainable lifestyles. This
primarily comes from caring for our Mother Earth in all respects. A love and respect for Na-
ture is the greatest sentiment that helps bring about a feeling for looking at how we use natu-
ral resources in a new and sensitive way. Think of the beauty of a wilderness, a natural forest
in all its magnificence, the expanse of a green grassland, the clean water of a lake that sup-
ports so much life, the crystal clear water of a hill stream, or the magnificent power of the
oceans, and we cannot help but support the conservation of nature’s wealth. If we respect
this we cannot commit acts that will deplete our life supporting systems.

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UNIT-3

3. ECOSYSTEMS

3.1 CONCEPT OF ANECOSYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
• The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
• The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) – means
“house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of. Hence,
ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of relations between
the organism and their environment.
(OR)
• Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with their
environment.
(OR)
• Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
• In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.
• The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological sphere (or)
house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living organism does exist
while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and interdependent manner.
Hence,
• A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
• A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is called as
“ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

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3.1.1 UNDERSTANDING SYSTEM

STRUCTURE:
• Living /Biotic
• Non-Living /Abiotitic

PROCESS:

• Energy flow
• Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
• Dynamic (Not static)
• Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
• Food chain
• Food web
• Ecological pyramids
• Energy Flow
• Cycling of matter

3.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
2. It contains both biotic and abiotic components.
3. The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of energy.
4. The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
5. Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called a
“ecological succession”.

3.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

➢ The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
• A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.

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• These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major interference by
man.
• The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.

1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
• This ecosystem is related to land. Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
• This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
3) Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>
2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.

3.2 STRUCTURE (OR) FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

• The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains
the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.
Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.

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2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Biotic
Components

Eco System

Abiotic
Components

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

3.3 PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic component”.

Examples: Plants (Producers)
Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
• The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how they get
their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

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A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

• Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs. Examples: All green plants and trees.
• Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence they are also called
“Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
• Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly (or) indirectly
on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
• Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

• Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
• They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
• Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
They directly depend on the herbivores for their food. Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
• Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
• They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food. Examples: humans, tigers,
lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
• Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores. Examples: beetles,
termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.

C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)

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• Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and decompose them into simple
compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
• The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple products are called
decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
• The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
• These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in metabolic activities
and then return to the environment. The abiotic component of the ecosystems divided into three
portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

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3.4 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

• Every ecosystem has several interrelated mecha- nisms that affect human life. These are the wa- ter
cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle. While every
ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic and biotic features are distinct
from each other.

• All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration of its
plant and animal species. These linked pro-cesses can be depicted as the vari- ous cycles. These
processes de- pend on energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis carbon di- oxide is taken up by
plants and oxygen is released. Animals de- pend on this oxygen for their res- piration. The water cycle
depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals to live. The energy cycle recycles
nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our own lives are closely linked to the proper
functioning of these cycles of life. If human activities go on altering them, humanity cannot survive
on our earth.

3.4.1 The Water Cycle

When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls directly into the sea. A
part of the rainwater that falls on land perco- lates into the ground. This is stored underground
throughout the rest of the year. Water is drawn up from the ground by plants along with the nutrients
from the soil. The water is transpired from the leaves as water vapour and returned to the
atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, wa- ter vapour rises and forms clouds. Winds blow the clouds
for long distances and when the clouds rise higher, the vapour condenses and changes into droplets,
which fall on the land as rain. Though this is an end-less cycle on which life de- pends, man’s activities
are making drastic changes in the atmosphere through pollution which is altering rainfall patterns.
This is leading to prolonged drought periods extending over years in countries such as Africa,
while caus- ing floods in countries such as the US. El Nino storms due to these effects have devastated
many places in the last few years.

3.4.2 The Carbon cycle

The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is in- cluded in both the abiotic and biotic parts
of the ecosystem. Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues. In the atmosphere,
carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of sun-light, plants take up carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through their leaves. The plants combine carbon diox- ide with
water, which is ab- sorbed by their roots from the soil. In the presence of sun- light they are able to
form car- bohydrates that contain car- bon. This process is known as photosynthesis. Plants use this
complex mechanism for their growth and development. In this process, plants releaseoxygen into
the atmosphere on which animals depend for their respiration. Plants therefore help in regulating
and monitoring the percent- age of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. All of
mankind thus depends on the oxygen generated through this cycle. It also keeps the CO2 at
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acceptable levels.

Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, which is used by them for energy and for their growth.
Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. They also return fixed carbon to the
soil in the waste they excrete. When plants and animals die they return their carbon to the soil. These
processes complete the carbon cycle.

3.4.3 The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is taken up by plants and ani- mals from the air during respiration. The plants return oxygen
to the at- mosphere during photosynthesis. This links the Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon Cycle.
Deforestation is likely to gradu- ally reduce the oxygen levels in our atmosphere. Thus plant life plays
an important role in our lives which we frequently do not appreciate. This is an important reason
to participate in afforestation programs.

3.4.4 The Nitrogen Cycle

Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous ani- mals that live on plants. When animals defecate, this
waste material is broken down by worms and insects mostly beetles and ants. These small ‘soil
animals’ break the waste material into smaller bits on which microscopic bacteria and fungi can
act. This material is thus broken down further into nutrients that plants can absorb and use for their
growth. Thus nutrients are recycled back from animals to plants. Similarly the bod- ies of dead
animals are also broken down into nutrients that are used by the plants for their growth. Thus the
nitrogen cycle on which life is dependent is com- pleted. Nitrogen fixing bacteria and fungi in
soil gives this impor- tant element to plants, which absorb it as nitrates. The ni- trates are a part of the
plant’s metabolism, which help in forming new plant proteins. This is used by animals that feed
on the plants. The nitro- gen is then transferred to car- nivorous animals when they
feed on the herbivores. Thus our own lives are closely interlinked to soil animals, fungi and even
bacteria in the soil. When we think of food webs, we usually think of the large mammals and other large
forms of life. But we need to understand that it is the unseen small animals, plants and microscopic
forms of life that are of great value for the functioning of the ecosystem.

3.4.5 The Energy Cycle

The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is
converted by plants themselves into growing new plant material which includes leaves, flow- ers,
fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants.
Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly into their tissues, they are known as
producers in the ecosystem. The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives them
energy. A large part of this energy is used up for day to day functions of these ani- mals such as
breathing, digesting food, support- ing growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow and body
temperature. Energy is also used for activities such as looking for food, finding shel- ter, breeding
and bringing up young ones. The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous ani- mals on which they
feed. Thus the different plant and animal species are linked to one another through food chains.
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Each food chain has three or four links. However as each plant or animal can be linked to several
other plants or animals through many different link-ages, these inter-linked chains can be
depicted as a complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows that there are
thousands of interrelation- ships in nature.

The energy in the ecosystem can be de- picted in the form of a food pyramid or energy pyramid. The
food pyramid has a large base of plants called ‘produc- ers’. The pyramid has a narrower middle
section that depicts the number and bio- mass of herbivorous animals, which are called ‘first order
consumers’. The apex depicts the small biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second order consum- ers’.
Man is one of the animals at the apex of the pyramid. Thus to support mankind, there must be a
large base of herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity of plant material.

When plants and animals die, this ma- terial is returned to the soil after being broken down into
simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and fungi so that plants can
absorb the nutrients through their roots.
Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes back to the soil. This links the
energy cycle to the Nitrogen cycle.

3.4.6 Integration of cycles in Nature

These cycles are a part of global life processes. These biogeochcemical cycles have specific fea- tures in
each of the ecosystems. These cycles are however linked to those of adjacent ecosys- tems. Their
characteristics are specific to the plant and animal communities in the region. This is related to the
geographical features of the area, the climate and the chemical composition of the soil. Together the
cycles are responsible for maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs these cycles beyond the
limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a degraded earth on which
man will not be able to survive.

3.5 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend to change over a period of time.
Succession can be related to seasonal environ- mental changes, which create changes in the
community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem. Other successional events may take much
longer periods of time extending to sev- eral decades. If a forest is cleared, it is initially colonized
by a certain group of species of plants and animals, which gradually change through an orderly
process of community development. One can predict that an opened up area will gradually be
converted into a grassland, a shrubland and finally a woodland and a forest if permitted to do so
without human interference. There is a tendency for succession to produce a more or less stable state
at the end of the suc- cessional stages. Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus consist of a
pioneer stage, a series of changes known as serel stages, and finally a climax stage. The successive
stages are related to the way in which energy flows through the biological system. The most fre-
quent example of successional changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a dry
terrestrial habitat to the early colonisation stage by small aquatic species after the mon- soon,
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which gradually passes through to a ma- ture aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts back to its dry stage
in summer where its aquatic life remains dormant.

3.6 FOOD CHAIN ,FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:

➢The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of energy.
Types of functions:
• Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through
photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food. They are
always depending upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco
system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and
decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are
released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.

3.6.1 Food Chain:

• Anything which we eat to live is called food.
• Food contains energy.
• Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
• The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organisms is called as
“food chain”.
• A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a picture
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(or) model that shows the flow of energy from autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an
environment, as shown in the following figure.

Carnivores Omnivores Decomposer

SUN

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

• Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for plants.
• The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of the sunlight, chlorophyll,
water and air. The consumers, including animals and humans, cannot make their own food. They
are always depending upon the producers for their energy.
• Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals and plants and release
nutrients that become part of the soil, which are re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of
the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
• Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain (or)
detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.
• It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain. Example:
Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain
Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion

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b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial food chain. It is seen in
aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish
Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

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2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and
animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar
energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish
Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain
either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A parasitic
food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’ links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

3.6.2 Food Web:

• Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
• So, food web is a network of food chains.
• In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of organisms are
connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten
at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter connecting of various food chains are called food webs
and as shown in following figure.

Bird(Eagle)
Snake Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

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Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

3.6.3 Ecological Pyramids:

• The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles Elton in
1927.
• Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which the tropic
levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
▪ An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.
:

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Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

• In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the ecological pyramid.

• On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in organist
population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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1. Pyramid of numbers:
• It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
• Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

Upright Pyramid of numbers:

• The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic level to higher tropic
level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”. Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond
ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.
• The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and large in numbers. So,
producers occupy lower tropic level (1 st tropic level).
• The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the numbers
of rats are lower when compared to the grasses, the size of which is lower.
• The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III tropic level. Since the
numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the rats, the size of which is lower.
• The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic level. The number and
size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in figure>.
• Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and carnivores are decreases from
lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.

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Apex

Large Tertiary Consumers

Fish
Distance in Number

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base
Large Fish
Tertiary Consumers

Small Fish
Secondary Consumers

Zoo Plankton
Ex: Protozoa Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae) Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

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2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:

• A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
• In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number. So, these producers
occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
• The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II tropic level. Since the
number of birds, insects and other species are higher when compared to the trees, the size of which
is broader.
• The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy the third tropic level.
Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when compared to the birds, insects the size of which is
lower.
• The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV tropic level. Since the
number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the fox and snakes the size of which is very (or)
narrow lower. So the pyramid is narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is
called partially upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers

Tiger

Snakes,
Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Trees

Producers

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Tertiary Consumers
Lion, Tiger

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher tropic
level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
• It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or) organism)

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present in each tropic level.

• It is expressed in gram per unitarea.
• Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
• The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first tropic level to
consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of biomass”
• A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
• In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer levels (as shown in
figure)

Apex

10kgs
Distance in Number

Base

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Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers
Insects, Birds

Producers
Trees

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

• The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer level are called as
Inverted pyramid of biomass.
• Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
• In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer levels as shown in the
following figure.

Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

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Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Insects Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
• It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
• It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
• In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level. At each successive
tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus,
at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in
energy at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.

5 Kcals
Decrease in Energy

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5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers

Secondary Consumers
50 K cals

Primary Consumers

500 k cals
Producers

5000 K cals

3.7 INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERIS- TIC FEATURES, STRUCTURE

AND FUNCTIONS
3.7.1 FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals
Types:
➢ Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
➢ Littoral and swamps
➢ Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals

Struct
ure:
Produ : Trees and shrubs
cer
Cons : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
umer
Secondary – snakes, birds,
lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Deco : fungi, bacteria
mpos
ers

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3.7.2 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature – organisms: algae, aquatic
plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth
washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification, especially during
summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone Second layer –
enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone Third layer – very poor or no
sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and nutrient
content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in climatic conditions

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but they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large
surface area of running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of industrial
pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
• Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen –
plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that
require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and
delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface – 2,50,000 species –
huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major
sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate biochemical cycles.
• Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
• Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
• Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
• Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal actions – very rich in
nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are highly tolerant – many species are
endemic – high food productivity – however to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc. Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes,
snails insects, birds, etc.

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3.7.3 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:

Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in Africa.
Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry seasons – termite mounds produce
methane – leads to fire – high in photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 –
global warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot summer -
dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil is quite fertile – cleaned for
agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. – A thick layer
of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year – known as permafrost – summer
insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc. Biotic: grass,
caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

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4. BIODIVERSITY

UNIT-4

4.1 INTRODUCTION
• Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for ―biological diversity (bio -life or living organisms,
diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number of
races, varieties and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals
(producers, consumers and decomposers) in a system.
• Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic and soil
conditions and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest). The biomes
shelter an astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain forest, from
highest mountain to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of size, shape,
colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the biodiversity, makes the world
beautiful.
• There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by research
expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50 million different species
may be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species and may comprise
more than 90% of all species on earth.
LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY
• The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are

1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
4.1.1 Genetic diversity –
• A species with different genetic characteristics is known as a sub-species or "genera".
• Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual species.
• Within individual species, there are varieties, that are slightly different from one other. These
differences are due to differences in the combination of genes.

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• Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to the other.
Ex: (i) Rice varieties - All rice varieties belong to the species "oryzasativa". However there are
thousands of rice varieties that show variation at the genetic level in the form of different size,
shape, colour and nutrient content.
(ii) Teak wood varieties: The various teak wood varieties available
are - Indian teak, Burma teak, Malaysian teak etc.

4.1.2 Species diversity

• A discrete groups of organisms of the same kind is known as species.

• Species diversity is the diversity between different species.
• The sum of varieties of all living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity.
• Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual communities or
ecosystems.
• The biotic component is composed of a large number of species of plants, animals and
microorganisms which interact with each other and with the abiotic component of the environment.
Ex: The total number of species living on earth is approximately more than 2 million. However,
only around 1.5 million are found and assigned scientific names.
Plant species: Apple, Mango, Wheat, Grapes, Rice etc
Animal species: Lion, Tiger, Elephant,Deer etc

4.1.3 Ecosystem diversity

• A set of biotic components (plants, animals and microorganisms) and abiotic components (soil, air,
water, etc) interacting with each other is known as an ecosystem.
• Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological community,
including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food webs and material
recycling.

