REVISION FOR FINAL TEST

- Concept of Syntax :

- Sentence structure, syntactic features :

+ The terms: obligatory (internal) and optional (external) elements, intensive verbs (Vint), transitive
verbs (Vt), and intransitive verbs (Vi). Give examples for illustration.

+ How to identify them? Present the criteria for differentiating them? Give examples for illustration.

- Semantic Classification of clauses, sentences, language functions of clauses

- State syntactic functions of Cleft sentences, Imperative sentences, Exclamatory sentences,

Comparative sentences, Irregular sentences (Elliptical sentences, Irregular wh-questions, Formulae,
Inverted sentences, disjunct, filler and interjection in English

- Analyze syntactic structure of the transformational sentences.

I.2.1.2. Adjective Clauses (Adj C):

a. Notion: The unit of language functions like an adj
b. Functions: Adj Clauses function as post-modifier to the preceding
noun. 
The news that I got is true.
                      Adj C as Mod
The news that made me sad is true.
                      Adj C as Mod 

I.2.1.3. Adverbial Clauses (Adv C): 

    
2. Adverbial Clauses (Adv C):
a. Notion: the one that normally functions like an
adverbial.
b. Functions: mainly functions as an Adjunct to “a related-meaning verb”.

I’ll leave when she comes tomorrow. 

        Adv C as Ad to “leave”
              
* Self study: The semantic classification of adverb clauses. (Refer to “Quirk
R. & Greenbaum S. (1998). A student’s Grammar of the English Language.
England: Longman Ltd.” (pp. 314-327)”
 
 

Table 1. Functions of dependent clauses in English

subordination, coordination & sub-coordination
 DEPENDENT FUNCTIONS
CLAUSES S Od O Cs C Cad Cprep App A Dis Conj Mod
i o j d j
Nominal + + + + + + + +
Adverbial + (+) (+)
Adjective +

Their equivalent units of language of the foregoing subordinate clauses,

such as noun, adverbial and adjective phrases or equivalent syntactic
categories; i.e. nouns, adverbs and adjectives also have such functions. 

A.  Sentence synthesis (2 periods) 

Sentence synthesis of is the combination of at least two simple sentences

(a group of words that includes a finite verb, begins with a capital letter and
ends in a full stop), e.g.: 
He was busy.
John came to the party.
to form:
1. Particular Simple Sentence: the combination of only one main
clause plus at least one subordinate clause by means of
subordinators as prepositions.

Despite/ In spite of being busy, he came to the party.

He came to the party despite/ in spite of being busy.

2. Subordination (Complex Sentence): the combination of only one main

clause plus at least one subordinate clause. 
Although he was busy, he came to the party.
     (subordinator)
He came to the party although he was busy.                                       
                  (subordinator)
3. Co-ordination (Compound Sentence): the combination of  at least 2
independent clauses.  

He was busy but  he came to the party.     

            (coordinator)
He was busy; however, he came to the party.
            (conjunct)
He was busy he however  came to the party.
    (conjunct)
He was busy he came to the party, however.
    (conjunct)
 4. Sub-coordination (Compound- Complex Sentence): the combination of
subordination and coordination or in other words, the combination of at
least two independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.  

He stayed at home and he watched TV because it was raining and his

bike was broken.
        
by means of subordinators, coordinators or conjuncts (connectors)
without changing the whole meaning of the combined sentence.

NOTES:

LWs are words (i.e. subordinators, coordinators and conjuncts) used to link units of
language.
A. CLASSIFICATION
1. SUBORDINATORS IN SUBORDINATON (COMPLEX SENTENCES) 

Table 2
NOMINAL ADJECTVE ADVERBIAL
SUBORDINATORS SUBORDINATORS SUBORDINATORS
that, which, who(m) that, which, who(m) Manner: as, as if; 
whose, when, why whose, when, why  Purpose: so that, in order that, in order to,
whether/ so as to
if, whatever, Contrast: (even) though, in spite of,
whoever, however, despite 
whenever, wherever  Condition: if, as long as, on condition
that, in case that, in case of  
Reason: because, as, since
Comparison: as much as   
Result: so that
Time: no sooner … than; not
until, when(ever)   Location: where(ver)  
+ Subordinators are used to introduce subordinate clauses (NC, Adj C & Adv C) 
+ Coordinators and conjuncts are used to link the identical units of language 
+ In subordination or (sub-)coordination, subordinator and its clause (subordiate
clauses) can precede or follow the main clause. Otherwise, coordinator locates initially
in its clause. By contrast, conjuncts can be used initially, medially or finally in its clause.

