Power System Analysis and Design

Power System Structure

Generation,
Transmission, and
Distribution networks
are the main
components of an
electric power system.
Generating stations and
distribution networks
are connected through
transmission lines.
Normally, transmission
lines imply the bulk
transfer of power by
high – voltage links Figure 1 Power System Diagram
between main load Figure 4 Transmission System
centers. On the other hand, the distribution system is Distribution networks are different from transmission
mainly responsible for the conveyance of this power to the networks in many ways, quite apart from voltage
consumers using lower voltage networks. Electric power is magnitude. The general structure or topology of the
generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is increase distribution is different, and the number of branches and
by stepped up transformers to the main transmission sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
voltage. At sub - stations, the connection between various consists of a step – down transformer at a bulk supply point
components are made, for example, lines and transformers feeding some lines with varying length from a few hundred
and switching of of meters to several kilometers. Several three – phase step
these elements is – down transformers are spaced along these feeders and
carried out. from these, three – phase four – wire networks of
Transmission level consumers are supplied which gives 230 V, single phase
voltages are in the supply to houses and similar loads.
range of 66 kV to
400 kV (or higher).
Significant
amounts of power
are transmitted
from the generating
stations to the load
Figure 2 Power System Structure
centers at 220 kV
or greater.
The power supply network can be divided int two parts,
transmission and distribution systems. The transmission
system may be divided into primary and secondary Figure 5 Distribution System
distribution network. Most of the distribution networks A complete circuit diagram of a power system for all the
operate radially for less short circuit current and better three – phases is very complicated. It is very much practical
protective coordination. to represent power system using simple symbols – for each
component resulting in what is called a Single Line
Diagram. The single line diagram of a power system
network shows the main connections and arrangement of
the system components along with their data (such as
output rating, voltage, resistance, and reactance, etc.). In
the case of transmission lines sometimes the conductor
Figure 3 Components of Power System
size and spacings are given. It is not necessary to how all
the components of the system on a single line diagram, e.g.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 1
 Power System Analysis and Design

circuit breakers need not be shown in a load flow study but Sub – transient State: X S = X d′′ = X l + 1 1
1
1
are must for protection study. In a single line diagram, the + +
Xa Xf Xad
system components are usually drawn in the form of their where:
symbols. Generators and transformer connections – star, X a - armature reaction reactance
delta and neutral earthing are indicated by symbols drawn
X l - leakage reactance
by the side of the representation of these elements. Circuit
breakers are represented by rectangular blocks. X f - field winding reactance
X ad - damper winding reactance
Synchronous Motors
Same as the generator model except that current flows
toward the motor. The synchronous reactance is also
dependent on its state but considers only the steady state
Figure 6 Single Line Diagram of Power System and sub – transient state period.
Power system engineers have devised the per – unit Steady State: X S = X d = X l + X a
system such that different physical quantities such as Sub – transient State: X S = X d′′ = X l +
1
1 1 1
current, voltage, power and impedance are expressed as a + +
Xa Xf Xad
decimal fraction or multiple of base quantities. In this where:
system, the various voltage levels disappear and a power X a - armature reaction reactance
network consisting synchronous generators, transformers
X l - leakage reactance
and lines reduce to a system of simple impedances.
Representation of Power System Components X f - field winding reactance
Representation of Synchronous Machines X ad - damper winding reactance
Generators Induction Motors
The generator may be modeled in three different ways: Same as the generator model except that current flows
1. Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, toward the motor. The synchronous reactance is also
power of the generator is specified at the node that the dependent on its state but considers only the sub –
generator is connected either the voltage or injected transient period.
current is specified at the connected node, allowing the 1
Sub – transient State: X S = X d′′ = X l + 1 1 1
other quantity to be determined. + +
Xa Xf Xad
2. Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the where:
synchronous reactance, XS
X a - armature reaction reactance
X l - leakage reactance
X f - field winding reactance
X ad - damper winding reactance
Figure 7 Thevenin Model
Representation of Transformers
3. Norton Model - injected AC current, IG, in parallel with Two – Winding Transformers
the synchronous reactance, XS Figure 9 and 10 shows the transformer equivalent circuit of
a two winding transformer.

Figure 9 Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Figure 8 Norton Model
The synchronous reactance of the generator changes
depending on the time state:
Steady State: X S = X d = X l + X a
1
Transient State: X S = X d′ = X l + 1 1
+
Xa Xf Figure 10 Equivalent Circuit referred to the Primary

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 Power System Analysis and Design

Three – Winding Transformers

Figure 11 Three Winding Transformer Equivalent Circuit

Zps = Zp + Zs ; Zpt = Zp + Zt ; Zst = Zs + Zt Figure 13 Shunt Capacitor

Zp =
Zps +Zpt −Zst
; Zs =
Zps +Zst −Zpt
; Zt =
Zst +Zpt −Zps Shunt Reactor
2 2 2 I −jQ −jQ
Representation of Transmission Lines Y= = = 2 = −jβ
V VV ∗ V
The modeling of the transmission line depends on the
length of the line:
1. Short line is represented by series impedance only\
2. Medium line is represented by 𝜋 – equivalent
3. Long line is represented by ABCD parameters in the
form of 𝜋 – equivalent

Figure 14 Shunt Reactor

Impedance Diagram Representation of Power System
A further simplification from the single line diagram, with its
Figure 12 Transmission Line Nominal Pi Equivalent Circuit
symbols for the various components, is to draw the diagram
Representation of Static Loads
with impedances only. A sample impedance diagram is
Static Loads can be connected either in series or parallel.
shown in Figure 15(a).
Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and
Reactance Diagram Representation of Power System
load characteristics.
The impedance diagram can be further be simplified by
Constant impedance, Zload
making certain assumptions and reduced to simplified
- Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to
reactance diagram. Reactance diagram is drawn by
a network node and the ground (or neutral point of the
neglecting effective resistance of generator armature,
system)
transformer winding resistance, transmission line
Constant current, Iload
resistance, line charging and the magnetizing circuit of
- The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a
transformers. Reactance Diagram of a power system is
constant power factor, independent of the nodal
shown in Figure 15(b).
voltage
- Also considered as a current injection into the network
Constant power, Sload
- The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power
component independent of nodal voltage or current
injection
- Also considered as a negative power injection into the
network
Representation of Shunt Elements
Shunt Capacitor Figure 15
I jQ jQ Assumptions made for drawing reactance diagram give
Y= = ∗
= 2 = jβ results quite accurate for many power system studies, such
V VV V
as short circuit studies, etc., as winding resistances
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 3
 Power System Analysis and Design

including the line resistances are quite small in comparison Base kVA
with leakage reactances and shunt path which include line If some equipment such as generators, transformers,
charging and transformer magnetizing circuit provide a very transmission lines, etc. are connected in parallel and their
high parallel impedance with fault. In general, it is to be percentage resistances and reactances also refer to their
noted that if the resistance is less than 1/3 of the reactance, respective kVA ratings, it is hard to compare these
and resistance is ignored, the error introduced will not be percentage resistances and reactances and their combined
more than 5%. If, however, the resistance is on the order of effect until and unless they are all referred to a common
½ that of reactance and resistance is ignored errors up to kVA. This common kVA, which is taken as an arbitrary one,
12% may be introduced. By ‘errors’ it is meant that is known as the base kVA of the system.
calculations will result in values higher than in actual case A base kVA may be chosen in the following manner:
being obtained and in some cases, lead to the purchase of 1. Equal to the kVA rating of the largest unit connected to
protective gear with a higher rating than required. the network.
Percentage Resistance and Reactance and Base KVA and 2. Equal to the sum of the kVA ratings of all the units
KV connected to the network.
Resistance and reactance may be expressed in percentage 3. Any arbitrary value.
or ohmic terms. In the case of rotating machines and It must, however, be clearly understood that the value of the
transformers, manufacturer values are always in base kVA, has no bearing whatsoever on the results; since
percentage terms while tables for cables and overhead in the final formula for the calculation of short – circuit
lines are always in ohmic terms. Calculations can be made current base MVA is to be taken into consideration.
using either but not a mixture. For short circuit calculations, The conversion of percentage reactance at rated kVA to the
the percentage values are employed and, therefore, their percentage reactance at base kVA can be made by using
understanding is essential. the following expression:
Percentage Resistance Base kVA
It is the voltage drop across the given resistance expressed × percentage reactance at rated kVA
Rated kVA
as a percentage of normal voltage when carrying full – load Base kV
current about the normal rating. In some cases, it is convenient to work in ohmic values of
IR various reactances rather than in percentage values. The
%R = × 100 method would become simple if all the reactances relate to
V
Percentage Reactance the same voltage but if step – up or step – down
It is the voltage drop across the given reactance expressed transformers or other equipment operating at different
as a percentage of normal voltage when carrying full – load voltages are also included, all the ohmic values will have to
current about the average rating. be reduced to a common base voltage.
IX Reactance can be converted from one operating voltage to
%X = × 100
V the other by the following relation
or E2 2
(%X) × V X 2 = ( ) × X1
X= E1
I × 100 It must, however, be remembered clearly that all the values
(%X) × V × V
X= refer to the phase values and not the line values.
I × 100 × V Per Unit (PU) Method of Representing Quantities
(%X)V 2 The quantities involved in the power system are kVA,
X=
(Output in VA) × 100 voltage, current and impedance of the equivalent circuits of
when the voltage and output are expressed in kV and KVA the various system components. The equivalent circuits are
respectively, then at different voltages and are connected in the system using
(%X)KV 2 × 10 transformers and interconnections. Each apparatus is rated
X=
kVA in kVA, and its impedance in actual ohms or percentage
or value referred to its rated kVA and rated voltage. In power
X(kVA) system analysis, it is usual to express voltage, current, kVA,
%X = and impedance in per unit of base or reference values of
10(kV)2
Thus if actual reactance in ohms is given, percentage these quantities. Such a method simplifies the calculations.
reactance can be determined and vice versa. The per unit value of any quantity is defined as

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 Power System Analysis and Design
the actual value of the quantity in any unit (kVB )2
ZB =
the base or reference value in the same unit MVAB
Advantages and Drawbacks of Per Unit (PU) System For a single phase, phase – to – neutral voltage, kVA per
Advantages phase are taken as bases while in a three phase system,
1. Calculations are simplified. three – phase line – to – line voltage and three – phase kVA
2. The characteristics of machines (generators, are used as bases. This simplifies the calculations.
transformers, motors, etc.), when described in per uni The base values in a system are so selected that the per
system, are specified by almost the same number, unit voltages and currents in the system are approximately
regardless of the rating of the machines. In other unity. The base kVA is chosen as:
words, the characteristics tend to fall in the relatively 1. Equal to the sum of the ratings of the various
narrow range, making erroneous values conspicuous. equipments in the system
Thus, per unit system provides a method of 2. The kVA rating of the largest unit connected in the
comparison. system
3. For circuits connected by transformers, per unit system 3. Any arbitrary value
is particularly suitable. By choosing suitable base kV’s If the network has no transformer present, the same base
for the circuits the per unit reactance remains the voltage is used throughout, but if the transformers are
same, referred to either sides of the transformer. present, the rule is to change the base voltage in proportion
Therefore, the various circuits can be connected in the to the transformation ratio of the transformer when it is
reactance diagram. reached. Thus, all impedances in the network before the
This method is useful to eliminate ideal transformers at transformer is reached, including the transformer primary
circuit components since the typical power system leakage impedance, are expressed in per unit, to the
contains hundres, if not thousands of transformers, voltage base chosen for the primary side; all impedances
and this is a non – trivial savings. beyond the transformer, including the transformer
Drawbacks secondary leakage impedance, are expressed in per unit to
1. Some equations that hold in the unscaled cases are a new base voltage which is the primary side base voltage
modified when scaled into per unit. Factors such as √3 multiplied by the transformer transformation ratio.
and 3 are removed or added by this method. Determination of Base Impedance
2. Equivalent circuits of the components are modified, In single phase circuit:
making them somewhat more abstract. Sometimes, SB = VB IB
phase shifts that are clearly present in the unscaled VB
circuit vanish in the per unit circuit. ZB =
IB
Selection of Bases Then:
For a common representation, base kVA and base voltage kVactual
are to be chosen. Then the base current and base Per unit kV =
kVB
impedance can be expressed as follows: Actual Current
kVAB Per unit current = Ipu = × kVB
Base Current, IB = kVAB
kVB kVAB
VB Per unit impedance = Zpu = Actual Impedance ×
(kVB )2 × 1000
Base Impedance, ZB =
IB In three phase circuit:
VB × VB kVAB
ZB = Base Current, IB =
IB × VB √3kVB
VB2 kVB × 1000
ZB = ZB =
IB × VB √3 × IB
VB VB kVB √3kVB
1000 × 1000 × 1000 ZB = × × 1000
ZB = √3 × IB kVAB
IB × VB
kVAB
1000 Per unit impedance = Zpu = Actual Impedance ×
(kVB )2 × 1000
(kVB )2 × 1000
ZB = Change of Base
kVAB Normally, the per unit impedance of various components
corresponding to its own rating voltage and kVA are given
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 Power System Analysis and Design