• The diversity at an ecological level or habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity.

Ex: River ecosystem- Rivers include fish, aquatic insects, mussels and a variety of plants that
have adapted.
• Ecosystem diversity is the aggregate of different environmental types in a region.
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• It explains the interaction between living organisms and

physical environment in an ecosystem.
4.2 BIO-GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA
India has different climate and topography in different parts and hence is termed as a mega
diversity country.
India occupies 10th place among plant rich countries of the world.
It is essential to acquire knowledge about the distribution and environmental interaction of flora
and fauna of India.
Bio-geographers have classified India into ten bio-geographic zones with each zone having
characteristic climate, soil and biodiversity.
These zones are described below:
1. Trans-Himalayas: The trans-himalayas is an extension to the Tibetean plateau. This region
harbors the high-altitude cold desert in ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and Lahaul Spiti (Himachal
Pradesh). It accounts for 5.7% of the country's landmass.
2. Himalayas: The Himalayas are the northern boundaries of India. The entire
mountain chain is running from Kashmir in the North-west to Assam in the north-east. The
Himalayas comprise of a diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. The himalayas cover 7.2%
of the country's landmass
3. Desert: The extremely dry area west of the Aravalli hill range, is comprising
both the salty desert of Gujarat and the sandy desert of Rajasthan. Deserts occupy around 6.9%
of the country's land mass.
The kinds of deserts found in India are:
a. The desert of western Rajasthan
b. The desert ofGujarat
c. The high-altitude cold desert of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The Indian deserts have
more diversified fauna.

4. Semi-arid: This zone lies between the desert and the Deccan plateau. It
includes the Aravalli hill range. It overs approximately 15.6% of the country's landmass.
5. Western Ghats: The western ghats are a mountain range that runs along the western cost of India.
They are a range extending north-south from southern tip of Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari

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in the south.The mountains cover an area of about 160,000 sq. km. This ghat section covers an
extremely diverse range of biotic provinces and biomes. It covers about 5.8% of the country's
landmass.
6. Deccan plateau: It is a large triangular plateau south of the Narmada valley. Three sides of the
plateau are covered by mountains slopes towards east. Satpura mountains cover the north while
western ghats cover the west side and eastern ghats cover the eastern side of the plateau. It is the one
of largest zones covering the southern and south-central plateau with mostly deciduous trees. It
covers 4.3% of the country's land mass.
7. Gangetic plain: This plain covers the area between the south himalayas to the tropic of cancer.
These plains were formed by the Ganges river system and are relatively homogeneous. This region
experience 600 mm rainfall

annually. Sunderbans forests are located in this region and it covers 11% of the country's land mass.
8. North-east India These are pains and non-himalayan ranges of
northeastern India and have a wide variety of vegetation. It covers around 5.2% of the country's
land mass.
9. Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal has almost 300 big and small
islands. Among these, only five islands are inhabited. Only tribes are found in the island of Nicobar.
These islands have a highly diverse set of biomes and occupy 0.03% of the country's biomass.
• Coasts India has a large coastline distributed both to the east and west with distinct differences
between the two. The Lakshwadeep islands are included in this but the area of these islands is
negligible.

FUNCTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY: Two main functions of biodiversity are

1. It is the source on which the entire human species depends on for food, fibre, shelter, fuel and
medicine.
2. It depends on biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, air and overall
health of biosphere.

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4.3 CONSUMPTIVE, PRODUCTIVE USE, SOCIAL, ETHICAL, AESTHETIC AND OPTION

VALUES

4.3.1 Consumptive use value:

• The consumptive use value is the value placed on nature's products that are consumed directly,
without passing through a market. Some of them are firewood, food, and game meat.
• When direct consumption requires recreation, as in sport fishing and game viewing, the
consumptive value is the whole recreational experience. Consumptive value seldom appears in
national income accounts, but could be easily included in measures such as GDP. It is valued from
the cost if resource was sold at market value, rather than being consumed.
• High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:
• Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
• Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
• Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
Consumptive use value benefits the communities closest to the resource if harvested sustainably and
managed efficiently.
4.3.2 Productive use value:
▪ Productive use value refers to products that are commercially harvested (sold in a market).
▪ Its value is estimated at the production end rather than retail end by adding an inflated cost to the
finished product.

o Productive use value is often the only value of biological resource reflected in national income
accounts and may have a major impact on the national economy.

o Timber, fish, honey, construction materials, mushrooms, fruits, medicinal plants and game meat
sold in a market have productive use value.

1. Indirect value of biodiversity

• Indirect values provide economic benefits without being harvested and do not appear in GDP.
However, they are crucial to other natural products which influence the GDP.
• These values involve functions performed by biodiversity which are not of any use. Ex: Ecological
Processes etc.

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• Direct values are often derived from indirect values because plants and animals are supported by the
services provided by their environments.
• Many classes of plant and animal species are consumed by tribal and non-tribal communities.
Ex:
1. Ecological functions
2. Flood and storm protection
3. Waste assimilation
4. Microclimatic functions
5. Nutrient cycles
6. Photosynthesis
7. Carbon stores
8. Soil protection, etc.
Indirect value of biodiversity is of the following types:
1. Non-consumptive use value
2. Optional value
3. Existence or ethical value and
4. Information value

4.3.3 Non-consumptive use value:

• This indirect value deals with nature's functions and services.
• It includes photosynthesis of plants which provides support system for other species by maintaining
water cycle, regulating climate, production and protection of the soil, absorption and breakdown
of pollutants, recreational, aesthetic, socio-cultural, scientific, educational, spiritual and historic
values of natural environments.
• Recreational value is important with regard to tourism and helps the national GDP.
4.3.4 Optional value:
This refers to the potential of biodiversity that is currently known and needs to be explored.
This refers to the idea that there may be several existing species that may prove to be important in
future and their usefulness needs to be studied with reference to a specific problem currently
plaguing the society.
Ex:
1. The growing biotechnology field is searching for a the cure for diseases like cancer and AIDS.
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2. Medicinal plants and herbs play a very important role in the economic growth of our country.
4.3.5 Existence value:
• This is the value gained from continuous knowledge of existence. Also, this is the value that
people are willing to pay to keep a species /community /ecosystem from going extinct.
Examples of this are high amounts being spent for animals like pandas, whales, lions etc.
4.3.6 Aesthetic values:
Beautiful plants and animals inspire
us to protect biodiversity. The most important aesthetic value
of biodiversity is eco-tourism.

4.4 BIODIVERSITY
Definition and estimation of the value of biodiversity is not easy. The value of biodiversity is
classified into:
1. Direct Value and
2. Indirect Value
Direct value of biodiversity: It is of two types
a. Consumptive use value and
b. Productive use value

4.5 INDIA AS MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

o India's rich biological diversity - its immense range of ecosystems, species and genetic forms is by
virtue of its tropical location, climate and physical features.

o India's biogeographical composition is unique as it combines living forms from three major
biogeographical realms, namely - Eurasian, Agro-Tropical and Indo-Malayan.

o India's fabulous biodiversity is estimated to be over 45,000 plant species representing about seven
percent of the world's flora; and its bewildering variety of animal life represents 6.5 per cent of
world's fauna. 15,000 species of flowering plants, 53,430 species of insects; 5050 species of
molluscs, 6,500 species of other invertebrates; 2,546 species of fishes; 1228 species of birds, 446
species of reptiles, 372 species of mammals and 204 species of amphibians have been identified.

o In India about 1, 15,000 species of plants and animals have been identified and described.

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o India stands tenth in 25 most plant-rich countries of the world. Plant richness means greater
uniqueness of species present.

4.6 HOTSPOTS OF BIO DIVERSITY

▪ India has been described as one of 12 mega-diversity countries possessing a rich means of all living
organisms when biodiversity is viewed as a whole. The greater the multidiversity of species, greater
is the contribution to biodiversity. There are 25 clearly defined areas in the world called 'hot spots'
which support about 50,000 endemic plant species, comprising 20 per cent of the world's total flora.
India's defined location of 'hot spots' is the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions.
▪ Forests, which embrace a sizeable portion of biodiversity, now comprise about 64
▪ m. hectares or about 19 per cent of the land area of the country, according to satellite imaging.
Roughly 33 cent of this forest cover represents primary forest. Indian flora comprises about 15,000
flowering plants and bulk of our rich flora is to be found in the Northeast, Western Ghats, the
Northwest and Eastern Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Likewise, Assam and the
Western Ghats are home to several species of mammal fauna, birds, and reptilian and amphibian
fauna.

▪ As one of the oldest and largest agriculture societies, India has also a striking
▪ variety of at least 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated crops.
There is a vital, but often-neglected factor when we focus on biodiversity. It may be a matter of she
surprise for many to understand that the tribals who officially constitute 7.5 per cent of India's
population have preserved 90 per cent of the country's biocultural diversity. To a large extent, the
survival of our biodiversity depends on how best the tribals are looked after.
▪ To preserve our rich biodiversity, nine biosphere reserves are set up in specific biogeographic'' zones:
the biggest one is in the Deccan Peninsula in the Nilgiris covering Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka. Others are the Nanda Devi in Uttar khand in the Western Himalayas, the Nokrek in
Meghalaya, Manas and Dibru Saikhowa in Assam, the Sunderban's in the Gangetic plain in West
Bengal, Similar in Orissa, the Great Nicobar and the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu.

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4.7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

• Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem tends to reduce its biodiversity.
• Waste generated due to increase in human population and industrialization spoils the environment
and leads to decreased diversity in biological species.
• Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal ecological cycle.
• Causes for loss of biodiversity are:
1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
1. Habitat loss: The loss of populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss.
Factors influencing habitat loss are:
a. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests and grasslands
are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or settlement areas or developmental projects.
Forests and grasslands are natural home to thousands of species which disintegrate due to loss of
their natural habitat.

b. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves

are destroyed due to farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity
c. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small
and
scattered patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the
disappearance of most wildlife
d. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw materials leading to
extinction of many wild plant species.
e. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the production of drugs
leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
f. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat loss
g. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled with the discharge of
industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
2. Poaching of wildlife: Poaching refers to killing animals or commercial hunting. It contributes to
loss of biodiversity. Poaching can be of two types listed below:
1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their products.
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Factors influencing poaching:

1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to pressure on forest resources,
leading to degradation of wildlife habitats
2. Commercial activities: Although a ban has been imposed internationally on the trade of products
of endangered species, there is a continued smuggling of wildlife products. Since trading of such
products is highly profitable, poachers continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their fur,
skin and tusks to other countries. Wildlife products include furs, horns, tusks, live specimens and
herbal products. Richest source of biodiversity lies in developing nations in Asia, Africa and
Latin America. Advanced countries like Europe, North America, Japan, Taiwan, Hong
Kong are the major importers of wildlife products.

3. Man-Wildlife Conflicts: Man-wildlife conflicts arise, when wildlife starts causing immense
damage and danger to man. Under such conditions it is very difficult for the forest department
officials to convince the affected villagers to gain the villagers support for wildlife conservation.
Ex:
1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation, the villagers killed
and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage done by elephants to
their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which explode when the
elephants enter the fields
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai
Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man
4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food
5. Villagers set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals (Elephants) who suffer
pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.

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4.8 ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

4.8.1 ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA: A plant, animal or microorganism that is in

immediate risk of biological extinction is called endangered species or threatened species. In India,
450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and 150 birds are
estimated to be endangered. India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:
1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and
3. Over exploitation of resources
• The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It contains a list
of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near future if not protected.
• Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled Cat
9. Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical number.
Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction. Vulnerable species
is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat destruction or over
exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive area. Such
species are not endangered or vulnerable. A few endangered pecies in the world are listed below:
1. West Virginia Spring Salamander (U.S.A)
2. Giant Panda (China)
3. Golden Lion Tamarin (Brazil)
4. Siberian Tiger (Siberia)

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5. Mountain Gorilla (Africa)

6. Pine Barrens Tree Frog (Male)
7. Arabian Oryx (Middle East)
8. African Elephant (Africa) Other important endangered species are:
1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden
monkey (Primates)
4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc
Factors affecting endangered species
1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air, land and water.
These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living creatures resulting in death.
2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to their extinction.
3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of green houses gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot adjust to the
changing environmental conditions leading to their death and extinction.
• An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by 160
countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
as they are in danger of extinction.
2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
Drawbacks of cites
1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get away by paying only a
small fine.
2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.
4.8.2 ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA
Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost 60% the
endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Endemic species are
mainly concentrated in:
4. North-East India
5. North-West Himalayas
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6. Western Ghats and

7. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Examples of endemic Flora species are
1. Sapria Himalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species:
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.
Ex: Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially pesticides.
3. Over-hunting and
4. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and
competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in reducing populations
of endemic species.