Analyze the functions of the underlined subordinators in the following examples (a) “I
love where I was born”, (b) “This is the city where I was born” and (c) I’ll live where
I was born.
Analyze the functions of the underlined subordinators in the following examples: (a)
“I remember when we first met each other.”, (b) “This was the time  when we first
met each other.” and (c) She left when we first met each other.

E.g. 1 
a. I love where I was born.
Sn
b. This is the city where I was born.
Sadj
c. I’ll live where I was born.
Sadv
E.g. 2
a. I remember when we first met each other.
Sn
b. This was the time  when we first met each other.
Sadj
c. She left           when we first met each other.
Sadv

E.g.3 
a. I don’t know why she came late.
  Sn
b.  It’s the reason why she came late.
      Sadj
c.  The meeting was canceled because she came late.
                 Sadv

Table 2
LINKING WORDS
COORDINATOR CONJUNCTS SUBORDINATORS
S

For For some reason Because, Because of …

And In addition, Furthermore, (-)

Moreover
Neither (-) (-)

But However, By contrast, In spite of

In other words,
Or Alternatively (-)
 Yet Refer to ‘But’ Refer to ‘But’

So Therefore So … that

Firstly, Simultaneously
In addition, Furthermore
More importantly
(…)

Table 3
LINKING SIMPLE COMPOUND CORRELATIVE NOTE
WORDS
SUBORDINATOR + + +
COORDINATOR + + +
CONJUNCT + + +

Practice: (2 periods) 
Combine the following simple sentences to form subordination then state the
functions of all clauses.

E.g. I may help you. I may not help you. You are sure to lose the game.

=> Though I may or may not help you, you are sure to lose the game. 
             Ad to ‘are’    Superod
1. You may like it. You may not like it. In either case I shall send you there.
It is my duty to do so.

2. He wrote a letter. He wrote for a certain reason. He wrote it to his

supervisor. He told me about that.

3. Jack fell in love with Rose. He would give a present to her. He had
bought in Paris.

4. He was living in New York. The policemen asked the man. He had an
accident in New York.

5. He was living in New York. The policemen asked the man. He had an
accident in New York.

5.
 7. He had not learned to read and write. He was very ignorant. He could not
even talk fluently. Such a man should not pretend to be a doctor.

Further practice: (2 periods) 

 
1. He had very bad health. He lived very carefully. It was inexplicable to the
doctor. The doctor had attended him for years. He told me this.
He told me that he had had very bad health although he lived very carefully and
that was inexplicable to the doctor who had attended him for years

2. He stole a book. It had the owner’s name written in it. I was told this. The
name was well-known to him.
He stole a book which had the owner’s name written on it so I was told this
and...

3. Rama will not play against the Hindu school. It has a very strong team.
He has declared this to be his attention. He doesn’t wish to type himself
before the cup match. It takes place on the next day.
Rama will not play against the Hindu school which has a very strong team. He
has declared this to be his attention because He doesn’t wish to type himself
before the cup match which takes place on the next day.
4. You will be allowed to enter for examination. Your hard working is a
condition. The orders are to that effect. They were issued by the principal.
Your hard working is a condition in order to be allowed to enter for
examination. 
5. He is an idle and careless boy. The other boys in the school are not
equally idle and careless. The report was to this effect. His father received
the report. He was very grieved to receive it.

6. A famished traveler was toiling over the desert. He found a bag. He was
highly delighted. He opened the bag. He found nothing but pearls.

7. Once an oarsman was rowing by himself. He did not look behind him. He
met another boat. He crashed into it. He was upset.

8. No one was watching. The thief first made sure of this. He climbed up a
drainpipe. He climbed up to a window on the first floor. He succeeded in
entering the house through the window. He was not observed.

9. Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) had already attained distinction as an

astronomer. He was only 16 then. Nevertheless, later, he seriously took
 up the study of architecture. This was not till he was nearly 30. The most
precious fruit of this study was St. Paul’s Cathedral.    

C. Syntactic Analysis of Clause Structures (2 periods)