and since we choose one common base kVA and base kV. Xm IB1 × kVB1
Thus, per unit impedance ot new base, X mpu = ×
1000 × kVB2 kVB1
kVAnew (kVold )2 or
Zpu new = Zpu old × × X m kVAB X m MVAB
KVAold (kVnew )2
X mpu = =
Per Unit Impedance of a Two Winding Transformer 1000 × kVB2 × kVB1 kVB2 × kVB1
The approximate equivalent circuit of a two winding Per Unit Impedance Diagram of a Power System
transformer with all impedances referred to primary (low – Per unit impedance diagram can be drawn directly from the
voltage) side is illustrated in Figure 10. single line diagram of a power system by following the
The total impedance of the transformer referred to primary procedure given:
side in per unit is: a. Choose an appropriaye common kVA (or MVA) base
Z01 × kVAB for the whole system.
Z01 pu =
(kVB1 )2 × 1000 b. Consider the system to be divided into number of
Now, consider the transformer with all its impedances sections/regions/area by the transformers; choose an
referred to secondary side. The total impedance is appropriate kV base in one of the sections and
N2 2 (kVB2 )2 determine kV base of other sections in the ratio of
Z02 = Z01 × ( ) = Z01
(kVB1 )2 transformation
N1
c. Calculate per unit valyes if voltage and impedance for
Thus, the impedance of the transformer in per unit viewed
each section and connect them as per the topology of
from the secondary side,
Z02 × kVAB the single line diagram. The result is the single – phase
Z02 pu = per unit impedance diagram.
(kVB2 )2 × 1000 Examples:
Substituting, 1. Base Voltage = 1.1 kV. Base KVA = 106. What is base
(kVB2 )2 kVAB impedance?
Z02 pu = Z01 × 2
×
(kVB1 ) (kVB2 )2 × 1000 2. If the resistance in ohms is 5 Ω, find the per unit value.
kVAB Given base kVA = 10 and base kV = 11.
Z02 pu = Z01 ×
(kVB1 )2 × 1000 3. A single phase two – winding transformer is rated 25
This shows that the per unit impedance is the same kVA, 1100/440 volts, 50 Hz. The equivalent leakage
regardless of the side from which it is viewed. Thus, the impedance of the transformer referred to the low
equivalent circuit for the two – winding transfomer in which voltage side is 0.06 < 78° Ω. Using transformer
Z01 pu = Z02 pu = Zpu . rating as base values, determine the per – unit leakage
Mutual Impedance in Per Unit Between Lines of impedance referred to low voltage winding and
Different Voltage Levels referred to high voltage winding.
Consider two three – phase lines of different voltage levels 4. A single phase transformer is rated at 2.5 kVA, 11/0.4
running together, with mutual inducatcen Xm present as kV. If the leakage reactance is 0.96 Ω when referred
depicted in Figure 16. to low – voltage side, then determine its leakage
There is one value Xmpu (mutual reactance in per unit), reactance in per unit.
which will serve both lines. 5. For a 110/440 V, 25 kVA, single – phase transformer,
primary and secondary leakage reactances are 0.04 Ω
and 0.10 Ω respectively. Show that net pu leakage
reactance of the transfomer referred to LV side is same
as referred to HV side.
6. An 11/0.4 kV, 200 kVA transformer has an equivalent
impedance of 2.4+j12.4 Ω referred to HV side.
Figure 16 Two Parallel Lines of Same MVA but of Different Voltage Levels Determine the base values for the pu system, the per
Thus in terms of line 2, we have unit equivalent impedance and the equivalent
Xm Xm impedance rop at one – half rated current.
X mpu = = 7. Determine the per unit impedance of a transmission
X mB 1000 × kVB2
IB1 line having an impedance of 30 + j110 Ω on 100 MVA
Xm and 132 kV base voltage.
X mpu = × IB1
1000 × kVB2

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 Power System Analysis and Design

8. A 30 MVA, 11 kV generator has a reactance of 0.2 pu Find the per unit impedances of the star – connected
referred to its ratings as bases. Determine the per unit equivalent circuit for a base of 15 MVA, 66 kV base in
reactance when referred to base KVA of 50000 kVA the primary circuit.
and base kV of 33 kV. 14. Draw the per – unit impedance diagram of the system
9. The transformation ratio of the step – up transformer is shown in Figure 19. Assumed base values are 100
11/220 kV. The base MVA = 100 and base kV = 11 on MVA and 100 kV.
the generator side. What is the base kV on the
transmission side?
10. Three generators are rated as follows:
Generator 1: 100 MVA, 33 kV, reactance = 10%
Generator 2: 150 MVA, 32 kV, reactance = 8% Figure 19
Generator 3: 110 MVA, 30 kV, reactance = 12% G1: 50 MVA, 12.2 kV, xg1 = 0.10 pu
Choosing 200 MVA and 35 kV as base quantities, G2: 20 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg2 = 0.10 pu
compute per unit reactances of the three generators T1: 80 MVA, 12.2/132 kV, xT1 = 0.10 pu
referred to these base quantities. Draw reactance T2: 40 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT2 = 0.10 pu
diagram and mark per unit reactances. The three Load: 50 MVA, 0.8 pf lagging operating at 124 kV.
generators are connected to common bus – bars. 15. Figure 20 shows a sample power system network. Find
11. Figure 17 shows single line diagram of a single – phase the current supplied by the generator, the transmission
circuit. Using the base values of 3 kVA and 230 V, draw line current, the load current, the load voltage and the
the per – unit circuit diagram and determine the per – power consumed by the load.
unit impedances and per – unit source voltage. Also,
calculate the load current both in per unit and in
Amperes.

Figure 20
16. The single line diagram of a three – phase system is
shown in Figure 21. Select a common base of 100
MVA and 13.8 kV on the generator side. Draw per –
Figure 17
unit impedance diagram.
12. A 100 MVA, 33 kV, three phase generator has a
reactance of 15%. The generator is connected to the
motors through a transmission line and transformers
as shown. Motors have rated inputs of 40 MVA, 30
MVA and 20 MVA at 30 kV with 20% reactance each.
Draw the per – unit circuit diagram.

Figure 21
G: 90 MVA, 13.8 kV, xg = 18%
T1: 50 MVA, 13.8/220 kV, xT1 = 10%
Figure 18 T2: 50 MVA, 220/11 kV, xT2 = 10%
13. The three – phase ratings of a three – winding
T3: 50 MVA, 13.8/132 kV, xT3 = 10%
transformer are:
Primary – Y – connected, 66 kV, 15 MVA T4: 50 MVA, 132/11 kV, xT4 = 10%
Secondary – Y – connected, 13.2 kV, 10 MVA M: 80 MVA, 10.45 kV, xm = 20%
Tertiary – Δ – connected, 2.3 kV, 5 MVA Load: 57 MVA, 0.8 pf (lagging) at 10.45 kV.
Neglecting resistances, the leakage impedances are: xline1 = 50 Ω
ZPS = 0.08 pu on 15 MVA, 66 kV base xline2 = 70 Ω
ZPT = 0.10 pu on 15 MVA, 66 kV base 17. Figure 22 shows single – line diagram of a power
ZST = 0.09 pu on 10 MVA, 13.2 kV base system.

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 Power System Analysis and Design

given reference axis. This system of single phase

vector is known as “Zero Sequence System”.
Hence in mathematical form:
IR = IR0 + IR1 + IR2 = Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
IY = IY0 + IY1 + IY2 = Ib = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2
IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2 = Ic = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2
Figure 22
Note: Same could be shown in terms of voltages and
The ratings of the generators and transformers are impedances.
given below: Zero Sequence Component
G1: 25 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg1 = 0.2 pu
G2: 15 MVA, 6.6 kV, xg2 = 0.15 pu Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0
G3: 30 MVA, 13.2 kV, xg3 = 0.15 pu
T1: 30 MVA, 6.6 ∆ - 115 Y kV, xT1 = 0.1 pu IR0 = IY0 = IB0
T2: 15 MVA, 6.6 ∆ - 115 Y kV, xT2 = 0.1 pu
T3: Single – phase unit each rated 10 MVA, 6.9/69 kV,
xT3 = 0.1 pu
Draw the per – unit circuit diagram using base values Figure 24

of 30 MVA and 6.6 kV in the circuit of generator 1

The zero – phase sequence component is a single – phase
Symmetrical Component Method phasor system combining three equal phasors in phase, as
The method of illustrated in Figure 24 and represents the residual current
symmetrical or voltage present under fault conditions on a 3 – phase
components is very system with a fourth wire or earth return present. Clearly,
powerful approach the zero – phase sequence embraces the ground,
and has simplified therefore, in addition to the three lines, a fourth wire is
the procedure for present. Its presence arises only where fault to earth
solving problems on currents can return to the system or via an artificial neutral
unbalanced point provided to earth for delta system. In an earth fault,
polyphase systems. positive and negative phase sequences are also present.
The method was Operator “A”
proposed by CL Figure 23 Symmetrical Component Method – For convenience in notation and manipulation a phasor
Fortesque in the year Phasor Representation
representation is introduced. Through usage it has com be
1918. Although this method is valid for any number of known as the phasor A. Phasor A is one in which when
phases, the three – phase system is of main interest. multiplied to a vector, rotates through a 120° in the counter
Per Fortesque Theorem, any unbalanced system of three clockwise direction.
phase currents (or voltages) may be regarded as being Let:
composed of three separate sets of balanced vectors A = 1∠120°
namely:
A2 = 1∠240°
1. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having the same 3
A = 1∠360° = 1
phase sequence as the original unbalanced system of
Positive Sequence Component
vectors (positive sequence). These vectors are known
as “Positive Sequence System”.
2. A balanced set of 3 phase vectors having phase Ib1 = A2 Ia1
sequence which is opposite of the original unbalanced IY1 = A2 IR1
system of vectors (negative sequence). This balanced Ic1 = AIa1
system of 3 phase vectors are known as “Negative IB1 = AIR1
Sequence System”.
3. A set of three (3) single phase vectors which are equal Figure 25
in magnitude and having zero displacement and which
have the same 3 phase position with respect to any The positive – sequence component is that system in which
the phase or line currents or voltages attain a maximum in

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 Power System Analysis and Design

the same cyclic order as those in a normal supply, the Also, Ib2 = AIa2 and Ic2 = A2Ia2
conventional counter – clockwise rotation, which can be In matrix notation:
seen in Figure 25. A balanced system corresponding to Ia 1 1 1 Ia0
normal conditions contains positive phase sequence only. [Ib ] = [1 a2 a ] [Ia1 ]
It is also condition for a 3 – phase fault. Ic 1 a a2 Ia2
Negative Sequence Component and
Ia0 1 1 1 1 Ia
Ib2 = AIa2 [Ia1 ] = [1 a a2 ] [Ib ]
3
IY2 = AIR2 Ia2 1 a2 a I c
Some Facts about Sequence Currents
Ic2 = A2 Ia2 1. A balanced 3 phase system consists of positive
IB2 = A2 IR2 sequence components only; the negative and zero
sequence components being zero.
2. The presence of negative or zero sequence currents in
Figure 26
a 3 – phase system introduces unsymmetry and is
The negative – sequence component is that system in indicative of an abnormal condition of the circuit in
which the phasor still rotate counter – clockwise but attains which these components are found.
a maximum in reverse order. This sequence only arises 3. The vector sum of the positive and negative sequence
under conditions of unbalance as when an unsymmetrical currents of an unbalanced 3 phase system is zero. The
fault occurs. resultant solely consists of three zero sequence
Evaluation of the Components currents.
Expressing Symmetrical Components of IB and IC in terms Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0
of IA symmetrical components: 4. In a 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced system, the magnitude
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 of zero sequence components is one third of the
Ib = Ia0 + A2 Ia1 + AIa2 current in the neutral wire
Ic = Ia0 + AIa1 + A2 Ia2 1
I0 = In
Adding them up: 3
Ia + Ib + Ic = 3Ia0 + Ia1 (1 + A + A2 ) + Ia2 (1 + A In the absence of path through the neutral of a 3 – phase
+ A2 ) system, the neutral current is zero and the line currents
But 1 + A + A = 0 also 1 + A2 + A4 = 0
2 contain no zero sequence components. A delta connected
Therefore, load provides no path to the neutral and the line currents
Ia0 = 1/3(Ia + Ib + Ic ) flowing to delta connected load can contain no zero
Also, Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 sequence components.
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A and Multiply Ic by A2 5. In a 3 phase, unbalanced system, the magnitude of
negative sequence components cannot exceed that of
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
the positive sequence components. If the negative
AIb = AIa0 + A3 Ia1 + A2 Ia2
sequence components were the greater, the phase
A2 Ic = A2 Ia0 + A3 Ia1 + A4 Ia2
sequence of the resultant system would be reversed.
Adding them up,
6. The current of a single – phase load drawn from a 3 –
Ia + AIb + A2 Ic = Ia0 (1 + A + A2 ) + 3Ia1 + Ia2 (1 phase system comprises equal positive, negative and
+ A2 + A4 ) zero sequence components.
Ia1 = 1/3(Ia + AIb + A2 Ic ) Power associated with Sequence Components
Also, Ib1 = A Ia1 and Ic1 = AIa1
2
The total three phase power of a circuit can be expressed
Multiply Ia by 1, Multiply Ib by A2 and Multiply Ic by A in terms of the symmetrical components of the line currents
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 and the symmetrical components of the line – to – neutral
A2 Ib = A2 Ia0 + A4 Ia1 + A3 Ia2 voltages.
AIc = AIa0 + A2 Ia1 + A3 Ia2 P = 3(E0 I0 cos θ0 + E1 I1 cos θ1 + E2 I2 cos θ2 )
Adding them up, where θ0 is the angle between E0 and I0 , θ1 is the angle
Ia + AIb + A2 Ic = Ia0 (1 + A + A2 ) + 3Ia1 + Ia2 (1 between E1 and I1 and θ2 is the angle between E2 and I2 .
+ A2 + A4 ) The equation shows that the total power is the sum of the
Ia2 = 1/3(Ia + A2 Ib + AIc ) three components of power; but the power in one phase of
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 Power System Analysis and Design