4.9 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity
1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped immediately
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of animal skin
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.
4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started
5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches to prevent animals
from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within forest zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be
stopped.
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• Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The commercial, medical,
genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity emphasizes the need for its
conservation.
Factors affecting biodiversity:
1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of habitats affect
biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affect biodiversity
Need for biodiversity
1. It provides recreation and tourism
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plants and animals
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting systems
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration
Types of conservation
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation
4.9.1 IN-SITU CONSERVATION
In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The natural
habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
a. Biosphere reserves
b. National parks
c. Wildlife sanctuaries
d. Gene sanctuaries
a. Biosphere reserves: They cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used to protect
species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
i. Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem
ii. Protect endangered species
iii. Protect maximum number of species and communities
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iv. Serve as site of recreation and tourism

v. May also be used for educational and research purposes
vi. Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed. No tourism
and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere reserves.
b. A national park: It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more national parks may
exist within a biosphere reserve. A national park is used for enjoyment through tourism, without
affecting the environment. It is used to protect, propagate and develop wildlife. Grazing domestic
animals inside national parks is prohibited All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited
inside a national park

c. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.
i. It protects animals only
ii. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products, private
ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does not affect animals adversely
d. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion Project, Crocodile
breeding project, project elephant etc

Advantages of in-situ conservation

i. It is cheap and convenient
ii. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
i. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity
ii. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution

4.9.2 EX-SITU CONSERVATION

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats. This type
of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of crops.
1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species
under controlled conditions
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the endangered species.
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Important centers of ex-situ conservation:

1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and uses the
Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops. Cryopreservation
technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice, turnip, radish, tomato, onion,
carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for years using this technique.
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal, Haryana and
preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility, conservation
of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility has been created within
the NPBGR.
Advantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security thereby have a
longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance of survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment

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5.ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
UNIT-5
5.1 DEFINITION

• Pollution may be defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of air, water and land that may be harmful to human life and other animals, living
conditions, industrial processes and cultural assets. Pollution can be natural or manmade.
• The agents that pollute are called pollutants.
POLLUTANTS
Pollutants are by-products of man’s action. The important pollutants are summarized below:
• Deposited matter—Soot, smoke, tar or dust and domestic wastes.
• Gases—CO, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine).
• Metals—Lead, zinc, iron and chromium.
• Industrial pollutants—Benzene, ether, acetic acid etc., and
cyanide compounds.
• Agriculture pollutants—Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and fertilizers.
• Photochemical pollutants—Ozone, oxides of nitrogen,
aldehydes, ethylene, photochemical smog and proxy acetyl nitrate.
• Radiation pollutants—Radioactive substances and radioactive fall-outs of the nuclear test.
Classification of Pollutants
Nature of disposal: On the basis of natural disposal, pollutants are of two types:

1. Non-degradable pollutants: These are the pollutants, which degrade at a very slow pace by the
natural biological processes. These are inorganic compounds such as salts (chlorides), metallic
oxides waste producing materials and materials like, aluminum cans, mercuric salts and even DDT.
These continue to accumulate in the environment.
2. Biodegradable pollutants: These include domestic sewage that easily decomposes under natural
processes and can be rapidly decomposed by natural/ artificial methods. These cause serious
problems when accumulated in large amounts as the pace of deposition exceeds the pace of
decomposition of disposal.

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Nature of form: On the basis of the form in which they persist after their release into the
environment, pollutants can be categorized under two types:
(i) Primary pollutants: These include those substances, which are emitted directly from some
identifiable sources. This include-
a. Sulphur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S produced by the oxidation of fuel.
b. Carbon compounds: Oxides of carbon (CO+CO2) and hydrocarbons.
c. Nitrogen compounds: NO2 and NH3.
d. Halogen compounds: Hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
e. Particles of different size and substances: These are found suspended in air. The fine particles
below the diameter of 100u are more abundant and include particles of metals, carbon, tar, pollen,
fungi, bacteria, silicates and others.
(ii) Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are produced by the
combination of primary emitted pollutants in the atmosphere.
Ex: In bright sunlight, a photochemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides; oxygen and waste
hydrocarbons from gasoline that forms peroxy-acetyle nitrate (PAN) and ozone (O3), both of them
are toxic components of smog and cause smarting eyes and lung damage.

TYPES OF POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Introduction: Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective
of indoors or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can
be termed as pollution. It occurs when any harmful gases, dust, smoke enters into the atmosphere
and makes it difficult for plants, animals and humans to survive as the air becomes dirty.
The WHO defines air pollution as the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which
are harmful to man and his environment. A number of ingredients find their way in the air and
these are mostly gases, which rapidly spread over wide areas.
5.2 Causes of Air pollution:
Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal,
petroleum and other factory combustibles is one of the major causes of air pollution. Pollutants
emitting from vehicles cause immense amount of pollution. Carbon Monoxide produced by
improper or incomplete combustion emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with
Nitrogen Oxides that is produced from both natural and manmade processes.
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Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture

related activities and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides,
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities emit harmful chemicals into the air and cause
water pollution.
Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release
large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air
thereby depleting the quality of air. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other
chemicals that pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air
pollution.
Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic
chemicals in the air and cause air pollution.
Suspended Particulate matter: Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is
another cause of pollution.

Types of Air Pollutants

• Primarily air pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants
that are a direct result of the process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a
primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide emitted from factories
• Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of primary
pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known to be as
secondary pollutant.

Common air pollutants

Carbon Dioxide: CO2 content of air has increased by 20% during the last century. CO2 causes
nausea and headache. Its increase in the air may cause green house effect, rise in the atmospheric
temperature. This may melt the polar ice resulting in rise in level of oceans and flooding of coastal
regions.
Carbon Monoxide: It is a very poisonous gas and is produced by incomplete combustion of fuel. If
inhaled. It combines with hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying capacity. This leads to
laziness, reduced vision and death.
Oxides of Nitrogen: These include NO and NO2 , which are released by automobiles and chemical
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industries as waste gases and also by burning of materials. These are harmful and lower the oxygen
carrying capacity of blood.

Oxides of Sulphur: SO2 and SO3 are produced by burning of coal and petroleum and
are harmful to buildings, clothing, plants and animals. High concentration of SO2 causes chlorosis
(yellowing of leaves), plasmolysis, damage to mucous membrane and metabolic inhibition. SO2 and
SO3 react with water to form Sulphuric and sulphurous acids. These may precipitate as rain or snow
producing acid rain or acid precipitation.

Photochemical Oxidants: Formed by the photochemical reactions between primary pollutants, viz.
oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons. Nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight react with un-
burnt hydrocarbons to form peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Ozone, aldehydes and some other complex
organic compounds in the air.
Hydrocarbons: These are un-burnt discharges from incomplete combustion of fuel in automobiles.
These forms PAN with nitrogen oxides, which is highly toxic.
Particulate Matter: Industries and automobiles release fine solid and liquid particles into the air.
Fly ash and soot from burning of coal, metal dust containing lead, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc
and mercury from metallurgical processes; cotton dust from textile mills; and pesticides sprayed on
crops are examples of particulate pollutants in the air. These are injurious to respiratory tract.
Aerosols: Aerosols are chemicals released in the air in vapor form. These include fluorocarbon
(carbon compound having fluorine) present in emissions from the Jet aero planes. Aerosols deplete
the ozone layer. Thinning of ozone layer results in more harmful ultraviolet rays reaching the earth,
which are harmful to skin, and can lead to skin cancer also.
Radioactive Substances: These are released by nuclear explosions and explosives. These are
extremely harmful for health.
Fluorides: Rocks, soils and. minerals containing fluorides release an extremely toxic gas called
hydrogen fluoride on heating. This gas is highly injurious to livestock and cattle.

Control measures
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion, gravitational

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settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the atmosphere. However, control
of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and effective method through preventive or
control technologies.
1. Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are
1. Using unleaded petrol
2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content
3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to private vehicles
4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on busy streets
5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and absorb noise
6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city preferably on the downwind
of the city.
7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons
2. Control measures in industrial centers:
1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every industry
2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory
3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to know the emission
levels.

Equipment used to control air pollution

• Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.
• Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature so that
the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes
and dust.
• To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro- static precipitators
in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from the exhaust gases of
electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that
must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.
• The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with chemical
treatment.

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5.2.1 WATER POLLUTION

Introduction: Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”

Sources of water pollution

Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations through
pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and
oil tankers.
Non point sources: These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of discharge. They are large
land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff, subsurface flow or deposition from the
atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands, livestock
feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns, golf courses and parking lots.

Types, effects and sources of water pollution

Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has a
harmful effect on living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
S Pollutants Human Health Effects
. sources
N
o
Infectious1 agents Human and animal Variety of diseases
Ex: Bacteria, Viruses, wastes
Protozoa, and parasitic worms.

2
Oxygen demanding wastes Sewage, Animal feedlots, Degrade water quality by depleting
(Dissolved oxygen) paper mills and food water of dissolved oxygen. This
Ex: Organic wastes such as processing facilities causes fish and other forms of
animal manure and plant debris oxygen-
consuming aquatic
life to die.
Inorganic3chemicals Surface runoff, Make freshwater unusable
Ex: Water soluble inorganic industrial effluents for drinking and irrigation

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chemicals: and household Cause skin cancer and neck damage,

Acids, Compounds of toxic cleansers Damage to nervous system, liver and
metals such as lead (Pb), arsenic kidneys
(As) and selenium (Se) and Salts Harm fish and other aquatic life
such as NaCl in oceans and Lower crop yields
fluoride (F-) found in some soils. Accelerate corrosion of metals exposed
to such water

Organic chemicals
4 Industrial effluents, Can threaten human health by causing
Ex: Oil, Gasoline, Plastics, household cleansers and nervous system damage and some
Pesticides, Cleaning solvents and surface runoff from farms. cancers.
Detergents. Harm fish and wildlife.

5
Plant nutrients Ex: Water soluble Sewage, manure and Can cause excessive growth of algae
compounds containing nitrate, runoff of agricultural and and other aquatic plants, which die,
Phosphate and Ammonium ions. urban fertilizers decay, deplete dissolved oxygen in
water thereby killing fish
Drinking water with excessive levels
of nitrates lower the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood and can kill urban
children and infants.

Sediment6 Land erosion Causes cloudy water therebyreducing

Ex: Soil, silt, etc. photosynthetic activity
Disruption of aquatic food
Chain

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• Carries pesticides,
bacteria and other
harmful substances
• Settles and destroys
feeding and spawning
grounds of fish
• Clogs and fills lakes,
artificial reservoirs,
stream channels and
harbors
Radioactive
7 materials: Nuclear power Genetic mutations, birth defects and
Ex: Radioactive isotopes of: plants, mining and certain cancers.
Iodine, Radon, Uranium, Cesium processing of
and Thorium. uranium and other
ores,nuclear weapon
production
and natural sources.
8
Heat (Thermal Water cooling Low dissolved oxygen levels
pollution) Ex: of electric thereby making aquatic
Excessive heat power plants organisms more vulnerable
and some types to disease, parasites and
of industrial toxic chemicals.
plants. When a power plant starts or
shuts down for repair, fish
and other organisms
adapted to a particular
temperature range, can be
killed by an abrupt
temperature change known
as thermal shock.

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Control measures of water pollution

• Administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or central government
• Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of catchment areas of rivers,
ponds or streams
• Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes
into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.
• Plants, trees and forests control pollution as they act as natural air conditioners.
• Trees are capable of reducing sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and hence more trees
should be planted.

• No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged into

• any natural water body. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and
domestic sewage must be used for irrigation.
• Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for effective control of water
pollution.
• Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution using the media.
• Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws should
be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological advancements.
• Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

5.2.2 THERMAL POLLUTION

Introduction
Thermal pollution is defined as the addition of excess of undesirable heat to water thereby
making it harmful to man, animal or aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also cause no
significant departures from or activities of aquatic communities.

Sources of Thermal Pollution

The following sources contribute to thermal pollution.

Nuclear power plants: Nuclear power plants including drainage from hospitals, research
institutions, nuclear experiments and explosions,
discharge a lot of heat that is not utilized along with traces of toxic radio nuclides into nearby water
streams. Emissions from nuclear reactors and processing installations are also responsible for
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increasing the temperatures of water bodies. The operations of power reactors and nuclear fuel
processing units constitute the major contributor of heat in the aquatic environment. Heated
effluents from power plants are discharged at 10 C higher than the receiving waters that affect the
aquatic flora and fauna.
Coal-fired power plants: Coal fired power plants constitute a major source of thermal pollution.
The condenser coils in such plants are cooled with water from nearby lakes or rivers. The resulting
heated water is discharged into streams thereby raising the water temperature by 15C. Heated
effluent decreases the dissolved content of water resulting in death of fish and other aquatic
organisms. The sudden fluctuation of temperature also leads to "thermal shock" killing aquatic life
that has become acclimatized to living in a steady temperature.
Industrial effluents: Industries like textile, paper, pulp and sugar manufacturing release huge
amounts of cooling water along with effluents into nearby natural water bodies. The waters polluted
by sudden and heavy organic loads result in severe drop in levels of dissolved oxygen leading to
death of several aquatic organisms.
Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is discharged into rivers, lakes, canals or streams with
minimal treatment or without any treatment. These wastes have a higher organic temperature and
organic load. This leads to decrease in dissolved oxygen content in the receiving waters resulting in
the set-up of anaerobic conditions causing release of foul and offensive gases in water. Eventually,
this leads to development of anoxic conditions resulting in rapid death of aquatic organisms.
Hydro-electric power: Generation of hydroelectric power sometimes leads to negative thermal
loading in water systems. Apart from electric power industries, various factories with cooling
requirement contribute to thermal loading.

Thermal pollution in streams by human activities

• Industries and power plants use water to cool machinery and discharge the warm water into a
stream
• Stream temperature rises when trees and tall vegetation providing shade are cut.
• Soil erosion caused due to construction also leads to thermal pollution
• Removal of stream side vegetation
• Poor farming Practices also lead to thermal pollution

Effects of Thermal pollution

Reduction in dissolved oxygen: Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) decreases with increase
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in temperature.
Increase in toxicity: The rising temperature increases the toxicity of the poison present in water. A
10C increase in temperature of water doubles the toxicity effect of potassium cyanide, while 80C
rise in temperature triples the toxic effects of o- xylene causing massive mortality to fish.
Interference in biological activity: Temperature is considered to be of vital significance to
physiology, metabolism and biochemical processes that control respiratory rates, digestion,
excretion, and overall development of aquatic organisms. Temperature changes cause total
disruption to the entire ecosystem.
Interference in reproduction: In fishes, several activities like nest building, spawning, hatching,
migration and reproduction depend on optimum temperature.
Direct mortality: Thermal pollution is directly responsible for mortality of aquatic
organisms. Increase in temperature of water leads to exhaustion of microorganisms thereby
shortening the life span of fish. Above a certain temperature, fish die due to failure of respiratory
system and nervous system failure.
Food storage for fish: Abrupt changes in temperature alter the seasonal variation
in the type and abundance of lower organisms leading to shortage of right food for fish at the right
time.

Control measures for thermal pollution

The following methods can be adapted to control high temperature caused by thermal
discharges:

Cooling towers: Use of water from water systems for cooling systems for cooling purposes, with
subsequent return to the water way after passage through a condenser, is called cooling process.
Cooling towers transfer heat from hot water to the atmosphere by evaporation. Cooling towers are
of two types:
Wet cooling tower: Hot water coming out from the condenser (reactor) is allowed to spray over
baffles. Cool air, with high velocity, is passed from sides, which takes away the heat and cools the
water.
Dry cooling tower: Here, hot water is allowed to flow in long spiral pipes. Cool air with the help
of a fan is passed over these hot pipes, which cools down hot water. This cool water can berecycled.
Cooling ponds: Cooling ponds are the best way to cool thermal discharges. Heated effluents on the

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surface of the water in cooling ponds maximize dissipation of heat to the atmosphere and minimize
the water area and volume. The warm water wedge acts like a cooling pond.
Spray ponds: The water coming out from condensers is allowed to pass into the ponds through
sprayers. Here water is sprayed through nozzles as fine droplets. Heat from the fine droplets gets
dissipated to the atmosphere.
Artificial lakes: Artificial lakes are manmade water bodies that offer once-through cooling. The
heated effluents can be discharged into the lake at one end and water for cooling purposes may be
withdrawn from the other end. The heat is eventually dissipated through evaporation

5.2.3 SOIL POLLUTION

Introduction
Soil pollution is defined as, “contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may
cause harmful effect on living organisms”.

Types, effects and sources of soil pollution

Pollutants
S Sources Hea
. lth
N Effe
o cts
Industrial Industrial pollutants are These pollutants
wastes
mainly discharged from affect and alter the
various origins such as chemical and
pulp and paper mills, biological properties
chemical fertilizers, oil of soil. As a result,
refineries, sugar hazardous chemicals
factories, tanneries, can enter into human
textiles, steel, distilleries, food chain from the
fertilizers, pesticides, soil or water, disturb
coal and mineral mining the biochemical
industries, drugs, glass, process and finally
cement, petroleum and lead to serious effects
engineering industries on living
etc.
organisms.

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Urban
2 Plastics, glasses, metallic Alter the constitution
wastes
cans, fibers, paper, of soil Cause Water
rubbers, street sweepings, logging Cause
fuel residues, leaves, omagnifications of
containers, abandoned toxic materials
vehicles and through food chain
otherdiscarded
manufactured products.
3
Agricultural fertilizers,pesticides, Waterlogging,
practices weedicides, farm wastes, Salinisation,
manure debris, soil micronutrient
erosion imbalance,
loss of fertile soil
4
Radioactive Atomic reactor, nuclear Mutations, changes
pollutants radioactive devices, functions of living
Explosion of hydrogen beings,
weapons and cosmic Biomagnifications,
radiations cancers, Infant
mortality

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Biological
5 The human and animal Variety of diseases
agents
wastes, garbage, waste Cause nutrient
water imbalance
Pesticides
6 chlorinatedhydrocarbon Reduces the activity
insecticide Organic of sex hormones of
phosphorous pesticides male and female
Causes diseases to
human beings.
Fertilizers
7 Different fertilizers The nitrate causes
discharge N, Na, K, S, cancer, blue baby
Nitrates etc syndrome in infants.
8
Polymer, Plastics Waste from different Biomagnifications,
& other sources water logging, create
water cancers in animals
and human
bein
gs.

Control measures of soil pollution

• Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Ex: Planting trees on
barren slopes
• Contour cultivation and strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation
• Terracing and building diversion channels may be undertaken.
• Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by animal wastes also helps arrest soil
erosion in the long term.

• Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled tipping
is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports field.

• Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical

pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex:

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Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them
wastefully and polluting the soil.

• Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary

habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should
be imparted to educate people on health hazards by
environmental education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and
reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated
waste treatment methods should be adopted.
Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc
which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive
wastes should be banned.

5.2.4 NOISE POLLUTION

Introduction
Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort to
all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) , that is the tenth part of the
longest unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.

Types of noise: Environmental noise has been doubling every ten years. Noise is classified as:
• Industrial Noise
• Transport Noise
• Domestic Noise

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Industrial Noise:
It is sound with a high intensity sound caused by industry machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines from machines in various factories, industries and mills. Noise
from mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public. The Indian
Institute of Oto-Rino Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial pollution damages
the hearing ability by at least 20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial
blower, are exposed to 112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise:
Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The number of
automobiles on roads like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel engine
vehicles has increased enormously in the recent past further aggravating the problem of transport
noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the border
line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to deafening
in the elderly.
Domestic noise:
This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and community.
Common sources of noise are musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones,
and loudspeakers etc. Statistically ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the environment has
been doubled every ten years.

Effects of Noise pollution

• Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
o contraction of blood vessels
o making skin pale
o Excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.
o Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
o Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
• Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc

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• The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn
increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil of the
eye.
• Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause damage to the
heart, brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
• The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some part
of the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern leads to chronic
damage to the inner ear.
• Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
• Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and semicircular
canals of the internal ear.
• The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People are
subjected to psychiatric illness.
• Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
• The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise pollution
causes:
▪ Popularly dilation
▪ Impairment of night vision and
▪ Decrease in rate of color perception
Control measures:
SOURCE CONTROL: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment to machine
surface, design changes, limiting operational timings, etc
TRANSMISSION PATH INTERVENTION: This includes containing the source inside a sound
insulating enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials along
the path.
RECEPTOR CONTROL: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule
or provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The
measure may include dissipation and deflection methods.
OILING: Proper oiling will reduce noise from the machine.

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Preventive measures

• Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals Redesigning buildings to make them noise
proof Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
• Giving preference to mass public transport system.

5.2.5 MARINE POLLUTION

Introduction
The discharge of waste substances in to the sea resulting in harm to the living resources, hazards to
the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea water.

Sources
Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans by coastal towns,
cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount of sewage garbage agricultural
discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to the sea.
Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as crude oil and as separate fraction. Oil and it’s fractions are
used in houses automobiles and industries. This causes devastation of marine environment
Radioactive materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing.
Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes affects an
organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause various problems.
Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons

Effects of marine pollution

• Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells and tissue damage of
egg.

• Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae bird, fish etc.

• Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia.
During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of bald eagles are affected by ingested oil.Oil
films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water.Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene
accumulate in food chain and consumption of fish by man may cause cancer.
• Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders.Oil spills inhibit
photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic animals depend either directly of
indirectly on planktons the basis of tropic chain.
Control of marine pollution

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• Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles

The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution control
instrument.
Urban growth near the coast should be regulated.
• Methods of removal of oil
1. Physical methods.
• skimming the oil off the surface with suction device
• Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy urethane foam. Chopped straw and
saw dust also used to absorbed oil from the sea water.
2. Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical additives are used to
coagulated the oil

Protective method
• Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea
• Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level
• Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques
• Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic standard.

5.2.6 Nuclear Pollution

Nuclear pollution is the physical pollution of air, water and soil by radioactive materials.

Sources of Nuclear Pollution

The sources of radioactivity include both natural and manmade.

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Effects of Nuclear Pollution

Studies have shown that the health effects due to radiation are dependent on the level of dose, kind
of radiation, duration of exposure and types of cells irradiated. Radiation effects can be somatic
or genetic.

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Somatic effects: Somatic affects the function of cells and organs. It causes damages to cell
membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resulting in abnormal cell functions, cell division, growth
and death.
Genetic effects: Genetic effects the future generations. Radiations can cause mutations, which are
changes in genetic makeup of cells. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules.
People suffer from blood cancer and bone cancer if exposed to doses around 100 to 1000 roentgens.

Management of Radioactive Waste

• The radioactive waste which comes out from industry, nuclear reactors should be stored and
allowed to decay either naturally in closed drums or in very large underground air tight cemented
tanks (Delay and Decay).
• The intermediate radioactive waste should be disposed off into the environment after diluting it
with some inert materials (Dilute and Disperse)
• Now-a-days small quantities of high activity wastes are converted into solids such as concrete and
then it is buried underground or sea. (Concentrate and contain)

Control Measures

• Laboratory generated nuclear wastes should be disposed off safely and scientifically.
• Nuclear power plants should be located in areas after careful study of the geology of the area,
tectonic activity and meeting other established conditions.
• Appropriate protection against occupational exposure.
• Leakage of radioactive elements from nuclear reactors, careless use of radioactive elements as fuel
and careless handling of radioactive isotopes must be prevented.

• Safety measure against accidental release of radioactive elements must be ensured in nuclear plants.
• Unless absolutely necessary, one should not frequently go for diagnosis by x- rays.
• Regular monitoring of the presence of radioactive substance in high risk area should be ensured.
• Among the many options for waste disposal, the scientists prefer to bury the waste in hundreds of
meters deep in the earth’s crust is considered to be the best safety long term option.

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5.3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries has led to people generating
enormous quantities of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation. The waste is
normally disposed in open dumps creating nuisance and environmental degradation. Solid wastes
cause a major risk to public health and the environment. Management of solid wastes is important in
order to minimize the adverse effects posed by their indiscriminate disposal.

Types of solid wastes

Depending on the nature of origin, solid wastes are classified into

• Urban or municipal wastes

• Industrial wastes
• Hazardous wastes

• Sources of urban wastes: Domestic wastes containing a variety of materials thrown out from
homes.
Ex: Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, etc.
• Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets,
hotels, offices, institutions, etc.
Ex: Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.
• Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction
materials. Ex: Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.
• Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic
materials Ex: Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN WASTES
urban wastes are classified into:
• Bio-degradable wastes - Those wastes that can be degraded by micro organisms are called bio-
degradable wastes
Ex: Food, vegetables, tea leaves, dry leaves, etc.
• Non-biodegradable wastes: Urban solid waste materials that cannot be degraded by micro
organisms are called non-biodegradable wastes.
Ex: Polythene bags, scrap materials, glass bottles, etc.

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SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES

• The main source of industrial wastes is chemical industries, metal and mineral processing
industries.
Ex: Nuclear plants: It generated radioactive wastes
• Thermal power plants: It produces fly ash in large quantities
• Chemical Industries: It produces large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.
• Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali,
scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

EFFECT OF IMPROPER SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

• Due to improper disposal of municipal solid waste on the roads and immediate surroundings,
biodegradable materials undergo decomposition producing foul smell and become a breeding
ground for disease vectors.

• Industrial solid wastes are the source for toxic metals and hazardous wastes that affect soil
characteristics and productivity of soils when they are dumped on the soil
• Toxic substances may percolate into the ground and contaminate the groundwater.

• Burning of industrial or domestic wastes (cans, pesticides, plastics, radioactive materials and
batteries) produce furans, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls that are harmful to human beings.
• Solid waste management involves waste generation, mode of collection, transportation, segregation
of wastes and disposal techniques.

5.4 STEPS INVOLVED IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Two important steps involved in solid waste management are- Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw
Materials
Discarding wastes
• Reduce - If usage of raw materials is reduced, the generation of waste also gets reduced.
• Reuse - Refillable containers that are discarded after use can be reused. Rubber rings can be made
from discarded cycle tubes and this reduces waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands.
• Recycle- Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products
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• Ex: Old aluminum cans and glass bottles are melted and recast into new cans and bottles,
preparation of cellulose insulation from paper, Preparation of automobile body and
construction material from steel cans This method (Reduce, Reuse & Recycle), i.e, 3R's
help save money, energy, raw materials and reduces pollution.

5.5 Discarding wastes

The following methods are adopted for discarding wastes:
Landfill
Incineration and
Composting
1. LANDFILL: Solid wastes are placed in a sanitary landfill in which alternate layers of 80 cm
thick refuse is covered with selected earth-fill of 20 cm thickness. After 2-3 years solid waste
volume shrinks by 25-30% and land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. This is the most
common and cheapest method of waste disposal and is mostly employed in Indian cities.
Advantages:
1. It is simple and economical
2. Segregation of wastes is not required
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes
4. Converts low-lying, marshy waste-land into useful areas.
5. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled.
Disadvantages:
1. Large area is required
2. Land availability is away from the town, transportation costs are high
3. Leads to bad odor, if landfill is not properly managed.
4. Land filled areas will be sources of mosquitoes and flies requiring application of insecticides
and pesticides at regular intervals.
5. Causes fire hazard due to formation of methane in wet weather.

2. INCINERATION:
• It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous material
and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effective for detoxification of all combustible
pathogens. It is expensive when compared to composting or land-filling.

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• In this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combustible
substances such as rubbish, garbage, dead organisms and non- combustible matter such as glass,
porcelain and metals are separated before feeding to incinerators.

• The non-combustible materials can be left out for recycling and reuse. The leftover ashes and
clinkers may account for about 10 to 20% which need further disposal by sanitary landfill or some
other means.
• The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for
generation of electricity through turbines.
• Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value. Therefore, it has to be dried
first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheated from where it is taken to a large incinerating
furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100 to 150 tons per hour.
• Temperature normally maintained in a combustion chamber is about 700 C which may be increased
to 1000 C when electricity is to be generated.

ADVANTAGES:
1.Residue is only 20-25% of the original and can be used as clinker after treatment
2.Requires very little space
3. Cost of transportation is not high if the incinerator is located within city limits
4.Safest from hygienic point of view
5. An incinerator plant of 3000 tons per day capacity can generate 3MW of power.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Its capital and operating cost is high.
2. Operation needs skilled personnel.
3. Formation of smoke, dust and ashes needs further disposal and that may cause air pollution.

3. COMPOSTING: It is another popular method practiced in many cities in our country. In this
method, bulk organic waste is converted into fertilizer by biological action. Separated compostable
waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with earth of 20cm
and left for decomposition. Sometimes, Actionmycetes are introduced for active decomposition.
Within 2 to 3 days, biological action starts. Organic matter is destroyed by actinomycetes and lot
of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of compost by 75C and the refuse is finally converted

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into powdery brown

colored odorless mass called humus that has a fertilizing value and can be used in agriculture.
Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essential for plant growth apart from phosphates and other minerals.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Manure added to soil increases water retention and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
2. This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.
3. Manure can be sold thereby reducing cost of disposing wastes
4. Recycling can be done

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non-consumables have to be disposed separately
2. The technology has not caught-up with the farmers and hence does not have an assured
market.

5.6 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

FLOODS
Increased rainfall or rapid snow melting causes more flow of water in the streams. This excess
water flow in a stream covering the adjacent land is called a flood. Floodplain is defined in terms of
a flood frequency. Flood frequency is referred as 10 -year flood, 100- year flood, etc. A 10-year
flood at any point in a stream is that discharge of water which may be expected to occur on average
once in 10 years. Floodplains are genera lly fertile, flat and easily formed.