an unbalanced circuit is not one third of the above 6. A balanced star connected load takes 90 A from a
expression, since each phase will contain components of balanced 3 phase, 4 wire supply. If the fuses in the Y
power resulting from zero sequence voltage and positive and B phases are removed, find the symmetrical
sequence current, etc. This power “between sequences” is components of the line currents:
generated in one phase and absorbed by the others, and a. before the fuses are removed
does not appear in the expression for total three phase b. after the fuses are removed
power. 7. A 3 φ, 4 wire system supplies loads which are
Only positive sequence power is developed by the unequally distributed in the three phases. An analysis
generators. This power is converted to negative sequence of the current flowing in R, Y and B lines shows that in
and zero sequence power by a circuit dissymmetry such as R line, positive phase sequence component is 200 ∠0°
occurs from a single line – to – ground or a line – to – line A and the negative phase sequence component is 100
fault. The unbalanced fault, unbalanced load, or other ∠60° A. The total observed current flowing back to the
dissymmetry in the circuit thus acts as the “generator” for supply in the neutral conductor is 300 ∠300° A.
negative sequence and zero sequence power. Calculate the currents in the three lines.
For reactive power: 8. One conductor of a 3 – phase line is open. The current
Q = 3(E0 I0 sin θ0 + E1 I1 sin θ1 + E2 I2 sin θ2 ) flowing to the Δ – connected load through the line R is
and for Apparent power: 10 A. With the current in line R as reference and if line
S = 3(E0 I0 + E1 I1 + E2 I2 ) B is open, find the symmetrical components of the line
Examples: currents.
1. In a 3 phase, 4 wire system, the currents in R, Y and B
lines under abnormal conditions of loading are as
under:
IR = 100∠30° A
IY = 50∠300° A
IB = 30∠180° A
Calculate the positive, negative and zero sequence
currents in the R – line and return current in the neutral
wire. Figure 27

2. The currents in a 3 – phase unbalanced system are: 9. Three resistors of 5Ω, 10Ω and 20Ω are connected in
IR = (12 + j6) A delta across the three phases of a balanced 100 V
IY = (12 − j12) A supply. What are the sequence components in the
IB = (−15 + j10) A resistors and in supply lines?
The phase sequence in RYB. Calculate the zero, 10. A delta connected load is supplied from a 3 – phase
positive and negative sequence components of the supply. The fuse in the B line is removed and current
currents. in the other two lines is 20 A. Find the symmetrical
3. The sequence voltages in the red phase are: components of line currents.
ER0 = 100 V 11. Three impedances of 5 – j10, 6 + j 5 and 3 + j15 ohms
ER1 = (200 − j100) V are connected in star to red, yellow and blue lines of a
ER2 = −100 V 3300 V, 3-phase, 3-wire supply. The phase sequence
is RYB. Calculate the line current IR.
Find the phase voltages.
12. A star connected load consists of three equal resistors
4. The zero and positive sequence components of red
of 1 Ω resistance. The load is assumed to be
phase are:
connected to an unsymmetrical 3 phase supply, the
ER0 = 0.5 − j0.866 V
line voltages are 200 V, 346 V and 400 V. Find the
ER1 = 2∠0° V
magnitude of current in any phase by the method of
If the phase voltage ER = 3∠0° V, find the negative
symmetrical components.
sequence component of red phase and the phase
13. The line currents in a 3 phase, 4 wire system are:
voltages EY and EB.
Ia = 300 + j400 A
5. The current from neutral to ground connection is 12 A.
Ib = 200 + j200 A
Calculate the zero phase sequence components in
Ic = 400 − j200 A
phases.

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 Power System Analysis and Design

Calculate the positive, negative and zero components Let us consider, 3 – phase star – delta transformer with
of all the line currents. primary side Y – connected and secondary side delta –
14. The sequence components of phase A currents are: connected as shown in Figure 28. Windings shown parallel
Ia0 = 0.47 + j1.49 A to each other, being wound on the same core, are
Ia1 = 18.4 cis − 31.6° A magnetically coupled. The polarity markings are indicated
Ia2 = 3.23 cis 168.2° A on each phase. The dots at the windings indicate the
Calculate the following: terminals which are positive at the same time with respect
a. The line current Ia to the undotted terminals. With phase marked as ABC on
b. The line current Ib the star side, there are number of ways of labelling the
c. The line current Ic phases a b c on the delta side. The labelling indicated on
15. If the currents of a wye – connected transformer are: the diagram corresponds to + 90° connection in which the
Ia = 10 cis − 30° A positive sequence phase a to neutral voltage (delta side)
Ib = 12 cis 215° A leads phase A to neutral voltage (star side) by 90° and so
Ic = 15 cis 82° A the line currents in a and A. This labelling is computationally
What is the phase b positive sequence component? convenient: The alternative way is to bale delta as b → a,
16. Three equal impedances (8+j6) ohms are connected in c → b and a → c, and thus we get standards Yd1, - 30°
wye across a 3 phase, 3 wire supply. The symmetrical connection. If the polarities on the delta side are also
components of the phase A voltage are reversed, we have standard Yd11, 30° connection.
Va0 = 40 + j0 V Double suffixes are used for line – to – line voltages and
Va1 = 220 + j28.9 V delta currents and single suffix are used for line currents
Va2 = −40 − j28.9 V and phase (line – to – neutral) voltages. Line – to – line
If there is no connection between the load neutral and transformation ratio is being taken to unity.
the supply neutral. Calculate the line currents Ia, Ib and The positive and negative sequence voltages on primary
Ic . (star) and secondary (delta) sides of the transformer are
Phase Shift in Star – Delta Transformers shown in Figure 29 while the positive and negative
The angular difference between phasors representing the sequence currents on the two sides of the transformer are
voltage induced between high voltage and low voltage shown in Figure 30.
terminals having same marking letters and the
corresponding neutral points (real or imaginary), expressed
about the high voltage side is known as phase
displacement (or shift) of the transformer. In a star – star or
delta – delta 3 – phase transformer, there is no phase shift
between the corresponding voltages of any phase to
neutral on either side. However, delta connected winding is
desirable in many power transformers for reasons of
harmonic elimination. As such most of the power
transformers are either star – delta or delta – star
connected. In such transformers, even under normal
operating condition, the phase – to – phase voltages and Figure 29 Positive Sequence Voltages in Y - Δ Transformer
phase – to – neutral voltages of HV side are displaced from
the corresponding voltages of LV side. The phase shift of
30° or – 30° occurs. similarly, the currents on two sides are
displaced. Generally, in short – circuit calculations the
phase shift needs not to be considered.

Figure 30 Negative Sequence Voltages in Y - Δ Transformer

Figure 28 Labelling of Star - Delta Transformer

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 Power System Analysis and Design

From these figures, it is observed that seen that for this condition the relative phase positions of
Va1 = jVA1 ; Ia1 = jIA1 ; Va2 = −jVA2 and Ia2 = −jIA2 the voltages applied to the stator of the motor are the same
In case of reversal of power flow, when delta acts as as for the negative sequence set. Thus, the field developed
primary and star as secondary, the voltage phasors do not by the set of negative sequence voltages will rotate in a
change but all current phasors reverse. The phasor direction opposite to that of the field developed by the set
relationship between star and delta voltages and currents of positive sequence voltages. Phase sequence should not
therefore remain the same. be confused with the rotation of phasors. For both sets of
Thus, we see that magnitude of phase shift is same for positive and negative sequence voltages, the standard
positive sequence components and negative sequence convention of counter – clockwise rotation if followed. The
components. However, the direction of phase shift in case zero sequence voltages are single phase voltages and,
of negative phase sequence components is reverse of that therefore, they give rise to an alternating field in space.
applicable to the positive sequence components (due to The positive and negative sequence sets are balanced
reverse phase sequence). The magnitude and direction of ones, if only positive and/or negative sequence currents are
phase shift depends on the transformer group and flowing, the phasor sum of each will be zero and there will
allocation of phase references. Phase shit of zero be no residual current. However, the zero sequence
sequence quantities need not be considered in star – delta components of currents in the three phases are equal in
transformers because the zero sequence currents do not magnitude and are in phase and, therefore, the residual
flow in lines on delta – connected side. current will be three times the zero – sequence current of
one phase. In case of an earth fault, the positive and
negative sequence currents flow through the ground and
ground wires.
Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks
Unbalanced Impedances and Admittances
The three star impedances of Figure 33(a), which form an
unbalanced load. Their sequence components are:
1
𝐙𝟎 = (Za + Zb + Zc )
3
1
Figure 31 Positive Sequence Currents in Y – Δ Transformer 𝐙𝟏 = (Za + aZb + a2 Zc )
3
1
𝐙𝟐 = (Za + a2 Zb + aZc )
3

Figure 32 Negative Sequence Currents in Y - Δ Transformer

Physical Significance of Sequence Components
A physical significance of sequence voltages can be well
understood by considering the fields developed on
application of such sequence voltages to the stator of a 3 –
phase ac machine (a synchronous machine or an induction
machine). If set of positive sequence voltages is applied to
the stator winding of a 3 – phase induction motor, a
magnetic field revolving in a certain direction will be
developed. Now, if two of the three phase supply leads to
the stator winding are interchanged, the direction of
revolution of the field developed would be reversed. It is Figure 33 Star – Connected System

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 Power System Analysis and Design

The sequence components of current through the The components of the three – phase line currents and the
impedances, and the sequence components of the line components of the three – phase voltage drops created by
voltages impressed across them are interrelated by the the mutual impedances will be interrelated by the following
following equations: equations:
1 1
E0 = (Ean + Ebn + Ecn ) = I0 𝐙𝟎 + I1 𝐙𝟐 + I2 𝐙𝟏 E0 = (Eaa′ + Ebb′ + Ecc′ )
3 3
1 = 2I0 𝐙𝐦𝟎 − I1 𝐙𝐦𝟐 − I2 𝐙𝐦𝟏
E1 = (Ean + aEbn + a2 Ecn ) = I0 𝐙𝟏 + I1 𝐙𝟎 + I2 𝐙𝟐
3 1
1 E1 = (Eaa′ + aEbb′ + a2 Ecc′ )
E2 = (Ean + a2 Ebn + aEcn ) = I0 𝐙𝟐 + I1 𝐙𝟏 + I2 𝐙𝟎 3
3
The above equations illustrate the fundamental principle = −I0 𝐙𝐦𝟏 − I1 𝐙𝐦𝟎 + 2I2 𝐙𝐦𝟐
1
that there is mutual coupling between sequences when the E0 = (Eaa′ + a2 Ebb′ + aEcc′ )
circuit constants are not symmetrical. As the equations 3
reveal, both positive and negative sequence current (as = −I0 𝐙𝐦𝟐 + 2I1 𝐙𝐦𝟏 − I2 𝐙𝐦𝟎
well as zero sequence current) create a zero – sequence If, as in Figure 34 (b), both self and mutual impedances are
voltage drop. If Za = Zb = Zc, the impedances are present in a section of a three – phase circuit, the
symmetrical, Z1 = Z2 = 0, and Z0 = Za. For this condition, symmetrical components of the three voltage drop across
E0 = I0 𝐙𝟎 the section are:
1
E1 = I1 𝐙𝟎 E0 = (Eaa′ + Ebb′ + Ecc′ )
E2 = I2 𝐙𝟎 3
= I0 (𝐙𝟎 + 2𝐙𝐦𝟎 ) + I1 (𝐙𝟐 − 𝐙𝐦𝟐 ) + I2 (𝐙𝟏 − 𝐙𝐦𝟏 )
and, as expected, the sequences are independent. If the 1
neutral point is not grounded in Figure 33 (a) I0 = 0 but E0 = E1 = (Eaa′ + aEbb′ + a2 Ecc′ )
I1Z2 + I2Z1 so that there is a zero – sequence voltage, 3
= I0 (𝐙𝟏 − 𝐙𝐦𝟏 ) + I1 (𝐙𝟎 − 𝐙𝐦𝟎 ) + I2 (𝐙𝟐 + 2𝐙𝐦𝟐 )
representing a neutral voltage shift, created by positive and 1
negative sequence current flowing through the unbalanced E0 = (Eaa′ + a2 Ebb′ + aEcc′ )
3
load. = I0 (𝐙𝟐 − 𝐙𝐦𝟐 ) + I1 (𝐙𝟏 + 2𝐙𝐦𝟏 ) + I2 (𝐙𝟎 − 𝐙𝐦𝟎 )
The previous Self – Impedances – Unbalanced Again, if both self and mutual impedances are symmetrical,
impedances can be resolved into symmetrical components, in all three phases,
although the impedances are vector operators, and not E0 = I0 (𝐙𝟎 + 2𝐙𝐦𝟎 ) = I0 Z0
rotating vectors as E1 = I1 (𝐙𝟎 − 𝐙𝐦𝟎 ) = I1 Z1
are three – phase E2 = I0 (𝐙𝟎 − 𝐙𝐦𝟎 ) = I2 Z2
voltages and Where Z0, Z1 and Z2 are, respectively, the impedance to
currents. Consider zero, positive, and negative sequence. For this condition,
equations also hold positive sequence currents produce only a positive
for unsymmetrical sequence voltage drop, etc. Z0, Z1 and Z2 are commonly
series line referred to as the zero sequence, positive sequence and
impedances, as negative sequence impedances. Note, however, that this is
shown in Figure 33 not strictly correct and that Z1, the impedance to positive
(b), where E0, E1 sequence currents, should not be confused with Z1, the
and E2 are Figure 34 Mutual Impedances
positive sequence component of self – impedances. Since
components of Ea, Eb and Ec, the voltage drops across the Z0, Z1 and Z2 are used more frequently than Z0, Z1, and Z2
impedances in the three phases. the shorter expression “zero – sequence impedance” is
Mutual Impedances between phases can also be resolved usually used to refer to Z0 rather than Z. For a circuit that
into components. Consider Zmbc of Figure 34(a), as has only symmetrical impedances, both self and mutual,
reference, then the sequences are independent of each other, and positive
1 sequence current produces only positive sequence voltage
𝐙𝐦𝟎 = (Zmbc + Zmca + Zmab )
3 drops, etc. Fortunately, except for unsymmetrical loads,
1 unsymmetrical transformer connections, etc., the three –
𝐙𝐦𝟏 = (Zmbc + aZmca + a2 Zmab )
3 phase system usually encountered are symmetrical (or
1
𝐙𝐦𝟐 = (Zmbc + a2 Zmca + aZmab ) balanced) and the sequences are independent.
3

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 Power System Analysis and Design

Admittances can be resolved into symmetrical components, Zc Za

Zca = Zc + Za +
and the components used to find the sequence Zb
components of the currents through a three – phase set of An equivalent delta for a star – connected, three – phase
line impedances, or star – connected loads, as functions of load with neutral grounded cannot be found, since zero –
the symmetrical components of the voltage drops across sequence current can flow from the line to the star load and
the impedances. return in the ground, but cannot flow from the line to any
1 delta arrangement.
𝐘𝟎 = (Ya + Yb + Yc )
3 Sequence Impedances of Power System Elements
1 The concept of impedances of various elements of power
𝐘𝟏 = (Ya + aYb + a2 Yc )
3 system (e.g. generators, transformers, transmission lines
1 etc.) to positive, negative and zero sequence currents is of
𝐘𝟐 = (Ya + a2 Yb + aYc )
3 considerable importance in determining the fault currents in
and a 3 – phase unbalanced system.
I0 = E0 𝐘𝟎 + E1 𝐘𝟐 + E2 𝐘𝟏 In unbalanced three phase analysis, each piece of
I1 = E0 𝐘𝟏 + E1 𝐘𝟎 + E2 𝐘𝟐 equipment will have three values of impedance – one
I2 = E0 𝐘𝟐 + E1 𝐘𝟏 + E2 𝐘𝟎 corresponding to each sequence current:
Note, however, that Y0 is not the reciprocal of Z0, Y1 is not i. Positive sequence impedance (Z1)
the reciprocal of Z1, and Y2 is not the reciprocal of Z2, unless ii. Negative sequence impedance (Z2)
Za = Zb = Zc; in other words, the components of admittance iii. Zero sequence impedance (Z0)
are n0ot reciprocals of the corresponding components of The following points may be noted:
impedance unless the three impedances (and admittances) a. In a 3 – phase balanced system, each piece of
under considerations are equal. equipment or circuit offers only one impedance – the
Star – Delta Conversion Equations one offered to positive or normal sequence current.
This is expected because of the absence of negative
and zero sequence currents in the 3 – phase balanced
system.
b. In a 3 – phase unbalanced system, each piece of
equipment or circuit will have three values of
impedance: positive sequence impedance, negative
sequence impedance and zero sequence impedance.
c. The positive and negative sequence impedances of
Figure 35 Star and Delta Equivalent Circuit
linear, symmetrical and static circuits (e.g.
If a delta arrangement of impedances, is to be converted to transmission lines, cables, transformers and static
an equivalent star, the following equations are applicable. loads) are equal and are the same as those used in the
1 Zab Zca analysis of balanced conditions. This is because
Za = = impedance of such circuits is independent of the phase
Ya Zab + Zbc + Zca
1 Zbc Zab order, provided the applied voltages are balanced. It
Zb = = may be noted that positive and negative sequence
Yb Zab + Zbc + Zca impedances of rotating machines (e.g. synchronous
1 Zca Zbc
Zc = = and induction motors) are normally different.
Yc Zab + Zbc + Zca d. The zero – sequence impedance depends upon the
When the delta impedances form a three – phase load, no path taken by the zero – sequence current. As this path
zero – sequence current can flow from the line to the load; is generally different from the path taken by the positive
hence, the equivalent star load must be left with neutral and negative sequence currents, therefore, zero
ungrounded. sequence impedance is usually different from positive
The reverse transformation, from the star impedances, to or negative sequence impedance.
the equivalent delta, is given by Sequence Impedances and Networks of Synchronous
Za Zb Machines
Zab = Za + Zb +
Zc Synchronous Machines is designed with symmetrical
Zb Zc windings and it induces emfs of positive sequence only.
Zbc = Zb + Zc +
Za The positive sequence generator impedance is the value
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 Power System Analysis and Design

found when positive sequence current flows due to an

imposed positive – sequence set of voltages. Neglecting
armature resistance, the positive sequence impedance of
the machine is
Z1 = jX d " (Sub transient)
Z1 = jX d ′ (Transient)
Z1 = jX d (Steady – state value)
With the flow of negative sequence currents in the stator, Figure 37 Sequence Network of Synchronous Machines
the net flux in the air gap rotates at opposite direction to that Figure 37(a) shows the positive sequence network; Figure
of the rotor. Therefore, the net flux rotates twice the 37(b) shows the negative sequence network and Figure
synchronous speed to the rotor. 37(c) shows the zero – sequence network. The following
In this case, field winding has no influence because field points must be considered:
voltage is associated with positive – sequence variables 1. The three sequence networks are independent.
and only the damper winding produces an effect in the 2. The neutral of the system is the reference for positive
quadrantal axis. Therefore, the negative sequence and negative sequence networks but ground is the
impedance is close to the positive sequence sub transient reference for the zero – sequence network.
impedance. 3. There is no voltage source in the negative or zero –
Z2 = jX d " sequence networks. Only the positive sequence
In a synchronous machine, no zero – sequence voltage is network has a voltage source.
induced. Zero sequence impedance of the machine is due 4. The grounding impedance is reflected in the zero –
to the flow of zero – sequence current. The flow of zero sequence network as 3Zn.
sequence currents creates three mmfs which are in time Sequence Impedances of Induction Machines
phase but are distributed in space phase by 120°. In rotating machines, the impedances of the three phase
Therefore, resultant air gap flux would be zero and there is sequences will generally be different. For example, in case
no reactance due to armature reaction. Hence, machine of induction machines, the positive sequence impedance is
offers a very small reactance due to the leakage flux. represented by the normal equivalent circuit of the
Therefore, the rotor windings present leakage reactance machine. Negative sequence stator currents produce a
only to the flow of zero sequence currents magnetic field rotating at the same speed as under normal
Z0 = jX l conditions but in opposite direction (against the rotor).
It may be worthwhile to mention here that any impedance Thus, the field rotates relative to rotor at nearly twice its
Ze in the earth connection of a star connected system has speed relative to the stator and many times its speed
the effect to introduce an impedance of 3Ze per phase. It is relative to the rotor under normal conditions. The currents
because the three equal zero – sequence currents, being induced in the rotor also go up considerably. By Lenz’s law,
in phase, do not sum to zero at the star point, but they flow they tend to reduce the magnetic field in a greater measure
back along the neutral earth connection. that under normal conditions, thereby bringing about a
Figure 36 shows the equivalent circuit of three phase reduction in the emfs induced by the magnetic field in the
unloaded synchronous generator with neutral impedance. stator windings thus, the stator currents increase and
therefore, the motor offers a low impedance to the negative
sequence than to positive sequence (Z2 < Z1) for the same
applied positive and negative sequence voltages and the
same speed and direction of rotation.
Because the zero sequence stator currents do not produce
a rotating field the equivalent circuit may be considered of
magnetizing and leakage impedances only. However, in
practice, the presence of third harmonic currents and fluxes
is an important consideration in the zero – sequence
analysis of induction machines.
Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines
Figure 36 Unloaded Synchronous Machine Transmission Lines are static devices and hence the phase
The sequence network of the synchronous machine is sequence has no effect on the impedance because
shown in Figure 37. currents and voltages encounter the same geometry of the

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 Power System Analysis and Design

line. Therefore, positive and negative sequence Z1 = Z2 = Z0 = Zl

impedances of transmission lines are equal. The equivalent circuit for the zero – sequence impedance
ZTL1 = ZTL2 depends on the winding connection and upon whether the
Zero sequence currents are in phase and flow through the neutrals are grounded.
phases (a, b, c conductors) to return through the grounded 1. Wye – Wye connection: Since neutral of both primary
neutral. The ground or any shielding wire are in the path of and secondary windings are isolated. Zero sequence
zero sequence and zero – sequence impedance ZTL0, which currents cannot flow.
includes the effect of the return path through the ground, is
different from Z1 and Z2.
Consider a 1 meter length of a three – phase line shown in
Figure 38. The ground surface is approximated to an
equivalent conductor located at the average distance Dn
from each of the three phases. The phase conductors carry Figure 39 Y - Y Connection
sequence currents with return paths through a grounded 2. Wye (grounded) – Wye connection: Primary neutral
neutral. is grounded and secondary neutral is isolated. Zero –
sequence current in the secondary is zero.
Consequently, zero – sequence current in the primary
is zero.

Figure 38 Three Phase Transmission Line Model Figure 40 YG - Y Connection

Ia0 + Ib0 + Ic0 + In = 0 3. Wye (grounded) – Wye (grounded) connection:
Since Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 then In = −3Ia0 Both neutrals are grounded and there is a path for the
1 1 1 1 zero – sequence current to flow in the primary and
λa0 = 2 × 10−7 (Ia0 ln ′
+ Ib0 ln + Ic0 ln + In ln ) secondary.
r D D Dn
Since Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0 and In = −3Ia0
Dn 3
λa0 = 2 × 10−7 Ia0 ln 2 wb − T/m
r′D
Since
λa0 Dn 3
L0 = = 0.2 ln 2 mH/km Figure 41 YG - YG Connection
Ia0 r′D 4. Wye (grounded) – Delta connection: In this case
λa0 D Dn neutral is grounded. Primary current can flow because
L0 = = 0.2 ln + 3 (0.2 ln ) mH/km
Ia0 r′ D there is zero sequence circulating current in the delta
Therefore, connected secondary and a ground return path for the
ZTL0 = Z1 + 3Zn wye connected primary. Also, note that no zero –
The zero – sequence impedance is about 2 to 4 times the sequence current can leave the delta terminals,
positive sequence impedance. therefore, there is an isolation between primary and
Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformers secondary side.
Two Winding Transformers
In power transformers, core losses and magnetizing current
are on the order of 1 % of rated value and hence
magnetizing branch is neglected. The transformer is
modelled with equivalent series leakage impedance.
Transformer is a static device and if the phase sequence is Figure 42 YG - D Connection
changed, leakage impedance will not change. Therefore, 5. Wye – Delta connection: In this case neutral is
positive, negative and zero sequence impedances are the isolated. As neutral is isolated, zero sequence current
same and equal to leakage impedance of the transformer cannot flow.

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 Power System Analysis and Design

Figure 43 Y - D Connection
6. Delta – Delta connection: In this case zero sequence
current circulate the delta connected windings, but no
current can leave the delta terminals.

Figure 44 D - D Connection
Three Winding Transformers
Three phase, three winding
have an additional tertiary Figure 48 Equivalent Zero Sequence Network for Three Winding Transformer
winding, and may be A particular point to keep in mind is that what is generally
represented by a single line available from measurements for a 3 – winding transformer
diagram corresponding to the would be the impedances across a pairs of windings. (ie.
ampere – turn balance, or ZPS, ZPT, and ZST), with the third winding on open circuit.
power balance. Thus, we could relate the values to the effective primary,
NP IP + NS IS + NT IT = 0 Figure 45 Three Winding
Transformer secondary and tertiary impedances (ZP, ZS and ZT) as
or VP IP + VS IS + VT IT = 0 follows, about the equivalent circuit.
which in per unit quantities would yield the common Zps = Zp + Zs
equation
Zpt = Zp + Zt
IP,pu + IS,pu + IT,pu = 0
Zst = Zs + Zt
This may be represented
The values of ZP, ZS and ZT can then be determined as
by three reactances
Zp = 0.5(Zps + Zpt − Zst )
connected in T, giving the
general single line diagram Zs = 0.5(Zps + Zst − Zpt )
for fault studies for the 3 – Zt = 0.5(Zpt + Zst − Zps )
winding transformer as Circuit Figure 46 Equivalent Transformer As in the case of the 2 – winding transformer, 3Zn is
for Three Winding Transformer
seen in Figure 46. included wherever earthing of a neutral point is done
The positive sequence and negative sequence diagrams through an impedance Zn.
would have a direct connection to the T connection of Sequence Impedance and Networks of Load
reactances from P, S and T. For a star – connected load with isolated neutral, there is
The zero – sequence network would again be built up from no path for the flow of zero sequence currents and the star
the single winding arrangements described and would yield point of the load will not be connected to the reference bus,
the single line diagrams given in Figure 47 and 48. as shown in Figure 49. Thus, the zero – sequence
impedance is infinite beyond the neutral point. This fact is
indicated by an open circuit in the zero – sequence network
between the neutral of the star – connected load and the
reference bus in Figure 49 (b).