CAUSES OF FLOOD

• Construction of buildings in a flood plain

• Removing vegetation
• Paving roads and parking areas
• Deforestation
• Heavy rainfall
• Urbanization
• Earthquakes

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Effects of flood
• Erosion of top soil and vegetation
• Damage and loss to land, house and property
• Spread of endemic waterborne diseases
• Interruption of basic facilities of community such as highways, railways, telephone, electricity and
day-to-day essentials
• Silting of reservoirs and dams
• FLOOD CONTROL
• Construction of flood control dam
• Deepening, widening and straightening of streams
• Lining of streams
• Banning of construction of buildings in floodplains
• Converting flood-plains into wildlife habitat, parks, and recreation areas.

LANDSLIDES

• Landslides occur when mass of earth material move downward. It is also called mass wasting or
mass movement.
• sudden landslide occurs when unconsolidated sediments of a hillside are saturated by rainfall or
water logging.
• Many landslides take place in coincidence with earthquakes. The most common form of landslides
is earthquake induced landslides or more specifically rock falls and slides of rock fragments that
form on steep slopes.
• The size of area affected by earthquake induced landslides depends o n the magnitude of the
earthquake, its focal depth, the topography and geologic conditions near the causative fault, the
amplitude, frequency, composition and duration of ground shaking.

Control measures for landslides

• Avoid construction activity in landslide occurringareas.
• Reducing slope of hilly side
• Stabilizing the slope portion
• Increasing plantation of deep rooted vegetation on the slope.
•

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5.7 EARTHQUAKES
• An earthquake occurs when rocks break and slip along a fault in the earth. Earthquakes occur due
to deformation of crust and upper mantle of the earth.
• Due to heating and cooling of the rock below these plates, movement of adjacently overlying
plates and great stresses, deformation occurs.
• Tremendous energy cans build-up between neighboring plates.
• If accumulated stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, the rocks break suddenly releasing the
stored energy as an earthquake.
• The earthquake releases energy in the form of waves that radiate from the epicenter in all
directions.
• The 'p' wave or primary wave alternately compresses and expands material in the same direction it
is travelling.
• This wave can move through solid rocks and fluids.
• These are the fastest waves. The is wave or secondary wave is slower and shake the ground up,
down, back and forth perpendicular to the direction in which it is travelling. Surface waves follow
both the 'P' and 'S' waves.
• The magnitude of an earthquake is measured in Richter scale. The Richter scale is logarithmic.

Effects of earthquake
• Ground shaking
• Liquefaction of ground
• Ground displacement
• Landslides
• Flood
• Fire

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• Tsunami

Control of earthquake
• There is virtually no technique to control the occurrence of earthquake. However, certain
preventive measures can be taken to minimize the damage.
• Minimizing development activity (especially construction, mining, construction of dams and
reservoirs) in areas known to be active seismic zones.
• Continuously monitoring seismic activity using 'seismographs' and alerting people regarding any
recorded disturbance in advance.

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6. SOCIAL ISSUES AND ENVIRONMENT UNIT-6

Introduction:
6.1 From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
Man is part of the nature and he is bound to obey the laws of nature. He depends on his
environment for basic things. More developmental activities are adopted in order to increase the
quality of life. For that he uses the available resources. The Earth has limited supply of resources
and renewable resources. These are to be managed in a scientific manner for availing the generations
to come. Hence developmental activities are to be taken with more care about the environment and
its protection. It brings benefits to all not only to the present generation but also for future
generations.

Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs.

Important components of Sustainable development:

• Economic development

• Community development

• Environmental protection

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True sustainable development aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of
reusability, minimum wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity.
Aspects of sustainable development:

Inter generational equity-It states stat we should hand over a safe, healthy and resourceful
environment to future generation.

Intra generational equity:

A technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of poor
countries and help in narrowing the wealth gap and lead to sustainability.

Approaches for sustainable development:

1. Devloping appropriate technology-technology which is locally adoptable, ecofriendly, resource
efficient and culturally suitable should be adopted. It uses local labour, less resources and produces
minimum waste.
2. Reduce ,Reuse and Recycle (3Rapproach) –Optimum use of natural resources using it again and
again instead of throwing it on wasteland or water and recycling the material in to further products.
It reduces waste generation and pollution.
3. Providing environmental education and awareness-Thinking and attitude of people towards
earth and environment should be changed by providing environmental awareness and education.
4. Consumption of renewable resources- It is very important to consume the natural
resources in such a way that the consumption should not exceed the regeneration capacity.
5. Non-renewable resources should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
6. By population control we can make sustainable development.

6.2 Urban problems related to energy:

Urbanization –Movement of human population from rural; areas to urban areas for want of
better education, communication, health, employment etc.

Causes:
Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade transportation, medical facilities and
employment.

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Urban sprawl:
The phenomenon of spreading of the cities in to sub-urban or rural areas is called urban sprawl.
Urban growth is so fast and is difficult to accommodate all commercial industrial residential and
educational facilities within the limited area.

Energy demanding activities:

Urban people consume lot of energy and materials in comparison with rural people. This is because
urban people have high standard of life and their life style demand more energy.

Examples for energy demands:

1. Residential and commercial lightings.
2. Industries using large proportion of energy.
3. Usage of fans fridge, A.C, washing machines.

Control and prevention of pollution technologies need more energy.

Solution for urban energy problems:

1. Energy consumption must be minimized in all aspects.

2. Public transportation should be used instead of motor cycles and cars.
3. Using of solar energy and wind energy.
4. Production capacity must be increased.

6.3 WATER CONSERVATION

The original source of water is precipitation from the atmosphere. The water available on the earth
may occur in all three stages as gas, liquid or solid. Temperature is the main factor in deciding the
state of water. As a liquid, the water forms hydrosphere. About 75% of the Earth’s surface is
covered by the hydrosphere.
The process of saving water for future utilization is called conservation of water.

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6.3.1 Need for water conservation.

1. Better life style requires more fresh water.

2. Agriculture and Industrial activities require more fresh water.
3. As the population increases the requirement of water is also more .
Strategies of water conservation
Reducing evaporation losses

Evaporation of water in humid regions can be reduced by placing horizontal Barriers of asphalt
below the soil surface.

Reducing irrigation losses

Sprinkling and irrigation conserves water by 30- 40%. Irrigation in early morning (or) later evening
reduces evaporation losses. Growing hybrid crop varieties also conserve water.

Reuse of water

Treated waste water can be reused for irrigation. Water from washings, bath rooms etc. can be
used for washing cars, gardening.

Preventing of wastage of water

Closing the taps when not in use and repairing any leakage from pipes.

Decreasing run off losses

Run off , on most of the soils can be reduced by using contour cultivation (or) Terrace farming.

Avoid discharge of sewage

Disposal into natural water resources should be avoided

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Methods of water conservation

Rain water Harvesting and Watershed management

It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or town. And
taking measures to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the
catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways Capturing runoff from
rooftops

Capturing runoff from local catchments

Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams Conserving water through watershed

management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes: Provide drinking water

Provide irrigation water Increase groundwater recharge

Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants
In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater
collected can be stored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater. Rain is the first
form of water that we know in the hydrological cycle, hence is a primary source of water for us.
Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of water. In present times, we depend
entirely on such secondary sources of water. In the process, it is forgotten that rain is the ultimate
source that feeds all these secondary sources and remain ignorant of its value. Water harvesting
means to understand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place
where it falls.

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6.3.2 Rainwater harvesting. It is a technique of collecting and storing rain water for use in non-
monsoon periods. In the present age, concrete houses, well-built roads, footpaths and well –
concreted courtyards have left few open grounds. With the decrease in natural forest cover, increase
in concrete jungles and the decrease in exposed earth; very little open ground is left for water to soak
in and thereby increase the ground water table. So, artificial recharging of the ground water is
extremely essential. It is done through rain water harvesting. For the purpose, rain water is collected
at the roof top or in an open well and then carried down for immediate use or it is directed into
the aquifer.

Rain water harvesting techniques

There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting:

1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use

2. Recharge of ground water

Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose are:

Pits

Trenches

Dug wells

Hand pumps

Recharge shaft

Lateral shafts with bore wells

Spreading technique

Objectives of rain water harvesting.

1. To raise the water table by recharging the ground water.

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2. To minimize water crises and water conflicts

3. To reduce rain water run off and soil erosion.

4. To reduce the ground water contamination from intrusion of saline water

Concept of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting involves collecting water that falls on roof of house during Rain and
conveying water through PVC or Al pipe to a near by covered storage tank.

Method of rain water harvesting

1. Roof top method: collecting rain water from roof of the building and storing in the ground. It is
the low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings.

2. The rain water from roofs, road surfaces, play grounds is diverted into the surface tank or
recharge pits. The pit base is filled with stones and sand which serves as a

Advantages:
Rise in ground water level and minimizing the soil erosion and flood Hazards. Scarcity of water
is reduced.

Rainwater harvesting systems channel rainwater that falls on to a roof into storage via a system of
gutters and pipes. The first flush of rainwater after a dry season should be allowed to run to waste
as it will be contaminated with dust, bird droppings etc. Roof gutters should have sufficient incline
to avoid standing water. They must be strong enough, and large enough to carry peak flows. Storage
tanks should be covered to prevent mosquito breeding and to reduce evaporation losses,
contamination and algal growth. Rainwater harvesting systems require regular maintenance and
cleaning to keep the system hygienic.

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6.3.3 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains under the
influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface water. Watershed
management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed management.

Factors affecting watershed :

1. Overgrazing . deforestation , mining , construction activities affect and degrade watershed.

2.Droughty climate also affects the water shed.

Need or objectives of watershed management

1. To raise the ground water level.

2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off.

3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides.

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4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed areas to ensure security for
livelihood.

Watershed management techniques

Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water storage. Earthern dam or
stone embankment must be constructed to check run off water.

Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment’s area.

Maintenance of watershed

Water harvesting: Proper storage of water in water shed can be used in dry season In low rainfall
areas.

Afforestation and agro-forestry help

to prevent soil erosion and retention of moisture in watershed areas

Reducing soil erosion: Terracing, contour cropping minimize soil erosion and run off on the
slopes of water sheds

Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in water shed areas
Public participation is essential for water shed management. People should be motivated for
maintaining water harvesting structures implemented by the government.

6.4 RESETTLEMENT & REHABILITATION

Based on the resettlement schemes proposed by each affected village and present policies, laws
and regulations of different levels of governments and the resettlement requirements of ADB, the
Resettlement Plan of Lauding Expressway Project was prepared by PPTA consulting team and the
staff from NPAEC under GPCD assisted by design institute and Local County and township
governments.

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Target and Task

The overall objective of resettlement and rehabilitation is to ensure that the affected production
base will be restored, the affected labor force will be re-employed, and income and livelihood of
affected people will be improved or at least restored to their previous levels before resettlement.

At present, the rural population of project impact area is mainly engaged in agricultural actives,
with most of their income coming from planting, economic trees, and animal husbandry. According
to the actual production and living standard among affected villages, and the approved economic
and social development plans for the relevant counties, the target of

Resettlement and rehabilitation is set as follows:

• The resettle’s grain production level will be self-sufficient after resettlement.

• The income per capita shall be recovered to the standard before resettlement.

• The affected public infrastructures, school, hospitals, social welfare level, natural environment and
traffic condition etc. shall be improved after resettlement.

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Resettlement Task

In 2005, there were 2,829 households with 13,149 persons to be resettled or rehabilitated, in
which 520 households and 2,352 persons will need house relocation.

The basic resettlement policy of Lauding Expressway Project is to respect the wishes of affected
People and maintain their current production and living traditions. Based on consultation of local
affected peoples, the economic rehabilitation will be based on developing replaced farming
Resources within their own townships and villages. Planting will be the focus of economic
Rehabilitation strategy by developing new farmland and improving the remaining farmland in the
affected villages, and supplemented by developing various other income generation opportunities
in the project areas. In other words, the resettlement and rehabilitation strategy will first to
reestablish the physical production bases for the affected persons, which will provide a long-term
development potential by fully utilizing local land resources.

Resettlement Principle

Under such policy, a number of resettlement and rehabilitation principles have been developed
for the Project.

(1) The resettlement plan will be based on detailed inventory for land acquisition and houses
Demolition, and adopted compensation standards and subsidies.

(2) The resettlement shall be combined with the local development, resource utilization and
Economic growth as well as environment protection. Considering the local conditions, a Practical
and feasible resettlement plan should be developed to restore or improve their Economic
production and create basic conditions for long-term development.

Overall Scheme of Resettlement

Since the construction of Lauding Expressway Project will only acquire limited land acquisition and
demolition along the road alignment line, it will not have significant negative impacts on production
and livelihood for most affected villages. A series of consultation meetings were held among affected

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villages and townships. According to the resettle’s opinion and suggestion, and combined with the
actual condition of affected area, the basic rehabilitation scheme was determined as follows:

(1) Project affected persons will be resettled within their original villages and
village groups, so
that their way of production, living and social relationship can be maintained, which will be
beneficial for them to restore or improve their production and income level after resettlement.

(2) In order to reduce the impacts on the production and livelihood among
resettle’s, the demolished houses will be dismantled after the new houses built. The reconstruction
of houses will adopt two approaches. For most relocated households, they will choose to rebuild
their houses by themselves, and all salvage materials will belong to them. The second approach is
for those who live near towns, their rehabilitation will be carried out by local government in order
to promote small town development and save farmland.

(3) The rural relocated households will be resettled in their original villages. For those who lose
Some farmland, the land-based rehabilitation will be adopted with a combination of developing
new farmland, redistributing remaining farmland and receiving their share of resettlement subsidy
among affected village groups.

6.5 Environmental Ethics

It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions with their Environment.
(OR)

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a principle or
value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad.

Ethics differs from country to country.

Functions of Environment:

1. It moderates climate conditions of the soil.

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2 A healthy economy depends on healthy environment. 3It is the life supporting medium for all
organisms.

3. It provides food , air , water and other important natural resources to the human beings
Environmental problems : Deforestation activities , population growth and urbanization water
Pollution due to effluents and smoke from industries, Scarcity.

Solution to environmental problems:

Reduce the waste matter and energy resources.

Recycle and reuse as many of our waste product And resources as possible. Avoid over
exploitation of natural resources.

Minimse soil degradation and Protect the biodiversity of the earth. Reduce population and
increase the economic growth our country.

Ethical guidelines on environmentalprotection:

1. The earth is the habitat of all living species and not of human beings alone.
2. Natural resources and energies are depleting fast. We must protect them.
3. Involve yourself in the care of the earth and experience nature.
4. Respect nature, you are a part of it.
5. Think of the global cause and act for local protection
6. Keep yourself informed about ecological changes and developments.
7. Observe austerity, reserve scarce resources for the future and the future generations.
8. We must be cooperative, honest, affectionate and polite to society and nature.