Figure 47 Equivalent Zero Sequence Network of Three Winding Transformer Figure 49

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 Power System Analysis and Design

When the star point of the load is grounded, there will be then negative and zero sequence networks are required
continuity of the load circuit to ground and the star point of also.
the load, n will be connected to the reference bus. The A power system network consists of synchronous
current flowing through the neutral under unbalanced machines, transformers and lines. Each component is
condition of system is zero sequence current. If the neutral converted to its equivalent sequence network. The positive
point of load is grounder through a reactor of impedance Zn, sequence network is drawn by examining one line diagram
the zero – sequence voltage drop caused by flow of current of the power system. In fact, the single line reactance
3Ia0 through Zn will be the same as if current Ia0 flows diagram, as employed for calculation of symmetrical fault
through 3Zn. Thus, impedance 3Zn is introduced between current, is the positive sequence diagram of the power
neutral point n and the reference bus, when representing system.
on the zero – sequence network. The negative sequence network is quite same as the
positive sequence network – only generators or rotating
machines may have different sequence impedances and
the negative sequence network does not contain any
voltage source. The negative sequence impedances for
transmission lines and transformers are the same as the
positive sequence impedances. In many cases, only one
sequence network is drawn for positive and negative
sequence representation. The reference bus for positive
Figure 50 Zero Sequence Network for Star - Connected Load with Neutral and negative sequence networks is the system neutral any
Grounded through Impedance Zn
The zero – sequence impedance of the load is equal to its impedance connected between a neutral and ground is not
positive or negative sequence impedance if the load is included in the positive and negative sequence networks as
balanced. neither of these sequence currents can flow through such
The positive sequence network is composed of positive an impedance.
sequence impedances only and since positive sequence Zero sequence subnetworks for different elements of a
currents do no flow to ground therefore neutral point n and power system can be easily combined to form complete
the ground are at same potential. Thus, impedance inserted zero sequence network. The zero – sequence network
between neutral and ground has no effect on positive does not contain any voltage source. Any impedance
sequence currents. included in generator or transformer neutral becomes three
times its value in a zero – sequence network.
All the sequence impedances are expressed in per unit
values and referred to the same base MVA and base kV.
Examples:
1. Draw the three sequence networks for the
transmission network shown in Figure 52.

Figure 51 Positive/Negative Sequence Network for Star - Connected Load

The negative sequence impedance of a static load is the Figure 52
same as positive sequence impedance and so the negative 2. Draw the positive sequence network of the power
sequence network is the same as the positive sequence system in Figure 53.
network. (Figure 51)
Formation of Sequence Networks of Power Systems
Sequence networks of power systems are very useful for
Figure 53
computing unsymmetrical faults at different points of a
3. A 50 MVA, 11 kV, synchronous generator has a sub
power system network. The knowledge of positive
transient reactance of 20%. The generator supplies
sequence network is necessary for load studies on power
two motors over a transmission line with transformers
system. If the stability studies involve unsymmetrical faults,
at both ends as shown below. The motors have rated
inputs of 30 and 15 MVA, both 10 kV, with 25% sub
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 18
 Power System Analysis and Design

transient reactance. The three – phase transformers T2 : xt2 = 0.10 pu

are both rated 60 MVA, 10.8/121 kV, with leakage Line 1 : xl10 = 0.7 pu
reactance of 10% each. Assume zero – sequence Line 2 : xl20 = 0.7 pu
reactances for the generator and motors of 6% each.
Current limiting reactors of 2.5 ohms each are
connected in the neutral of the generator and motor
No. 2. The zero – sequence reactance of the
transmission line is 300 ohms. The series reactance of
the line is 100 Ω. Draw the positive, negative and zero Figure 59
sequence networks. 9. Draw the positive, negative and zero – sequence
networks of the sample power system shown in Figure
60.

Figure 54
4. Draw the zero – sequence network of the power
system in Figure 55.

Figure 60
10. Draw the Zero sequence network. Data is given as:
G1 : 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg10 = 0.05 pu
Figure 55 G2 : 100 MVA, 11 kV, Xg20 = 0.05 pu
5. Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence T1 : 100 MVA, 11/220 kV, XT1 = 0.06 pu
component of the power system in Figure 56. T2 : 100 MVA, 220/11 kV, XT2 = 0.07 pu
Line 1 : XL10 = 0.3 pu
Line 2 : XL20 = 0.3 pu

Figure 56
6. Draw the zero – sequence network of the sample
Figure 61
power system in Figure 57. 11. Draw the zero – sequence network as shown in Figure 62.

Figure 57
7. Draw the zero – sequence network of the sample
power network in Figure 58.
Figure 62
Bus Admittance Matrix
The matrix equation for relating the nodal voltages to the currents
Figure 58
that flow into and out of a network using the admittance values of
8. Draw the zero – sequence network of the sample circuit branches is called Admittance Matrix.
power system shown in Figure 59. Data are given as: It is used to form the network model of an interconnected power
G : xg0 = 0.05 pu system where:
M : xm0 = 0.03 pu - Nodes represent substation bus bars
T1 : xt1 = 0.12 pu - Branches represent transmission lines and transformers

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 Power System Analysis and Design
- Injected currents are the flows from generator and loads Applying KCL to the indepent nodes 1, 2, 3, 4:
I1 = y10 V1 + y12 (V1 − V2 ) + y13 (V1 − V3 )
I2 = y20 V2 + y12 (V2 − V1 ) + y23 (V2 − V3 )
0 = y23 (V3 − V2 ) + y13 (V3 − V1 ) + y34 (V3 − V4 )
0 = y34 (V4 − V3 )
Let:
Y11 = (y10 + y12 + y13 ); Y22 = (y20 + y12 + y23 )
Figure 63 The Bus Admittance Matrix
Y33 = (y13 + y23 + y34 ); Y44 = y34
Formation of YBUS using Nodal Method or Inspection Method Y12 = Y21 = −y12 ; Y13 = Y31 = −y13
Given the power system model in Figure 64. Y23 = Y32 = −y23 ; Y34 = Y43 = −y34
For simplicity, resistances of the lines and the impedances shown The node equation reduces to
are expressed in per – unit in a common MVA base. Now the I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2 + Y13 V3 + Y14 V4
impedances are converted to admittance: I2 = Y21 V1 + Y22 V2 + Y23 V3 + Y24 V4
1 1 I3 = Y31 V1 + Y32 V2 + Y33 V3 + Y34 V4
yik = = I4 = Y41 V1 + Y42 V2 + Y43 V3 + Y44 V4
zik rik + jxik
which can be written in matrix form:
I1 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 V1
I2 Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24 V2
[ ]=[ ][ ]
I3 Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34 V3
I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 V4
or in general
Ibus = Ybus Vbus
where
𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 – vector of bus voltages
𝐼𝑏𝑢𝑠 – vector of injected currents (the current is positive when
flowing into the bus and negative when flowing out of the bus)
𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 – admittance matrix
Diagonal element of Y matrix is known as self – admittance or
short circuit driving point admittance
n

Yii = ∑ yik , j ≠ i
k=0
Off – diagonal element of Y matrix is known as short circuit
Figure 64 Power System Model transfer admittance or mutual admittance
Using source transformation, all generator or voltage sources are Yik = Yki = −yik
converted to current source and injects currents to their Examples:
respective buses. Node 0 (which is normally ground) is taken as 1. Determine the admittance matrix for the single line diagram
reference. in Figure 66.

Figure 66
2. Formulate the admittance matrix for Figure 67.

Figure 65 Admittance Diagram Figure 67

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 Power System Analysis and Design
3. Consider the network shown in Figure 68. The bus number source power is injected. Figure 70 shows the Graph theory
and impedances are marked. Determine the bus admittance process.
matrix of the network. A connected subgraph containing all the nodes of the original
graph but no closed path is called a tree. The tree branches form
a sub – set of the elements of the connected graph. The number
of branches b required to form a tree is equal to the number of
buses in the network (the total number of nodes, including the
reference node, is one more than the number of buses),
b=m−1=n
Figure 68 The elements of the original graph not included in the tree, form
4. Draw the reactance diagram of the system whose bus a subgraph which may not necessarily be connected, is known
admittance matrix is given in Figure 69. First, second, third as co – tree. The co – tree is a complement of a tree. The
and fourth row refer to buses 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. elements of a co – tree are called the links. The number of links l
of a connected graph with e elements is given as
l=e−b=e−m+1
A tree and the corresponding co – tree of graph is shown in Figure
70.
If a link is added to the tree, the corresponding graph contains
one closed path called a loop. Thus, a graph has as many loops
Figure 69 as the number of links.
Formation of YBUS by Singular Transformation The number of tree branches gives the number of independent
The Ybus can be formulated by singular transformation given by voltages. For any system, the number of tree branches is equal
graph theoretical approach. to the number of buses. The number of links gives the number of
Graph Theory independent current variables.
In order to describe the geometrical structure of the network, it is Primitive Network
sufficient to replace the different power system components (of A network is constituted by many branches and each branch
the corresponding power system network) such as generators, consists of active and/or passive elements. Figure 71 (a) and 81
transformers and transmission lines etc. by a single element (b) show a network branch, containign both active and passive
irrespective of the characteristics of the power system elements in impedance and admittance representation. The
components. The geometrical interconnection of these line impedance form is a voltage source in series with an impedance,
elements (of the correseponding power system network) is known while in admittance form is a current source in parallel with an
as a graph (rather linear graph as the graph means always a admittance.
linear graph). Each source and the shunt admittance across it are
taken as a single element.

Figure 70 Graph Theory Process

The terminals of the elements are called the nodes. A graph is
connected if, and only if, there exists a path between every pair
of nodes. A single edge or a single node is a connected graph. If
Figure 71 Representation of Network Element
every edge of the graph is assigned a direction, the graph is
A set of unconnected elements is known as primitive network.
termed as an oriented graph. The direction is generally assigned Network Variable in Bus Frame of Reference
as to coincide with the assumed positive direction of the current Linear network graph is quite helpful in the systematic assembly
in the element. of a network model. The main problem in the derivation of
Power networks are so structured that out of m total nodes, one mathematical modesl for large and complex power networks is to
node (normally describe by 0) is always at the ground potential select a minimum or zero redundancy (lineary indepenedent) set
and the remaining n = (m – 1) nodes are the buses at which the of current or voltage variables which is sufficient to provide the
information about all element voltages and currents. One set of

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 Power System Analysis and Design
such variables are the b tree voltages. It can easily be seen by 2. The admittances between the various buses in a power
using topological reasoning that these variables constitue a non system are given in Table 1. Obtain the YBUS matrix.
– redundant set. The knowledge of b tree voltages allows us to Buses Admittances in pu
compute all element voltages and therefore, all bus currents 1–2 0.10
assuming all element admittances being known. 1–4 0.20
Bus Incidence Matrix 2–3 0.25
If “G” is a graph with “n” nodes and “e” elements, then the matrix 2–4 0.50
̅ whose “n” rows correspond to the “n” nodes and “e” columns
A 3–1 0.40
correspond to the “e” elements, edges, is known as an incidence 4–3 0.50
matrix. The matrix elements are: Table 1
aik = 1 if ith element is incident to and oriented away from kth bus. 3. The impedance data for a sample power system is given in
= -1 if the ith element is incident to but oriented towards the Table 2. Find the admittance matrix of the system in bus
kth bus. frame of reference.
= 0 if ith element is not incident to the kth bus. Line Charging
The dimension of this matrix is n x e and its rank is less than n. Bus Code Impedance
Admittance
Any node of the connected graph can be selected as the 1–2 0.08 + j0.24 0.0
reference node and then the variables of the remaining n – 1 1–3 0.02 + j0.06 0.0
nodes which are termed as buses can be measured with respect 2–3 0.06 + j0.18 0.0
to this assigned reference node. The matrix A obtained from the Table 2
incidence matrix A ̅ by deleting the reference row (corresponding 4. Find the YBUS of the 4 – bus power system shown in Figure
to the reference node) us termed as reduced or bus incidence 73, if the line impedances are given in Table 3.
matrix (the number of buses in the connected graph is equal to n Line (bus to bus) Impedance
– 1 where n is the number of nodes). The order of the matrix is (n 1–2 0.15 + j0.6
– 1) x e and its rows are linearly independe with rank equal to (n 1–3 0.1 + j0.4
– 1). 1–4 0.15 + j0.6
The matrix form is rectangular and, therefore, singular. 2–3 0.05 + j0.2
Formulation of YBUS and ZBUS 3–4 0.05 + j0.2
V = AVbus Table 3
but YV = I + J thus
I + J = YAVbus
AT I + AT J = AT YAVbus
and AT I = 0 and AT J = JBUS therefore
JBUS = AT YAVbus
Simplifying,
Ybus = AT YA
The above equation suggests the formulation of Ybus. Since
matrix A is singular, AT YA is a singular transformation of Y. The
bus incidence matrix can be obtained through a computer
program. Standard matrix multiplication and matrix transpose sub
– routines can be employed to compute YBUS. ZBUS is the inverse
of YBUS.
Examples:
1. Figure 72 shows the system data and one line diagram of a
4 bus system. The shunt admittances at all buses are
negligible. Find YBUS if:
Figure 73 4 Bus Power System
a. Broken lines are neglected
5. Consider the three bus system given in Figure 74. All lines
b. Broken lines are included
are assumed to have the following data:
R = 0.075 Ω/km/phase
XL = 0.511 Ω/km/phase
XC = 0.311 MΩ/km/phase
L1 = 190 km
L2 = 95 km
L3 = 125 km.
All lines are assumed electrically short. Find YBUS matrix for
Figure 72 this system.