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6.6 CLIMATE CHANGE:

6.6.1 CLIMATE

It is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather condition, seasonal variations of the
region. The average of such conditions for a long period is called climate.

Causes of climate changes:

1. Presence of green house gases in the atmosphere Increases the global temperature.
2. Depletion of ozone layer increases the global temperature.

Effects of climate change:

1. Small climate changes disturb agriculture which leads To migration of animals and human.
2. Climate change may upset hydrological cycle which results in floods and
droughts in different parts of the world.
3.Global pattern of winds and oceans currents also gets disturbed by climate change.

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Green house effect: Green house gases are CO 2, Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC Among
these CO2 is the most important green house gas.O 3 and SO 2 act as serious
pollutants causing global warming.Progrssive warming up of a gas surface due to blanketing effect
of man made CO2 atmosphere.

6.6.2 GLOBAL WARMING:

Green house gases in the atmosphere are transparent to light but absorb IR radiation. These gases
allow sunlight to penetrate the atmosphere and are absorbed by the earth surface. This sunlight is
radiated back as IR which is absorbed by gases. As a result the earth surface and lower atmosphere
becomes warm. This is called global warming.

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EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING:

1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean.

2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production and

forest growth.

3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common. Raising

temperature will increase domestic water demand.

4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk of

extinction, more towering verities will thrive.

5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There would be

increase in water-borne diseases.

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MEASURES TO CHECK GLOBAL WARMING:

1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel.

2. Plant more trees.
3. Shifting from coal to natural gas.
4. Stabilize population growth.
5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks.
6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

6.6.3 ACID RAIN:

Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of Co2 present in the atmosphere
gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The
pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain.

Formation:
Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power plants
industries and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the burning of coal and
oil. These gases reacts with water vapor in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO3,H2SO4.These
acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain water.

SOx +H2O H2SO4 NOy +H2O HNO3

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EFFECTS:

Effect on human being:

Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid rain.It cause
premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis.

On building:

At present Taj mMahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura
refinery.Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments ,statues ,bridges and fences.

Acid rain causes corrosion of metals.

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Terestrial and lake Ecosystem.

Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.

Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoe ,carrot ,spinach. Acid rain rduces fish
population ,black flies,mosquitoes ,deer flies occurs largely which causes number of complications
in ponds rivers and lakes.

Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water. The dead materials
are not rapidly decomposed.Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead matter.

Control of acid rain:

Emmision of No2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.

Liming of lakes nad soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain. In thermal
points low sulphur content coal should be used.

6.6.4 OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone gas is present in the atmosphere. It is highly concentrated at the stratosphere

Between10to 50 Km above the sea level and is called as ozone layer.

Importance: O 3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B radiation. Now
days certain parts of O 3 layer is becoming thinner and O 3 holes are formed. Because of this more
UV–B radiation reaches the earth’s surface. UV –B radiation affects DNA molecules, causes
damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.

It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings.

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The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O 2 to form O 3 O * + O 2 + M ----------) O 3 + M

Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O 3 layer depletion : Refrigerators , air conditioners , aerosol sprays and cleaning
solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere. CFCs releases chlorine which breakes O 3 to O2

Cl + O 3 ----------- ) Cl O + O 2 (g) Cl O
+ O * --------- ) Cl + O 2

Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O 3 molecules . It is a chain reaction. 1%

loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .

Ozone depletion chemicals CFC , HCFC , BFC. Some times atmospheric sulfur dioxide Is
converted in to H 2 S O 4 which increases the rate of O 3 layer depletion.

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Effects ozone layer depletion:

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Effects on human beings

1. UV rays causes skin cancer.
2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people.
3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actinia Katatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system :

1. UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs.

2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO 2 .

3. Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This contributes to

global warming.3. Ozone Depleting chemicals can causes global warming.

Control measures : Manufacturing and using of O 3 depleting chemicals should be stopped. Use
of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.
Replacing CFC s by other maerials which are less damage

6.6.5 NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS AND HOLOCAUST

Energy released—during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy. Nuclear fission and Nuclear
fusion are used to prepare nuclear energy. During nuclear accidents large amount of energy and
radioactive products are released into the atmosphere.

Types of nuclear accidents :-

Nuclear Test- Nuclear explosions –release radioactive particles and radioactive rays into the
atmosphere.

Nuclear power plant accidents: Nuclear power plants located in seismic vulnerable area may
cause nuclear accidents which releases radiation.

Improper disposal of radioactive wastes: Drums with radioactive wastes, stored underground
rust and leak radioactive wastes into water, land and air.

Accidents during transport . Trucks carrying radioactive wastes (or) fuels in accidents. The
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major accident at a nuclear power plant is a core melts down.

Effects of nuclear radiation

1. Radiation affects DNA in cells.

2. Exposure to low dose of radiation (100to 250 rds ) people suffer from fatigue, vomiting
,and loss of hair.
3. Exposer to high radation (400- 500 rds ) affect bone marrow ,blood cells , natural resistance
fail of blood clot.
4. Exposure to very high dose of radiation (10000rds ) kills organisms by damaging the tissues
of heart and brain.

Nuclear Holocaust : -Destruction of Biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear bombs is

called nuclear holocaust.

Effects of nuclear holocaust.

Nuclear winter, Nuclear bombardment will cause combustion of wood , plastics , forests etc.

Large quantity of soot will be carried out into the atmosphere.

Black soot absorbs all UV radiation and will not allow the radiation to reach the earth. There fore
cooling will result. This reduces evaporation of water .In stratosphere there wont be significant
moisture to rain out the black soot. Due to nuclear explosion a process opposite to global warming
will occur. This is called Nuclear winter.

Nuclear holocaust in Japan

In 1945 two nuclear bombs were dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. About 100000
people were

Killed and the cities were badly destroyed. This explosion emitted forceful neutrons and gamma
radiation.

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Radioactive Strontium liberated in the explosion replaced calcium in the bones .Large scale
bone deformities occurred in the people of these cities.

6.7 WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Waste land. The land which is not in use is called waste land . Waste land is unproductive, unfit for
cultivation and grazing etc. 20% of the geographical area of India is waste land.

Types of waste land:

1. Uncultivable waste land.
2. Cultivable waste land.
Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, sandy deserts.
Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 years.Ex
Degraded forest land.

Causes of waste land formation:

1. over exploitation of natural resources.
2. Industrial and sewage wastes.
3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc.
4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land.

Objects of waste land reclamation:

1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and land slides.

2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources.
3.To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil.
4.To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem.

Methods waste land reclamation:

Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soil
reclamation.

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Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applying
excess amount of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In continuous
leaching 0.5to 1.0cm

Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts.

Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps to
maintain better availability of water in the land. Application of green manure and bio fertilizers
improves saline soil.

Application of gypsum: Soil sodality can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum replaces
sodium from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay.

Social Forestry programme: These programs involve strip plantation on road, canal sides and
degraded forest land etc.

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6.8 COSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

The consumption of resources by the people is called consumerism. It is related to both increase In
population size as well as increase in our demand due to change in life style. If needs increases The
consumerism of resources also increases.

TRADITIONAL FAVOURABLE RIGHTS OF SELLERS

1. The right to introduce any product.

2. The right to change any price.
3. The right to use incentives to promote their products
IMPORTANT INFORMATION TO BE KNOWN TO BUYERS

1. Ingredients of the products.

2. Manufacturing date and expiry date .Whether the product has been manufactured against an
established law of nature or involved in right variation.

Objectives of consumerism.
1. It improves the right and powers of buyers.
2. It involves making manufacturer liable for the entire life cycle of a product
3. It force the manufacturer to reuse and recycle the product after usage.
4. Active consumerism improves human health and happiness and also it saves resources. Sources
of wastes are agriculture, mining, industrial and municipal wastes.

Example for waste products. It includes paper, glass, plastic, garbage, food waste, Scrap,
construction and factory wastes.

E- waste : Electronic equipments like computer, printers, mobile phones, calculator etc After
usage thrown as waste.

Effects of waste: Waste from industries and explosives are dangerous to human life. Dumped
wastes degrade soil and make it unfit for irrigation.

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E-wastes contain more than 1000 chemicals which are toxic and cause environmental Pollution.
In computers lead is present in monitors, cadmium in chips and cathode ray tube , pvc in cables.
All these cause cancer and other respiratory problems if inhaled for long long periods.

Plastics are non-degradable and their combustion produces many toxic gases.

Factors affecting consumerism and generation of wastes:

People over population –Over population cause degradation of sources, poverty and premature
deaths. This situation occurs in less developed countries (LDC’s).In LDC’s the percaptia
consumption f resources and waste generation are less.

Consumption Over population: It occurs when there are less people than the available
Resources . due to luxurious life style per captia consumption of resources is very high.
Consumption is more and waste generation is more. Environment is also degraded.

ENVVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND LAWS

6.9 ENVIRONMENT (PROTECTION) ACT 1986

This act empowers the central govt. to fix the standards for quality of air, water, soil, and noise. The
central govt. formulates procedures and safe guards for handling of hazard substances.
Important features: 1. this act empowers the govt. to lay down procedures and safe guards for
the prevention of accidents which cause pollution and remedial measures if accidents occur.
2 The govt.has the authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry or its
operation if
The violation of provisions of the act occurs.
3. Violation of the act is punishable with imprisonment for 5 years or fine of one lakh or both.

4. If violation continues an additional fine of Rs5000 per day may be imposed for entire period of

Violation of rules.
5. The act empowers the officer of the central govt.to inspect the sight or the plant or

machinery for preventing pollution and to collect samples of air , water, soil and other materials

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from any
Factory or its premises for testing.

6.10 AIR PREVENTION ACT 1981

This act was enacted in the conference held at Stock Holm. It envisages the establishments Of
central and State control boards to monitor air quality and pollution control.
Important features:
1. The central board may lay down the standards for quality of air.

2. The central board co-ordinates and settle the disputes between state boards. 3.The central board

provides technical assistance and guidance to state boards. 4.The state boards are empowered to lay
down the standards for emission of air pollutants from industries or other resources.
5. The state boards are to examine the manufacturing processes and control equipment for for the
prescribed standards.
6. The direction of central board is mandatory on stateboards.
7. With out the consent of the central board operation of an industrial unit is prohibited in heavily
polluted area.
8. Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for three months or fine of Rs 10000 or both.

This act applies to all pollution industries. This act empowers the state board to order
closure of any industrial unit or stoppage of water supply or stoppage of electricity.

6.11 Water (prevention and control of pollution ) Act.1974.

This act provides for maintaining and restoring the sources of water. It also provide for
preventing and controlling water pollution.
Features of water act.

1. This act aims to protect the water from all kind of pollution and to preserve the quality of

water in allaquifers.
2. The act further provides for the establishment of central board and state boards For prevention
of water pollution.
3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a pollutant (or) sewage or)

effluent into any water body with out the consent of the board.
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4. The act is not clear about the definition of pollutant, discharge of

pollutant Toxic pollutant.

6.12 WILD LIFE ACT 1972.

This act was amended in 1983, 1986, and 1991.This act is aimed to protect and preserve all animals
and plants that are not Domesticated. India has 350 species of mammals, 1200 species of birds and
about 20000 Known species of insects. Some of them are listed as endangered species in wild life
protection act. Wild life is declining due to human action. Wild life products like skins, firs,
feathers, Ivory etc. have decimated the population of many species. Wild life population monitored
regularly and management strategies formulated to protect them.

6.13 FOREST (COSERVATON) ACT 1980

This act is enacted in 1980. It aims to arrest deforestation. This act covers all types of
Forests including reserved forests, protected forests and any forest land.

IMPORTANT Features of the act :

1. The reserved forests shall not be diverted or dereserved wit out the permission Of central govt.

2. The forest land may not be used nonforest purposes. 3.This act stops illegal activities with in

forest area.
Features of amendment act of 1988

.1.Forest departments are departments are forbidden to assign any forest land by way of lease or to
any private person or NG body for re- afforestation.

2. For re-afforstation clearance of any forest land is forbidden. 3.The division of forest land for non –

forest uses is punishable.I t also prohibits the collection of non timber forest.

3. The rights of forest dwellers recognized by forest policy of 1988 are taken away by Amended
wild life act of 1991.

6.14 State pollution control board

The consent of this board is needed

1. To establish any industry or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or addition

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which likely discharge Or trade effluent into a stream or well or river or on land.
2. To use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of sewage.
3. To begin to make any new discharge of sewage.
Act also empowers the state board to order closure or stoppage of supply of
Electricity, water or any other service to the polluting unit.

6.15 PUBLIC AWARENESS

In order to conserve our environment each and every one must be aware about our environment
problems and objectives of various environmental policies at natural and local level.

Objectives of public awareness:

1. To create awareness among rural and city people about ecological Imbalance, local
environment and technological development.
2 To organize meetings, tree plantation programs, group discussion on development,
exhibitions.
3. To focus on current environment problems and situations.

4. To train our planners, decision makers, politicians and administrators.

5. To eliminate poverty by providing employment that over comes the basic environmental issues.

METHODS TO CREATE ENVIRONMNTAL AWARENESS

1. Environmental education must be imparted to the students in schools and colleges. 2. Media
like TV Radio and cable net work can educate the people on environmental issues through
Cartoons, documentaries, street plays.
3. Cinema about environmental education should be prepared and screened in
theatres compulsorily .This films may be released with tax free to attract the public.
4. All the news papers and magazines must publish the environment related problems. 5.Special
audio visual and slide shows should be arranged in public places.
6. Voluntary organizations like NCC, NSS, and ROTRACT Club should be effectively utilized

for creating environmental awareness.

7. Arranging competitions like story and essay writing painting competition on environmental

issues for student as well as public.Attreactive prizes should be awarded for the best effort.
8. Public leaders cine actors and popular social reformers can make an appeal to the public about

the urgency of environmental protection

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7.HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT UNIT-7

7.1 Human population and the Environment

Population:- Group of individuals belonging to the same species which live in a given area at
given time.
Population density:- Number of individuals of the population per unit area ® per unit- volume.
Parameters effecting population:-

Birthrate (OR) Nationality:- Number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given
year.

Death Rate (OR) Mortality:- Number of deaths per 1000 people in a population in a given year

Immigration:- It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population.