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 Power System Analysis and Design
In matrix form
ypq
Ip ypq −
[ ]=[ y a ] [Vp ]
Iq pq y pq Vq
−
a a2
An equivalent π – model can be obtained for a tap changing
transformer.
ypq ypq
Ypp = ypq = ypq − +
Figure 74 a a
6. The parameters of a 4 bus system is given in Table 4. Draw ypq a−1
Ypp = +( ) ypq
the network and find the the bus admittance matrix. a a
ypq ypq a−1
Line Charging Yqq = 2 = + ( 2 ) ypq
Bus Code Impedance a a a
Admittance
1–2 0.2 + j0.8 j0.02
2–3 0.3 + j0.9 j0.03
2–4 0.25 + j1.0 j0.04
3–4 0.2 + j0.8 j0.02
1–3 0.1 + j0.4 j0.01
Table 4
Tap Changing Transformers
The tap – changing transform gives some control of the power
network by changing the voltages and current magnitudes and
Figure 76 Equivalent Pi Circuit Model
angles by small amounts:
Examples:
- The flow of real power along a network branch is controlled The one – line diagram of a four – bus system is shown in Figure
by the angular difference of the terminal voltages 77. Reactances are given in per – unit on a common MVA base.
- The flow of reactive power along a network branch is Transformers T1 and T2 have tap settings of 0.8:1 and 1.25:1,
controlled by the magnitude difference of the terminal respectively. Obtain the bus admittance matrix.
voltages
- Real and reactive powers can be adjusted by voltage –
regulating transformers and by phase – shifting transformers
When tap ratio is at the nominal value (α = 1), the transformer is
represented by a series admittance ypq.
When tap ratio is off – nominal, the admittance is different from
both sides of the transformer.
Figure 77
Bus Impedance Matrix
The Bus Impedance matrix is the inverse of the Bus Admittance
Matrix.
Formation of Bus Impedance Matrix by Direct Method
Figure 75 Tap Changing Transformer
Figure 75 shows a transformer with admittance ypq in series with Zbus = Ybus −1
an ideal transformer representing the off – nominal tap ratuo 1:a. The following are the notes to remember when doing direct
Bus t is a fictitious bus between the ratio and admittance of the method of forming the impedance matrix:
transformer. 1. inversion of the bus admittance matrix is a n3 effort
Vq 2. for small and medium size networks, direct building of the
Vt = matrix is less effort
a 3. for large size networks, sparse matrix programming with
Ip = −aIq
Gaussian Elimination technique is preferred
The current Ip is given by
Ip = ypq (Vp − Vt )
Vq
Ip = ypq (Vp − )
a
1 Vq
Iq = − ( ypq (Vp − ))
a a
ypq ypq
Iq = − V + V Figure 78 Impedance Matrix Formation
a p a2 q

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 Power System Analysis and Design
Formation of Bus Impedance Matrix using Graph Theory o the new off – diagonal row and column filled with a copy
Graph Theory approach can be use in determining the bus of row q minus row p and column q minus column p
impedance matrix of a given n x n power system by just following o the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with zpq +
4 simple rules: Zpp + Zqq − 2Zpq
- perform Kron reduction on the m+1 row and column

Figure 79 Adding a Line

Rule 1: Addition of a branch to the reference
- start with existing network matrix [mxm] Figure 83 Addition of linking branch to an existing branch
- create a new network matrix [(m+1)x(m+1)] with Rule 4: Addition of a linking branch to reference
o the new off – diagonal row and column filled with (0) - connecting to existing bus p and reference
o the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with the - start with existing network matrix [mxm]
element impedance zq0 - create a new network matrix [(m+1)x(m+1)] with
o the new off – diagonal row and column filled with a copy
of the negative of row p and the negative of column p
o the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with zp0 +
Zpp
- perform Kron reduction on the m+1 row and column

Figure 80 Addition of a branch to the reference

Rule 2: Addition of a branch to an existing bus
- connecting to existing bus p
- start with existing network matrix [mxm]
- create a new network matrix [(m+1)x(m+1)] with
o the new off – diagonal row and column filled with a copy
of row p and column p
o the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with the Figure 84 Addition of linking branch to reference
element impedance zpq plus the diagonal impedance KRON REDUCTION
Zpp - Eliminating a node from the system
old
V Zbus[nxn] ∆Z[1xn] Ibus[1xn]
[ bus[1xn] ] = [ T ][ ]
0 ∆Z [nx1] Zll[1x1] Il
old
Vbus[1xn] = Zbus[nxn] Ibus[1xn] + ∆Z[1xn] Il
T
0 = ∆Z [nx1] Ibus[1xn] + Zll[1x1] Il
∆Z T [nx1]
Il = I
Zll[1x1] bus[1xn]
∆ZT [nx1] ∆Z[1xn]
Figure 81 Addition of branch to an existing branch old
Vbus[1xn] = Zbus[nxn] Ibus[1xn] + Ibus[1xn]
Zll[1x1]
old
∆Z T ∆Z
Vbus[1xn] = [Zbus[nxn] + ] Ibus
Zll

Figure 82 Closing a Loop

Rule 3: Addition of a linking branch to an existing branch
- connecting to existing buses p and q
- start with existing network matrix [mxm]
Figure 85 KRON Reduction
- create a new network matrix [(m+1)x(m+1)] with
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 Power System Analysis and Design
Examples: 2. Help in determining the best location as well as optimal
1. Determine ZBUS for the network shown in Figure 86 whose capacity of the proposed generating stations, substations
impedances are given in per unit. and new lines.
3. Very important for planning existing system as well as its
future expansion.
4. For optimized opertation of an interconnected system some
informations, such as bus – bar voltage levels, machine
excitation, tap – change and reactive compensation needs
are required which are provided in the study.
For many years, load flow studies were carried out by means of
speacial purpose analog computer, called the ac network
analyzed, but the advent of high – speed digital computers has
tended to replace their use for large system studies. This change
from the ac network analyzer to digital computer has resulted in
greater flexibility, economy, accuracy and quicker operation.
Figure 86
However, for system studies or more local character, the network
2. The bus impedance matrix of a network is given as:
0.183 0.078 0.141 analyzer is still used, particularly in the initial planning stages.
Zbus = j (0.078 0.148 0.106) Network equations can be formulated in a variety of forms.
0.141 0.106 0.267 However, node voltage method is commonly used for power
One of the lines between buses 1 and 3 with impedance system analysis. The network equations which are in the nodal
j0.56 is removed by the simultaneous opening of breakers admittance form results in complex linear simulataneous
at both ends of the line. Determine the new bus impedance algebraic equations in terms of node currents. The load flow
matrix. results give the bus voltage magnitude and phase angles and
Power Flow Analysis hence the power flow through the transmission lines, line losses
A succesful power system operation under normal balanced three and power injection at all the buses.
– phase steady – state conditions requires the following: The main advantages attributed to the use of nodal voltage
1. Generation supplies the demand (load) plus losses. methods are:
2. Bus voltage magnitudes remain close to rated values. 1. Number of equations is smaller
3. Generators operate within specified real and reactive power 2. System may be described in terms of its node numbers and
limits. the interconnecting impedances
4. Transmission lines and transformers are not overloaded. 3. Parallel branches can be dealt with separately without
In a 3 – phase AC system, active and reactive power flow from adding to the number of equations
the generating stations to the load through different network 4. Cross – over branches (if present) do not introduce any
buses and branches (transmission lines). Active power P and difficulties in respect of the formation of admittance matrix.
reactive power Q is supplied by the generator buses. Active The mathematical formulation of the load flow problem results in
power is drawn by loads from load buses. Reactive power Q is a system of nonlinear equations. These equations can be written
supplied or drawn from the load buses by shunt compensation in terms of either the bus admittance matrix or bus impedance
elements (shunt capacitors, reactor elements, static VAR matrix. The former is more amenable to digital computer analysis,
system). The flow of active and reactive power is called the power because of the ease with which the bus admittance matrix could
flow or load flow. The voltages of buses and their phase angles be formed and modified for network changes in subsequent
are affected by the power flow and vice versa. cases. Further this approach (bus admittance matrix) is the most
Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are economical from the point of view of computer time and memory
essential of power system analysis and design. Load flow studies requirements.
are necessary for planning, economic operation, scheduling and Bus Classification
exchange of power between utilities. Load flow study is also A bus is a node at which one or many lines, one or many loads
required for may other analysis such as transient stability, and generators are connected. It is not necessary that all of these
dynamic stability, contigency and state estimation. It is a be connected at every bus. The bus is indicated by a vertical line
systematic mathematical approach for determination of various at which several components are connected. Each bus has four
bus voltages, their phase angles, active and reactive power flow state variables: voltage magnitude, voltage phase angle, real
through different branches, generators and loads under steady power injection and reactive power injection. In a load flow
state conditions. problem two out of these four quantities are specified and the
Why Power Flow Study? remaining two are required to be determined through the solution
1. Help in determining the best size as well as the most of equations. Depending on which quantities have been specified,
favourable locations for power capacitors both for power the buses are classified into three categories as seen in Table 5.
factor improvement and also for raising the network Slack bus: Also known as swing bus and taken as reference
voltages. where the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are

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 Power System Analysis and Design
specified. This bus provide the additional real and reactive power From the definition of off – diagonal and driving point admittance
to supply the transmission losses, since these are unknown until the equation could be simplified as
n
the final solution is obtained. The generators at the swing bus
supply the difference of the specified active power to be injected Ii = Yii Vi + ∑ Yik Vk
into the system at other buses and the total system output plus k=1
k≠i
losses. There can be more than one slack bus in a given network. The real and reactive power injected at bus i is
Load buses: Also known as PQ bus. At these buses the real and
Pi − jQ i = Vi ∗ Ii
reactive powers are specified. The magnitude and phase angle Pi − jQ i
of the bus voltage are unknown until the final solution is obtained. Ii =
It is required to specifity only P and Q at such a bus as at a load Vi ∗
n
bus voltage can be permitted to vary within the permissible Pi − jQ i
= Y V + ∑ Yik Vk
values. Also phase angle of the voltage is not very important for Vi ∗ ii i
k=1
the load. k≠i
Voltage controlled buses: Also known as generator buses or n
regulated buses of PV buses. At these buses, the real power and 1 Pi − jQ i
Vi = [ − ∑ Yik Vk ]
voltage magnitude are specified. The phase angles of the Yii Vi ∗
k=1
voltages and reactive power are unknown until the final solution k≠i
𝑛
is obtained. The limits on the value of reactive power are also
specified. 𝑃𝑖 = |𝑉𝑖 | ∑|𝑌𝑖𝑘 | |𝑉𝑘 | cos(𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖 )
Specified Unknown 𝑘=1
Bus type 𝑛
quantities quantities
Slack bus V, δ P, Q 𝑄𝑖 = −|𝑉𝑖 | ∑|𝑌𝑖𝑘 | |𝑉𝑘 | sin(𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖 )
Load bus P, Q V, δ 𝑘=1
These equations are known as static load flow equations (SLFE).
Voltage
P, V Q, δ These equations are nonlinear equations and therefore, only
Controlled bus
Table 5
numerical solution is possible. For each of the n system buses we
Need and Selection of Slack Bus have two such equations giving a total of 2n equations (n real flow
The slack bus is selected based on the following conditions: power equations and n reactive power flow equations). Each bus
1. Maximum Power is characterized by four variables, P, Q, V and δ giving a total of
2. Location near Center of Gravity of Load 4n variables. To obtain a solution it is necessary to specify two
3. Costly Generation variables at each bus so that the number of unknowns is reduced
Steps involved in Power Flow Solution to 2n. Evidently we should specify the variables over which we
The steps followed in power flow solution are: have physical control. The choice is influenced somewhat by the
1. Representation of the system by one – line diagram. The devices which are connected to a particular bus. depending
2. Determination of impedance diagram. upon the quantities specified, the buses can be classified into
3. Formulation of power flow equations. three categories (slack, swing or load).
4. Solution of power flow equations. The load buses are most common in power system. At these
Formulation of Load Flow Equations and Methods of Solution buses, P and Q are known because PD and QD are known from
the load forecast data and PG and QG are either zero (no
generation at these buses) or specified. At the generator buses
PG and V are specified as these can be controlled by governor
control and excitation control. P is known because P D is known
from load forecast data. Voltage at the slack bus is usually
specified to be equal to 1 pu as the voltages throughout the
system must be close to 1 pu. δ of the slack bus is taken as zero
because we consider it as the reference phasor.
The solution to the power flow problem consists in assuming a
certain initial bus load configuration, specifiyin the 2n known
variabls and using some numerical method of determination of
remaining 2n variables for the system with known admittance
matrix. The final solution must satisy some constraints such as:
Figure 87 (i) voltage magnitude at different buses must be within limits (ii)
Consider i – th bus of a power system as shown in Figure 87. the real and reactive generator power at different buses must be
Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent π within the minimum and maximum limits and (iii) total generation
models.𝑦𝑖0 is the total charging admittance at bus i. must be equal to total demand plus loses. In addition, from the
Ii = (yi0 + yi1 + yi2 … yin )Vi − yi1 V1 − yi2 V2 … yin Vn