Emigration:- It denotes the disposal of individuals from the original population to new areas.
Rate =Number of births
Number of years

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7.1.1 Population Growth :- Results from the difference between the rate of birth and death. In
1980 the global population was about 1 billion people. In 1930 it reached 2 billion. In 1975 it
reached 4 billion with in 45 years. Now the population in 6 billion. It reaches 10 billion by 2050 as
per the world Bank calculation.

Causes:- 1. Due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate.

2. Availability of antibiotics, immunization increased food production, clean water and air,

decreases the famine related deaths and infant mortality.

3. The poverty and illiteracy lead controlled growth of population. 4.Child Marriages
5.People’s superstitions. People believe that it is because of God’s grace.

Characteristics of P.G.:-

Exponential growth:- Population growth occurs exponentially live 10, 102, 103 , 104 etc., Which
shows the dramatic increase in global population in the past 160 years.

Doubling Time:- Time required for the population to double its size at a constant annual rate. It
is calculated as follows:-

Td = 70 / r When r = annual growth rate

If a ration has 2 % annual growth its population will double in 35 years.

Infant Mentality:-

Percentage of infant died out of those born in one year. This rate is decreased in the last
50 years. This differs widely in developing and developed countries.

Total fertility rates (TFR):

Average number of children delivered by a woman in her life time. The TFR varies from
2 in developed to 4.7 in developing countries.

This ratio should be fairly balance in the society.

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Male – female ratio has been upset in many countries including China - India. In china the ratio
of girls and boys is 100 – 140.

Demographic transition:
P.G. is redacted to economic development. The birth rate and death rate full due to improved
living conditions. This results in low population growth. This pheromones in called demographic
transition.

Variation of population among Nation:

At present the worlds population has crossed 6 billions. Less developed countries (Africa,
Asia, S.A) have 80% population while developed countries have only 20%.

In most developed countries like USA, Canada, Australia population increases by less than
1%. But is less developed countries the population increases by more than 1% / year.

Kenya is the fastest population growing countries in the world. When 20 million are residing.

China & India’s populate on was above 1000 million in 2000 years. Its share is 1/3 of the
world population.

Europe and N.H. accoents for 14% of world population.

Variation of pollution based on Age structure

Age structure of population can be classified into 3 classes.

Pre- productive population (0 – 14 years) Reproductive population (15 - 44 years)

Post reproductive population (Above 45 years)

Variation of population is now explained based on the above three classes.

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Pyramid shaped Variation of population (increase)

Eg. In India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Algerian Reproductive population is more in companion to pre
reproductive population and post productive population. Hence the population increases.

Bell shaped variation of population:

Eg: In France, USA, UK, Canada etc., pre reproductive population and reproductive
population is more (OR) less equal. Hence population growth in stable.

Urn shaped variation of populations

Eg: In Germany, Italy, Sweden,

In Japan pre productive age group population in smaller than the reproductive age group
population. In the next 10 years. The number of people in reproductive age group less than before
resulting in decrease of population.

7.2 Population Explosion:

The enormous increase in population due to low death rate and high birth rate is
called as population expansion.

Cause of population explosion:

1. Invention modern medical facilities, reduces the death rate and increases birth rate, which leads

to population explosion.
2. Increase of life expectancy is another important reason for population explosion. Eg:- In

1956, the average life expectancy of the human beings was 40 years. But now it is 61 years.
3.Illiteracy is one of the reasons for the population explosion.

Effect of population explosion (OR) environmental and social impacts of growing population

Poverty:

1. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation.

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2. Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources. Hence there will be a
shortage of resources for the futune generation.
3. Increase in population will increases diseases, economic in equity and command wars.
4. Forests, grass lands are under threat.
5. The main reason for the growing unemployment in growing population. 6.Educating vast
population is a very big task.
7. Population explosion is the main cause for pollution of air, land, water and noise.

8. Disposal of plastics and wastages is another problem of over population.

9. Scancity of fuel is also due to population explosion.

Family welfare programmes

Family welfare programme was implemented by Govt. of India as a voluntary

programme. It is a policy of growth covering human health, family welfare children and
women’s right.

Objectives:
1. Slow down the population explosion by reducing fertility.

2. Pressure on the environment, due to over exploitation of natural resources is reduces.

Population stabilization Ratio

The ratio is derived by dividing crude birth rate by crude death rate.
Developed countries: The stabilization ratio of developed countries is 1. indicating zero
population growth.

Developing countries:

The ratio of developing countries is rearing 3 which in expected to lower down by 2025.
Stabilization in developing countries is possible only through family welfare programmes.

Family planning Programme

If provides educational and clinical services that help couple to choose how many children
to have and when to have them. Family planning programme provides information on birth spacing
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birth control and health care for pregnant woman and infants. It also reduced the number of legal
and illegal abortions per year and decreased the risk of death from pregnancies.

Objectives:

1. Reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 / 1000 infants.

2. Achieve 100% registration of births, deaths marriage and pregnancies. 3.Encourages late
marriages and late child bearing.
4. Encourages breast feeding.

5. Enables to improve woman’s health education, employment. 6.Constrain the spnead & Aids /

HIV.
7.Prevent and control of communical diseases.

Fertility control methods Traditional methods

It includes taboos and folks medicine.

Modern methods
It includes birth control techniques like mechanical barriers, surgical methods, chemical
pills and physical barriers to implantation. More than 100 contraceptive methods are on trial.

Family planning programme in India

1. In 1952 India started family planning programme.

2. In 1970 Indian govt. forced FP campain all the over country.

3. In 1978 govt. legally raized the minimum age of marriage for men from 18 to 21 and for

women 15 to 18 years.
4. In 1981 census report showed there is no drop in population. Hence funding for FP

programme has been increased.

7.3 Environment & human Health

Healthy person:- Physically fit person with out suffering any disease is called a healthy person.

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Disease:- Harmful changes in the body’s condition by nutritional, biological, chemical (or)
psychological factors are called diseases.

Important Hazards and their health effects refer – bort Chemical Hazards and their health effects

refer T.B. Biological Hazards and their health effects Refers T.B. Preventive measures:

1. Always wash your hand before eating.

2.Cut short and clean your nails systematic.

3.Drinking chemically treated and filtered water.

4.Eat food always in hot condition.

5. Wash the vegetables and fruits a with clean water before cooking.
6. Avoid plastic containers and Al vessels.
7. Do physical exercise to have proper blood circulation.

7.4 Human Rights

Human rights are the fundamental rights possessed by human beings irrespective caste,
nationality, sex & language.
The aim of Govt. is to ensure happiness to the entire citizen with equal rights.
Under the Indian constitution the following fundamental rights have been guaranteed to human
beings.

1.Human right to freedom 2.Human right to property

3. Human right to freedom of religion.

4. Human right to culture and education. 5.Human right to constitutional remedies 6.Human right

to Equality
7. Human right to against exploitation.

8. Human right to food and environmental 9.Human right to health

1. Human rights to freedom

Every citizen has the freedom to express his view freely. Citizen can assemble at any place to
express their views. Freedom to form unions (or) associations.

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Freedom to slant any profession.

Indian Constitution

Indian constitution provides for civil, social, cultural, educational and political rights.

Article 14 – equality before law.

Article -15
Prohibits discrimination on the ground of race, religion caste, sex (or) place of birth.
Article 16
Provides equal opportunity for all citizens in regarding to employment.
Article 19
Provides for freedom of speech and expression, forming association and union.
Article – 20
Protection from connection except in accordance with the law of the land.
Article – 22 – lays down the rights of a person in custody.
Article – 24 – prohibits exploitation of labour children.
Article – 25 – grantees freedom to profess, practice and propagate a religion of one’s choice.

7.5 Value education

Education is nothing but learning through which knowledge about a particular thing can be
acquired with the help of our knowledge and expedience we can identify our value to understand
ourselves and our relationship with other and their environment.

Types of Education:

Format Education:- (In this all leaning process are self related). All people will read write, will
get good jobs and take with any problem with the help of formal education.

Value Education:- It is an instrument used to analyse our behavior and provide proper direction to
our youth. It teacher the youth the distinction between right & wrong, to be helpful loving, generous
and tolerant.

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Eg:- If a person is highly, Qualified and well settled in life, something he does not know how to
behave with his environment.
Value based environmental education

The provides knowledge about the principle of ecology, fundamental of environment and
biodiversity. It creates sense of duty to care for natural resources and to mange them in sustainable
key.

Objectives:
1. Improve integral growth of human being.
2. To create altitudes and improvement towards sustainable life style.
3. To increase awareness about our national history, cultural heritage, constitutional rights,
national integration.
4. To understand (about the our) natural environment in which how land, air and water are
interlinked.
5. To know about various living and non living organism and their interaction with the
environment.

Types of values:

1. Universal values (or) social values:

These values tells about the importance of the human conditions. These are reflected in life,
joy, love, tolerance, truth etc.

2. Cultural values:
These values various with respect to time and place. These are concerned with rights &
wrong, good & bad true & false and behavior of human beings. It is reflected in language,
education, law, economics, philosophy etc.

3. Individual values:
These are personal principles and the result of individual personality and experience parents
& teachers are the main key to shape and individual values. I t is reflected in individual goods,

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relationship, commitments.

4. Global values:
Human civilization is a part of the planet. Nature and natural pheromone on the earth are
interconnected and inter-linked with special bonds of harmony. If this harmony disturbed any where
leads to catastrophic results due to ecological imbalance.

7.6 Aids / HIV – Discover in 1983. Source of the virus is not beer identified spread through
African monkey. Through vaccine program – spread by small pox vaccine programme of Africa.
Hepatitis – B Viral vaccine legmy and new York.

World scenario
90% from developing countries. 13% of world’s population live is Africa. Almost all states &
African countries were affecters HIV. India ranks 2nd in the world with 5 million affects people.
Scenario in India:

Large number of infected people are in Maharastra & Tamil Nadu followed by Delhi, UP,
Karnataka & Goa. Till sept. 2003 24,667 cases are found in Tamil Nadu.

Smog:- Mixture of smoke from coal combustion and fog in suspended droplets form
photochemical smog cause irritation to eyes and lungs (ii) many damage plants (iii) Irritation to
nose & throat (iv) asthma

Role of IT in Environment

IT plays a vital role in the field of environment education. IT means collection, processing, storage
and dissemination of information. The internet facilities, information through satellites,www and
geographical information provides up to date information on various aspects of environment,
weather.

7.7 Remote sensing

It refers to any method which can be used to gather information about an object without coming in
contact with it. Gravity, magnetic, electro magnetic forces could be used for remote

sensing. Remote sensing covers various disciplines from laboratory testing to astronomies. Now

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remote sensing is used to denote identification of earth feathers by detecting the characteristic electro
magnetic radiation. That is reflected by the earth.

Components of a remote sensing system

The system consists of a sensor to collect radiation. Other important parts are a platform, an
aircraft, a balloon, rocket and satellite.

The information received by the sensor is suitably manipulated and transported back to earth.
The data’s are reformed and processed on the ground to produce photographs, computer
compatible magnetic taps and digital storage medium.

Applications

1 Agriculture: In India agriculture provides livelihood of 70% of population and contributes to

about 35% of net nation product. We require optimal management of land and water resources
along with high yielding variety seeds, fertilizer input.

Remote sensing can provide valuable information for land and water management.

2. Forests: Remote sensing provides information clearly on the type, density and extent of forest
cover, wood volume and biomass, forest fire, encroachment etc.

3. Land cover: Spatial information on land is required at different scales depends upon use remote
sensing data is converted to map. The spatial resolution plays a role on the scale of mapping.

4. Water resources: Remote sensing data has been used in many application related to surface water
body mapping, ground water targeting, wet land, flood monitoring, reservoir sedimentation, water
quality monitoring etc. One of the most simple applications is inventorying surface water body.

DATABASE

It is the collection of inter related data on various objects. In the computer the information of
database is arranged in a systematic manner.
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Applications: I The ministry of environment and forest. They are compiling database on various
biotic components. Database is also available for diseases likes HIV | AIDS. Malaria, Fluorosis.

National Management Information System (NMIS) : They compile database on R & D Projects
along with information about research scientists and personnel involved. Environmental
Information System : It functions in 25 centres all over the country.

They generate net work of database in areas like pollution control, remote sensing, biodiversity,
and desertification.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on large Number of
inter related aspects.

Applications: Different thematic maps having digital information on water resources,

Soil type, forest land, crop land, grass lands are superimposed on a layered form
in computer using soft ware.

Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands can be made on GIS base.

3. GIS can be used to check unplanned growth and related environmental problems.
SATELLITE DATA:
It helps in providing correct and reliable information forest cover

Provides information of monsoon, ozone layer depletion Smog etc. Helps in discovering
reserves of oil, minerals.

WWW:
More current data is available on www on line learning centre. Www .mhhe.com \
environmental science.
Multimedia Digital content manager (DCM) in the form of CD ROMS.

7.8 Application of computers in the field of Environment & human health:

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1.Unknown parameters can be stimulated by computer techniques

2.EIA(Environmental Impact Assessment) problems can be analyzed 3.Inventories of emission

sources are compiled and maintained
4. Net-work analysis, statistical analysis and the status of environmental pollutions can be high

lighted
5.Comprehensive administrative system can be developed by using computer network
techniques.
6.Remote sensing-Graphical Interface System are useful for coral reef mapping and ocean
resources. They are also useful to access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.

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UNIT- 8
8.FIELD WORK

8.1 VISIT TO A LOCAL AREA TO DOCUMENT ENVIRONMENTAL

ASSETS RIVER/FOR- EST/GRASSLANDS/ HILL/MOUNTAIN

Background

Documenting the nature of an ecosystem gives us a deeper appreciation of its value to mankind.
Each ecosystem has something different to offer us. It may contain natural re- sources that local
people depend on; or provide important ecological functions for us all; or have tourist or recreational
potential; or simply have a strong aesthetic appeal that is diffi- cult to quantify in economic terms.
In fact it can have multiple benefits for mankind at global, national and local levels. An ecosystem
is not only used by different cultures and socio-economic groups in various ways, but has a different
significance for different indi- viduals depending on their way of life. A tribal from a wilderness
setting, an agriculturalist from farmlands, a pastoralist from grasslands, or a fisherman looks on his
or her environ- ment very differently from an urban resident who is mainly focused on the
management of the quality of air and water and the disposal of garbage. In many cultures, men and
women will have different views and relationships with Nature. In rural India, for example, it is
mostly women who collect resources and see the degradation of their ecosystem as a serious threat
to the existence of their family and are thus more prone to fight against processes that lead to loss
of their resource base.