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 26

 Power System Analysis and Design
point of view of system stability, δ cannot exceed a certain Real power loss in the line (i→k) is the sum of the real power
magnitude. flows from bus k to i and bus i to k
It has been demonstrated that load flow equations being PLossik = Pik + Pki
essentially nonlinear algebraic equations, have to be solved PLossik = −|Vi |2 |Yik | cos θik
through iterative numericl techniques. + |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik − δi + δk )
At the cost of solution accuracy, it is possible to linearize power − |Vk |2 Yik cos θik
flow equations by making suitable assumptions and + |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik − δk + δi )
approximations so that fast and explicit solutions become PLossik = −(|Vi |2 + |Vk |2 )Yik cos θik
possible. + 2|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos θik cos(δi − δk )
Computation of Slack Bus Power PLossik = 2|Vi ||Vk | cos(δi − δk ) − |Vi |2
n
− |Vk |2 ]|Yik | cos θik
Ss∗ = Ps − jQ s = Vs∗ ∑ Ysk Vk LetYik = Gik + jBik Gik = |Yik | cos θik Bik = |Yik | sin θik
k=1 PLossik = [2|Vi ||Vk | cos(δi − δk ) − |Vi |2 − |Vk |2 ]Gik
Computation of Line Flow and Losses Reactive power loss in the line (i→k) is the sum of the reactive
Consider the line connecting buses I and k. the line and power flows from bus k to i and bus i to k
transformer at each end can be represented by a circuit with
QLossik = Q ik + Q ki
series admittance yik and two shunt admittances yoik and yoki.
QLossik = |Vi |2 |Yik | sin θik
− |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δi + δk )
o
− |Vi |2 |yik | + |Vk |2 |Yik | sin θik
− |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δk + δi )
o
− |Vk |2 |yik |
2 2
QLossik = (|Vi | + |Vk | )Bik
− |Vi ||Vk ||Yik |[sin(θik − δi + δk )
Figure 88 + sin(θik − δk + δi )]
′ o
Iik = Iik + Iik − (|Vi |2 |yiko o
| + |Vk |2 |yik |)
′
Iik = (Vi − Vk )yik 2 2
QLossik = (|Vi | + |Vk | )Bik − 2|Vi ||Vk |Bik cos(δi − δk )
0 o
Iik = Vi yik − (|Vi |2 |yiko o
| + |Vk |2 |yik |)
o
Iik = (Vi − Vk )yik + Vi yik 2 2
QLossik = [(|Vi | + |Vk | ) − 2|Vi ||Vk | cos(δi − δk )]Bik
The power fed into the line from bus ‘i’ is: o
− (|Vi |2 |yik o
| + |Vk |2 |yik |)
Sik = Pik + jQ ik Approximate Load Flow Study
∗
Pik + jQ ik = Vi Iik The following assumptions and approximations in load flow
o ∗
Pik + jQ ik = Vi [(Vi − Vk )yik + Vi yik ] equations are considered:
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ o ∗
Pik + jQ ik = Vi (Vi − Vk )yik + Vi Vi (yik ) 1. Line resistances being smaller are neglected. Shunt
Pik − jQ ik = Vi ∗ (Vi − Vk )yik + Vi Vi ∗ yik
o
conductances of the overhead lines are always negligible.
∗
2 2
Pik − jQ ik = |Vi | yik − Vi Vk yik + |Vi | yik o
By making this assumption active power loss in the lines
Similarly, power fed into the line from bus ‘k’ is becomes zero and complexity of th equations is reduced
Pki − jQ ki = |Vk |2 yik − Vk ∗ Vi yik + |Vk |2 yik
o because active power genertion becomes equal to total
Since Yik = −yik active power demand. It means that θik ≅ 90° and θii =
Pik − jQ ik = −|Vi |2 Yik + Vi ∗ Vk Yik + |Vi |2 yiko −90°.
∗
Yik = |Yik | < θik , Vi = |Vi | < δi , Vi = |Vi | < −δi 2. The angle δi is so small small that sin δi = δi . This
o
yik = j|yik o
| approximation converts the nonlinear power flow equations
Pik − jQ ik = [−|V 2
i | Yik cos θik
into linear ones therefore, makes analytical solution
+ |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik − δi + δk )] possible.
− j[|Vi |2 Yik sin θik 3. All buses leaving the slack or swing bus (numbered as bus
− |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δi + δk ) 1) are voltage controlled buses wherein voltage magnitueds
− |Vi |2 |yiko
|] at all the buses including the slack bus are specified.
2
Pik = −|Vi | |Yik | cos θik With the above assumptions and approximation the power flow
+ |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik − δi + δk ) equations are modified to
n
Q ik = |Vi |2 |Yik | sin θik − |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δi + δk )
o Pi = |Vi | ∑|Yik | |Vk | cos(δi − δk )
− |Vi |2 |yik |
k=1
Similarly power flows from bus k to i can be written as: n
Pki = −|Vk |2 |Yik | cos θik Q i = −|Vi | ∑|Yik | |Vk | sin(δi − δk ) + Vi2 Yii
+ |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik − δk + δi ) k=1
Q ki = |Vk |2 |Yik | sin θik − |Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δk + δi )
o
− |Vk |2 |yik |
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 27
 Power System Analysis and Design
Since Vi are specified, the equation of real power represents a Gauss – Seidel Iterative Method (GS)
set of linear algebraic equations. the only unknowns are angles In the Gauss – Seidel method, the new calculated voltage at (n+1)
δ. For slack or swing bus (bus no. 1) δ = 0, therefore, we have immediately replaces the previous value and is used in the
(n – 1) linear equations from which the values of δ at all buses solution.
can be determined. These values of δ when put in set of n
equations for reactive power provide its values at all buses. (n+1) 1 Pi − jQ i
Vi = [ (n) ∗ − ∑ Yik Vk (n) ]
It is noteworthy that by making assumptions and approximations Yii (Vi )
k=1
the power flow equations have decoupled and there is no need of k≠i
solving them simultaneously but can be solved sequentially. Calculation of Net Injected Power
n
Since the solution is non – iterative and the dimension is reduced Pi − jQ i
to (n – 1) from 2n, it is computationally highly economical. = Yii Vi + ∑ Yik Vk
Vi ∗
Examples: k=1
k≠i
1. The single line diagram of a three bus power system with n
generator at bus 1 is given in Figure 89. The line ∗
impedances are marked in per unit on a 100 MVA base. The Pi − jQ i = Vi [Yii Vi + ∑ Yik Vk ]
voltage obtained by performing the load flow are: k=1
k≠i
V2 = 0.98183∠ − 3.5035° pu Let Yii = |Yii | < θii , Yik = |Yik | < θik , Vi = |Vi | < δi
V3 = 1.00125∠ − 2.8624° pu Vi ∗ = |Vi | < −δi , Vk = |Vk | < δk
Determine the slack bus power and complex power flow in n
line 1 – 2. Pi − jQ i = |Vi |2 |Yii | < θii + ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk |
k=1
k≠i
< θik + δk − δi
Pi − jQ i = |Vi |2 |Yii | cos θii + j|Vi |2 |Yii | sin θii
n

+ ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi )

k=1
k≠i
n
Figure 89 + j ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | sin(θik + δk − δi )
2. A 4 – bus system is shown in Figure 90. The magnitued of k=1
the bus voltages at all the bues are 1 pu each. The per unit k≠i
values of line admittances, loads and active power Separating the real and imaginary part,
generated at the different buses are indicated in the Pi = |Vi |2 |Yii | cos θii
n
diagram. Determine reactive power genartion at buses,
active and reactive power losses and power flow in each of + ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi )
the transmission lines in the network. k=1
k≠i
n

Pi = ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi )

k=1
and
−Q i = |Vi |2 |Yii | sin θii
n

+ ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | sin(θik + δk − δi )

k=1
k≠i
n

Q i = − ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | sin(θik + δk − δi )

k=1
Consideration of PV Buses
For PQ buses, the real and reactive powers Pi scheduled and
Q i scheduled are known. Starting with initial values of the voltages,
set of voltage equations can be solved iteratively. For the voltage
– controlled buses (PV buses), where Pi scheduled and |Vi | are
specified:
Figure 90 n

Qi (n+1) = − ∑|Yik | |Vi |(n) |Vk |(n) sin(θik + δk (n) − δi (n) )

k=1

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 28

 Power System Analysis and Design
Then set of voltage equations are solved. However, at PV buses, Step 4: Computation of Slack Bus and Injected Power
since |Vi | is specified, only the imaginary part of Vi (n+1) is After computing bus voltages (magnitudes and phase angles) for
retained and its real part is selected in order to satisfy it. all the buses, injected powers Si and line flows are computed
2 2 using nodal voltages.
(ei (n+1) ) + (fi (n+1) ) = |Vi |2
Step 5: Computation of Line Flows and Losses
Convergence Procedure This is the last step in the load flow analysis. The power flows on
The updated voltages immediately replace the previous values in the various lines are computed. The real and reactive power loss
the solution of the subsequent equations. This processs is can also be computed.
continued until changes of bus voltages between successive Example:
iterations are within a specified accuracy 1. Using the Gauss – Seidel Method, determine the phasor
∆V = max|Vi (n+1) − Vi (n) | values of the voltage at the load buses 2 and 3, accurate to
if ∆V ≤ ε, then the solution has converged. ε is given usually 4 decimal places in Figure 91.
0.0001 or 0.00001 are considered.
Another convergence criteria is the maximum difference of
mismatch of real and reactive power between successive
iterations
∆P = max|Pi calculated − Pi scheduled |
∆Q = max|Q i calculated − Q i scheduled |
if ∆P ≤ ε and ∆Q ≤ ε, then the solution has converged.
Acceleration Factor
Figure 91
Since the process of convergence of GS method is slow and it
2. A three – bus system is shown in Figure 92, line impedances
requires a large number of iterations before a solution is obtained.
are marked in pu. Treat bus 1 at slack bus with V1 =
The proces of convergence can be speed up if the voltage
1.05∠0° pu, bus 2 as PQ bus with P2 + jQ 2 = −5.96 +
correction during iterative process is modified to
(n+1) (n+1) (n) j1.46 pu and bus 3 as PV bus with |V3 | = 1.02 pu.
Vi (acceleration) = Vi + α(Vi − Vi ) Calculate the voltage of bus 2 at the end of first iteration.
where α is known as acceleration factor and is a real number, 1.4 Use Gauss – Seidel method with acceleration factor 1.4.
to 1.6 is the recommended range for α for most of the power Assume V2 (0) = 1.0∠0° pu and V3 (0) = 1.02∠0° pu.
system problem. Neglect line charging.
Algorithmn of Gauss – Seidel Method
Step 1: Intial Computation
With the load profile kown at each bus (PLi and QLi are known),
allocate Pgi and Qgi to all generating units.
While active and reactive generations are not allocated to the
slack bus, these are permitted to vary during iterative process.
This is a must as voltage magnitude and phase angle are
specified at slack bus.
With this step, net bus injected power (Pi + jQi) at all buses are
known other than slack bus. Figure 92
Step 2: Formation of YBus Matrix 3. Using Gauss – Seidel load flow
With the line and shunt admittance data, form YBus matrix. method, find bus voltages at the
Step 3: Iterative Computation of Bus Voltage end of three iteration for the
To start the iterative computation, a set of initial values is following 3 – bus system. Line
assumed. Since in a power system, the voltage variation is not reactances are shown in Figure
tooo wide, it is usual practice to use a flat voltage start, initially all 93. Ignore resistance and line
voltages are set equal to 1+j0 except the voltage of the slack bus charging. Assume initial
which is specified and fixed. It should be noted that (n – 1) voltage voltage at all bues to 1.0∠0 Figure 93
equations are to be solved iteratively for finding (n – 1) complex pu. Use 1.0 as acceleration factor. The bus data is given in
voltages. the table 6.
The iterative computation is continued till the change in maximum Bus No. Specified P Injections Specified
magnitude of bus voltage,is less than a certain tolerance for all (pu) Q (pu) Voltage
bus voltages. (pu)
To reduce the number of iterations, an acceleration factor ∝= 1 ----- ---- 1.0
1.6 is considered to be a good value for power flow studies. A 2 0.3 ---- 1.0
wrong choice of ∝ may indeed slowdown convergence or even 3 0.5 0.2 ----
cause the method to diverge. Table 6