Tribal people who live by hunting and gathering have a deep understanding of nature and what it
provides for them to survive. Farmers know about utilisation of their land and water resources,
and also appreciate what droughts and floods can do to their lives. A shepherd or livestock owner
knows the grasslands intimately. In contrast, urban dwellers are far removed from the sites from
where they get their natural resources. As these have originated from a remote area and have been
collected by rural people, they cannot relate so easily to the value of protecting the ecosystems from
which the resources have come.

In assessing an ecosystem’s values it is not enough to look at its structure and functions, but at who
uses it and how the resources reach the users. One also needs to appreciate what it means to oneself.
The wilderness provides a sense of wonderment for all of us, if we experience it in person. This helps
to bring about a desire to conserve natural resources.

Guidelines for the study of environmental assets:

There are two parts to this study:

1. Documenting what you see.

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2. Documenting the findings of what you ask local user groups.

There are several key questions that one should attempt to answer in a study of any ecosystem’s
natural resources.

1. What are the ecosystem’s natural resource assets?

2. Who uses these and how?
3. Is the ecosystem degraded? If so how?
4. How can it be conserved?

One could go into enormous detail in answering these four basic questions. You will need to refer to
relevant chapters in this textbook, the guidelines provided in this Unit, as well as field guides to
plants, insects, birds, etc.

You should begin your field study by observing the abiotic and biotic aspects of the ecosys- tem and
documenting what you see. Ask questions to local user groups about their envi- ronment. Is their
utilisation sustainable or unsustainable? Look for and document signs of degradation. Finally, study
aspects that can lead to its conservation.

• Describe the ecosystem as you see it. Its structural nature, its quality and the differ- ences one can
perceive in its geographical features, and its plant and animal life. This takes time and patience. The
more time one spends on a careful scrutiny, the more one begins to appreciate its intricacies.

• How does the ecosystem function? What are the linkages between different species with each other
and with their habitat? Observe its food chains. Look at it as if it is an intricate machine at work.

• By interacting with local residents and multiple user groups, decide if this is sustainable or
unsustainable utilization. If it is undisturbed, why has it remained so? If it is sustainably used, how is its
use controlled? If it is degraded, how did it get to this state and when? If it is seriously degraded what
measures would you suggest to restore it and to what extent could it be used so that utilisation would
be sustainable?

You may not be able to observe all these questions during a single visit. You will thus have to ask
questions of local people who have a stake in the area to answer these questions. You may need the
help of an ecologist, botanist, zoologist, geologist, hydrologist or for- ester to get deeper insights.
A historical background frequently helps to clarify many of these questions as landscapes are not
static and always change over time.

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Proforma for field work on documenting Environmental Assets of

each ecosystem

Use the format below as a general guideline for your field

analysis. The points provided in the guidelines can be used to
fill in the answers to the various issues for each ecosystem.

The field work should be recorded in your Journal as:

Aims and objectives: To identify and document:

- What are the ecosystems goods and services? (checklist

of resources)

- Who uses them and how?

- Is the utilisation sustainable or unsustainable? (signs of

degradation)

- How can the ecosystem be used sustainably?

Methodology: - Observation of the ecosystem

- Questioning local people on the use of resources and

sustainability.

Discussion: Observations on levels of resource use found during

the field work.

Findings: Specific concerns relevant to the study site’s

sustainableStudies
Environmental utilisation as discussed Courses
for Undergraduate with local people.
Documenting Environmental Assets of each ecosystem
Results and Conclusions
Documenting general features during the field survey: Describe the site and its fea- tures as
provided in the proforma for fieldwork under the following headings – Aims and Objectives,
Methodology, Observations on the site, Findings of interviews with local people, Results and
Conclusions.

Documenting the special resource features of individual ecosystems

Once the general features are documented, observations pertaining to the specific fea- tures of the

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ecosystem must be documented.

The checklist on resource use of each ecosystem can help in creating an environmental profile of an
area and will help in your appreciation of the ecosystem’s goods and services, which include its
important assets. However, this is to be used only as a guideline and a note needs to be prepared on
each finding once you have made your observations and asked local people relevant questions about
the ecosystem’s resources in detail. Unless one does this for several different areas, one cannot really
appreciate the assets of an ecosys- tem in clear terms, as these are often qualitative judgements that one
makes by comparing the resources available in the study area with many others.

RIVER ECOSYSTEM

Guidelines on what to look for on river resource use:

• Observe what local people use from the river, wetland or lake:
They collect drinking water and use it for other domestic needs. They catch fish and crabs, graze
their cattle and buffaloes in or near the water. They lift water from the lake by pumps to irrigate
their fields.

• Mapping land use in terms of its water resources:

Document the pattern of landuse around the aquatic ecosystem –river, tank or lake, and assess the
importance of the water resources in the ecosystem. Observe that all the animals both wild and
domestic must come to the water source, or have its water brought to them.

• Field observations on a river front:

1. Observe a clean stretch of river in a wilderness area. The water is clear and full of life. In its many
pools fish dart about. Tadpoles swim around and crabs crawl along the bottom of the water.
2. In a rural area observe all the different ways in which people use the water from the river.
3. Observe a river in an urban area, the water cannot be used for drinking as it is dirty. Observe the
water in a glass – it is coloured – can we drink it! ‘Who has polluted it and how?’ This is a sign
of unsustainable use of water.

• Possible Observations:
1. Along a river in a forest observe all the different animal tracks at the edge of the water. All wildlife
depends on this resource for their day-to-day survival.
2. Identify the different fish that local fishermen have caught. Ask if the fish catch has decreased,
remained the same, or has increased during the last decade or two.
3. Resource use: Observe and document the different types of fish and other re- sources used by local
people. Is this for consumptive or productive purposes.
4. Observe how the ecosystem is utilized and document these assets – water distri- bution, fish,
crustacea, reeds, plants used as food, any other resources.

• In your report, compare and contrast an unpolluted and polluted body of water. Only the more

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robust species remain in polluted water while the more sensitive disappear.

Water – the greatest of all resources:

What do you use water for during the course of one day? How much do you use?
Can you stop wasting water by using it carefully?
How can you reduce the water you use for bathing and other uses? Discuss how wastewater can be
used in the garden.
How can water be recycled?

Observations on the site that should be recorded:

• Type – Permanent flow/ seasonal flow. Slow moving/ rapid flow; deep/shallow.

• Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic and biotic aspects.

– Is the flow natural or disturbed by a dam upstream?

• Describe its aquatic plant and animal life.

• What are the characteristic features of its components – banks, shallow areas, deep areas,
midstream areas, islands. How is the land used?

Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:

• What is the water used for and in what proportion? – Domestic use/Agriculture/Indus- try.

• What other resources are used – fish, crustacea, reeds, sand, etc. What impact does the level of use
have on the ecosystem?

• Is the water potable? If not what are the sources of pollution – domestic sewage/ agricultural
runoff/industrial effluents. Which of these affect it most seriously?

• Extent of pollution – Severe/high/moderate/low/nil. Explain why.

• Test the water quality. What are the results of your water quality tests?

• What efforts are made to keep the river clean, or to clean it up?

• Is its utilisation sustainable or unsustainable?

• Provide a historical profile of and changes in its environmental status by asking local people.

• Does it flood? If so how frequently? How does this affect people? What preventive steps can be
taken to prevent ill effects of floods?

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• How can you enhance public awareness on the need for keeping the river clean?

• How are you dependent on the river ecosystem? How is it linked to your own life?

• Results of the water analysis.

FOREST

Guidelines on what to look for on forest resource use:

• Assessing forest use:

Ask local people, especially the women, what products they collect from the forest. Document
what they use for household use, those that are sold in the local market- place and those that are
taken out and sold to other areas. Fruits, leaves, roots, nuts, fuelwood, timber, grass, honey, fiber,
cane, gum, resins, medicinal products are all forest products of great value.

• Looking for signs of forest use:

Several signs tell us how the forest is used by people.
Look for human footprints and hoof marks of domestic animals, which demonstrates the
dependence of man and his animals on forest vegetation.
Observe the number of cattle tracks and cow dung piles, which tell where the local people graze
their domestic animals. Specially look for cattle tracks near watering places. The zigzag paths on a
hillslope that have very little vegetation cover are a sign of overgrazing.
People cut the branches of the trees and shrubs for fuel wood. The amount of cut stumps of
branches can be used to assess the level of utilisation. If the forest is seri- ously lopped all around,
the forest clearly appears degraded. Most of the energy re- quired to cook meals and heat their
homes in winter is forest dependent. Ask local women how far they must travel for fuelwood.
Larger stumps of tree trunks show the number of poles used for building houses, or that have been
felled and sold as timber. Observe the environment in a neighbouring village. Look for the various
products used by the people, or marketed by them, which they get from the forest.
Where do local people get their water? The presence of water in the streams is depen- dant on the
existence of the forest.

• Document the level of forest loss:

Observe areas around villages where forest is overused and contrast this to the intact vegetation of
Sanctuaries and National Parks. Are there signs of degradation of the canopy, formation of
wasteland or signs of soil erosion?

• What are the products that you use in daily life that originate in forests?
Examples: water, paper, wood, medicines. The oxygen we breathe is produced by vegetation etc.
Draw up a list of articles you use that could have originated from a forest ecosystem.

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Observations on the site that should be recorded:

• Identify the forest type – evergreen/ semi evergreen/ deciduous/ dry deciduous/ thorn forest.

• Is it a natural forest or a plantation?

• Observe its qualitative aspects – Undisturbed/ partially disturbed/ mildly degraded/ se- verely
degraded.

Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:

• List its natural resources – goods and services.

Goods- food, fuelwood, fodder, non-wood forest products, water, etc.
Services- water regime, climate control, oxygen, removal of carbon dioxide, nitrogen cycle, etc.

• Who uses the ecosystem’s natural resources and to what extent? List the level of use of each of its
natural resources (sustainable/ unsustainable). Are these used for per- sonal use, for marketing or
for both? What proportion of the income of local people comes from the sale of fruit, fodder, wood,
non-wood forest products?

• Make a map of the study area showing the different land uses and where resources are collected
from.

• Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by asking local
people about their resource dependency.

• Is the ecosystem overused due to the number of people that depend on it, or the greed of a few,
or both?

• Is it protected, if so how?

• If it is to be restored, how can one make this possible?

• What forest produce do you use in your day to day life?

Field Work
GRASSLAND

Guidelines on what to look for on grassland resource use:

• Utilisation pattern of the grassland:

Discuss with local people how they use the grasslands, grazing cattle, cutting fodder, collecting
fuelwood from the shrub cover etc.

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• Grassland carrying capacity:

Observe the enormous quantity of grass needed for the number of domestic herbi- vores dependent
on it. This is an indication of the ‘carrying capacity’ of the grassland, ie how many animals it can
support.

• Mapping landuse in grassland areas:

Near a village make a landuse map showing where the cattle are sent for grazing and for water, where
people collect fuelwood, etc.

• Documenting grassland degradation:

Document if there has been a change in landuse patterns during the last few decades by asking local
people. Observe differences in protected and degraded areas.

• What are the products that you use that come from grasslands?
Examples: milk, meat, etc.

Observations on the site that should be recorded:

• Identify the type of grassland – Himalayan/ Terai/ semi-arid/ shola/ area developed for grass
collection/ common grazing land/ forest clearing.

• Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic and biotic features – Document the nature of its soil, plant
and animal species (wild and domestic). How do they use their habitat?

• What changes occur seasonally?

Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:

• Who uses it and to what extent?

• Estimate the extent of free grazing – cattle, sheep, goats, and their proportion.

• Extent of fodder collection.

• What is the productivity of the grassland? Estimate from local people if the fodder is - Not enough
for their own livestock/ just enough for their own livestock/ enough for their own livestock and
to sell to other fodder short areas.

• Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by asking local
people.

• Is this utilisation level sustainable or unsustainable?

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• Is the grassland burned too frequently? Document why local people burn the grass.

• Can they do a rotation grazing of their common grasslands and thus manage it better?

• What products do you use from grassland ecosystems in your daily life?

HILLSLOPE

Guidelines on what to look for on hill resource use:

Hills are fragile ecosystems that are easily degraded. They are however utilised by a variety of user
groups. Understanding the level of pressure can be observed and its utilisation patters elicited from
local people.

Observations on the site that should be recorded:

• Identify the type of hill – steep/ gradual slope. Top – peak/ plateau top.

• Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic (soil characteristics) and biotic (vegetation)
characteristics.

• Describe its contour and make a map marking its features such as nala courses, rocky outcrops,
precipices, springs.

• Describe if its soil cover is intact/ degraded/ partially or severely eroded.

• Is it covered with cattle tracks? Do hoof marks of domestic animals and their dung piles indicate
excessive grazing?

• Describe its vegetation profile and map different vegetation patterns (tree cover, scrub, grass cover,
bare rock).

• Identify the plants that grow on it (trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses) and wild and domestic animals
present.

Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:

• What is it used for – Urban housing/ slum development/ tourism/ fuelwood collection/ grazing
livestock/ collecting water from its watercourses/ greening. Observe the pro- portion or extent used
for each purpose. Is it sustainable?

• Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by asking local
people.

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• If it is eroded, what measures can be suggested to reverse the trend?

• How is this linked to your own life?

MOUNTAIN

Guidelines on what to look for on mountain resource use:

Mountains have very specialized ecosystems with clearly defined altitudinal variations. They are used
by several different stake holders. Effects of human interference on mountains affect people in the
valleys below.

Observations on the site that should be recorded:

• Identify the type – Himalayan range/ foothills.

• Qualitative aspects – Describe its abiotic and biotic features.

• Describe its topography and soil characteristics. Make a map marking its features. Snowcapped/
rocky precipice/ grassy slopes/ tree line. Discuss proportion of each type.

• Describe its plant and animal species. How do they use their habitat?

• Identify the forest type with its dominant (common) tree species.

• Describe its soil cover/ degree of erosion.

Findings on the site that should be recorded through interviews:

• Describe the utilisation pattern of any forest cover and its grassy slopes.

• Who uses it?

• Do local people get as much natural resources from it today as they did in the past?
- If yes, how is this managed?
- If no, why not, and what measures can be taken to remedy these trends?

• Provide a historical profile of its utilisation and changes in its environmental status by asking local
people. Have there been landslides or floods in the valley below?

• How is our own life linked to this ecosystem?

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