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 29

 Power System Analysis and Design
4. The following is the system data for load flow solution. Now the diagonal elements of J2 are
n
The line admittances ∂Pi
Bus Code Admittance = 2|Vi ||Yii | cos θii + ∑|Vk ||Yik | cos(θik + δk − δi )
∂|Vi |
1–2 2 – j8 k=1
k≠i
1–3 1 – j4 Off – diagonal elements of J2 are
2–3 0.666 – j2.664 ∂Pi
2–4 1 – j4 = |Vi ||Yik | cos(θik + δk − δi )k≠i
∂|Vk |
3–4 2 – j8 Now the diagonal elements of J3 are
The schedule of active and reactive powers: n
∂Q i
Bus Code P Q V Remarks = ∑|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik + δk − δi )
1 --- --- 1.06 Slack ∂δi
k=1
2 0.5 0.2 1 + j0 PQ k≠i
Off – diagonal elements of J3 are
3 0.4 0.3 1 + j0 PQ
∂Q i
4 0.3 0.1 1 + j0 PQ = −|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | cos(θik + δk − δi )k≠i
Determine the voltages at the end of first iteration using ∂δk
Gauss – Seidel method. Take ∝= 1.6. The diagonal elements of J4 are
n
Load Flow using Newton Raphson Method (NR) ∂Qi
= −2|Vi ||Yii | sin θii − ∑|Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )
Newton – Raphson (NR) method is more efficient and practical ∂|Vi |
k=1
for large power systems. Main advantage of this method is that k≠i
the number of iterations required to obtain a solution is Off – diagonal elements of J4 are
independent of the size of the problem and computationally it is ∂Q i
= −|Vi ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )k≠i
very fast. Here load flow problem is formulated in polar form. ∂|Vk |
n Bus Type and Jacobian Formation
Pi = ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi ) Slack Bus / Swing Bus
k=1 - one generator bus must be selected and defined as the
n
voltage and angular reference
Q i = − ∑|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | sin(θik + δk − δi ) 1. The voltage and angle are known for this bus
k=1 2. The angle is arbitrarily selected as zero degrees
The two equations constitutes a set of nonlinear algebraic 3. Bus is not included in the Jacobian matrix formation
equations in terms of the independent variables, voltage Generator Bus
magnitude in per unit and phase angles in radians, it can easily - have known terminal voltage and real (actual) power
observe that two equations for each load bus and one equation injection
for each voltage controlled bus. Expanding the two equations in - the bus voltage angle and reactive power injection are
Taylor – series and neglecting higher – order terms: computed
∂P2 (n) ∂P2 (n) ∂P2 (n) ∂P2 (n)
( ) ⋯ ( ) ( ) ⋯ ( ) - bus is included in the real power parts of the Jacobian matrix
∂δ2 ∂δn ∂|V2 | ∂|Vn |
∆P2
(n)
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ∆δ2
(n) Load Bus
⋮ ∂Pn (n) ∂Pn (n) ∂Pn (n) ∂Pn (n) ⋮ - have known real and reactive power injections
(n) ( ) ⋯ ( ) ( ) ⋯ ( )
∆Pn
=
[ ∂δ2 ∂δn ] [ ∂|V2 | ∂|Vn | ] ∆δn
(n)
- bus is fully included in the Jacobian matrix
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(n) (n) (n) (n)
∂Q 2 (n)
∆Q 2
(
∂Q 2
) ⋯ (
∂Q 2
) (
∂Q 2
) ⋯ ( )
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∆|V2 |(n) Sparsity
⋮ ∂δ2 ∂δn ∂|V2 | ∂|Vn | ⋮
(n)
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ [∆|Vn |(n) ] In a realistic power system, there may be a large number of buses
[∆Q n ]
∂Q n (n) ∂Q n (n) ∂Q n (n) ∂Q n (n) (say 100 or more) but each bus is connected to only a small
( ) ⋯ ( ) ( ) ⋯ ( )
[[ ∂δ2 ∂δn ] [ ∂|V2 | ∂|Vn | ]] number (usually two or three) of the remaining buses. It means
In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. It YBUS of a large power system is very sparse (it has a large number
can be written in short form as of zero elements). In a large system of 100 nodes, the non – zero
∆P J J ∆δ elements may be as small as 20% of the total elements. The
[ ] = [ 1 2] [ ]
∆Q J3 J4 ∆|V| sparsity feauture of YBUS minimizes the computer memoy
Now the diagonal elements of J1 are requirement (as only non – zero terms needed to be stored) and
n
∂Pi results in faster computations.
= ∑|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi ) Decoupled Power Flow Solution
∂δi
k=1 Transmission lines of power systems have a very low R/X ratio.
k≠i
Off – diagonal elements of J1 are For such system, real power mismatch ∆P are less sensitive to
∂Pi changes in the voltage magnitude and are very sensitive to
= −|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )k≠i changes in phase angle ∆δ. Similarly, reactive power mismatch
∂δk
∆Q is less sensitive to changes in angle and are very mych
sensitive on changes in voltage magnitude. Therefore, it is

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 30

 Power System Analysis and Design
reasonable to set elements J2 and J3 of the Jacobian matrix to Step 8: Compute new voltage magnitudes and phase angles.
zero. Therefore the equation reduces to Step 9: Check for convergence.
∆P J 0 ∆δ Step 10: Write output results.
[ ]=[1 ][ ]
∆Q 0 J4 ∆|V| Examples:
or 1. Using N – R method, find the phasor voltages at buses 2 and
∆P = J1 ∆δ 3. Find the slack bus real and reactive power of Figure 93.
∆Q = J4 ∆|V| Calculate line flows and line losses. Use 100 MVA base
For voltage controlled buses, the voltage magnitudes are known.
Therefore, if m buses of the system are voltage controlled, J1 is
of the order (n – 1) x (n – 1) and J4 is of the order (n – 1 – m) x (n
– 1 – m).
Now the diagonal elements of J1 are
n
∂Pi
= ∑|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )
∂δi
k=1
k≠i
Off – diagonal elements of J1 are
∂Pi
= −|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )k≠i
∂δk
The diagonal elements of J4 are
n
∂Qi Figure 93
= −2|Vi ||Yii | sin θii − ∑|Vk ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )
∂|Vi |
k=1
2. A 3 – bus system is shown in Figure 94. The series
k≠i impedance and shunt admittance of each line are 0.0197 +
Off – diagonal elements of J4 are j0.0788 pu and j0.04 pu respectively. The bus specification
∂Q i and power input at the bus is as given in Table 7.
= −|Vi ||Yik | sin(θik + δk − δi )k≠i
∂|Vk |
The terms ∆Pi(n) and ∆Qi(n) are the difference between the
scheduled and calculated values at bus I known as power
residuals, given by
(n) (n)
∆Pi = Pischeduled − Pi (calculated)
(n) (n)
∆Q i = Qscheduled
i − Q i (calculated)
The new estimates for bus voltage magnitude and angles are,
|Vi |(n+1) = |Vi |(n) + ∆|Vi |(n)
δi (n+1) = δi (n) + ∆δi (n)
Decoupled Power Flow Algorithm
Step 1: Read system data
Step 2: Form YBus matrix Figure 94
Step 3: For load buses Pischeduled and Qscheduled
i are specified. Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF)
Voltage magnitudes and phase angles are set equal to the slack The diagonal elements of J1 can be written as
n
bus values, or |Vi | = 1.0, |δi | = 0.0 radian. ∂Pi
For voltage controlled buses, where |Vi | and Pischeduled are = ∑|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δi + δk )
∂δi
specified, phase angles are set equal to the slack bus angle. k=1
(n) (n) − |Vi |2 |Yii | sin θii
Step 4: For load buses, Pi and Q i are calculated using ∂Pi
Pi = ∑nk=1|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi ) and Qi = = −Q i − |Vi |2 |Yii | sin θii
(n) ∂δi
− ∑nk=1|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | sin(θik + δk − δi ) and also ∆Pi and ∂Pi
(n) (n) (n)
∆Q i using ∆Pi = Pischeduled − Pi (calculated) and ∆Q i =
(n) = −Q i − |Vi |2 Bii
∂δi
Qscheduled
(n)
− Q i (calculated) . where Bii = |Yii | sin θii is the imaginary part of the diagonal
i
(n) (n) elements of the bus admittance matrix. In a practical power
Step 5: For voltage controlled buses, Pi and ∆Pi are system, Bii ≫ Q i and hence we may neglect Q i . Further
computed using Pi = ∑nk=1|Yik | |Vi ||Vk | cos(θik + δk − δi ) simplification is obtain by assuming |Vi |2 ≈ |Vi |, which gives
(n) (n)
and ∆Pi = Pischeduled − Pi (calculated) . ∂Pi
= −|Vi |2 Bii
Step 6: Compute elements of J1 and J4. ∂δi
Step 7: Solve ∆P and ∆Q for computing ∆δ and ∆|V|.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 31

 Power System Analysis and Design

Under normal operating conditions, δk − δi is quite small. time per each characteristic.
Therefore, θik − δi + δk = θik and the equation reduces to iteration. iteration. So speed of
∂Pi More number of Less number convergence
= −|Vi ||Vk |Bik iterations to of iterations. is fast.
∂δk obtain solution Quadratic
Assuming |Vk | ≈ 1.0 Linear convergence
∂Pi convergence characteristic.
= −|Vi |Bik
∂δk characteristic. So speed of
Similarly, the diagonal elements of J4 may be written as So slow rate of convergence
n convergence. is fast.
∂Qi
= −|Vi ||Yii | sin θii − ∑|Vi ||Vk ||Yik | sin(θik − δi + δk ) Convergence Convergence
∂|Vi | affected by ill – not affected
k=1
∂Q i conditioned by ill –
= −|Vi ||Yii | sin θii + Q i system – series conditioned
∂|Vi |
capacitors system,
∂Q i
= −|Vi |Bii + Q i Number of
∂|Vi | Dependency iterations
Number of iterations does not
Again Bii ≫ Q i , Q i may be neglected. on system increases with
depend on system size
∂Q i size increase in size
= −|Vi |Bii of system
∂|Vi |
Simplicity of
Assuming θik − δi + δk = δik the equation can be written as Simple Complex Simple
programming
∂Q i
= −|Vi |Bik Memory Less than NR
∂|Vk | Less More
requirement method
The simplified form of the equations are Convergence is
∆P ∆P Selection of affected by Convergence is not affected by
= −B ′ ∆δ ⇒ ∆δ = −[B ′ ]−1 slack bus selection of slack selection of slack bus
|Vi | |Vi |
∆Q ∆Q bus
= −B ′′ ∆|V| ⇒ ∆|V| = −[B ′′ ]−1 Suitable for
|Vi | |Vi | contingency
B’ and B’’ are the imaginary part of the bus admittance matrix evaluation for
YBUS. B’ and B’’ are constant matrices and they need to be security
inverted once. The decoupled and fast decoupled power flow Suitable for Suitable for
Application assessment
small system large system
solutions requires more iterations than the coupled NR method and for
but requires less computing time per iteration. solving
Example: optimization
Using the fast decoupled Power Flow, Find the power flow problems
solution for Figure 95. Both
Rectangular rectangular Polar
Coordinate
coordiante and polar coordinate
coordinates
Table 7 Comparison of Power Flow Methods
Holomorphic Embedding Load Flow Method
The Holomorphic Embedding Load – Flow Method (HELM) is
a solution method for the power flow equations of electrical power
systems. Its main features are that it is direct (that is, non –
iterative) and that it mathematically guarantees a consistent
selection of the correct operative branch of the multivalued
problem, also signalling the condition of voltage collapse when
Figure 95 there is no solution. These properties are relevant not only for the
Comparison of Power Flow Methods reliability of existing off – line and real – time applications, but also
Attribute GS NR FDLF because they enable new types of analytical tools that would be
More impossible to build with existing iterative load flows (due to their
Less accurate
Reliabilty accurate and More reliable convergence problems). An example of this would be decision –
and less reliable
more reliable support tools providing validated action plans in real time.
Less number of Less time per The HELM load flow algorithm was invented by Antonio Trias
More times
arithmetic iteration.
per iteration and has been granted two US Patents. A detailed description was
Speed of operation to More number
as Jacobian presented at the 2012 IEEE PES General Meeting, and published
Convergence complete one of iterations
is to be in. The method is founded on advanced concepts and results
iteration and Geometric
computed in from complex analysis, such as holomorphicity, the theory of
therefore less convergence

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 32

 Power System Analysis and Design
algebraic curves, and analytic continuation. However, the Make use of V̅i (s) = Vi∗ (s ∗ ),
numerical implementation is rather straightforward as it uses ∞ ∞
∑ Yik ∑ ck [n]sn = sIiload + sSi∗ ∑ d∗i [n]sn
standard linear algebra and Padé approximation. Additionally, k
n=0 n=0
since the limiting part of the computation is the factorization of the • Get the coefficients in Vi (s) = ∑∞ n=0 ci [n]s , Padé
n
admittance matrix and this is done only once, its performance is Approximation is needed to get Vi (1)
competitive with established fast – decoupled loadflows. The Padé Approximation:
method is currently implemented into industrial – strength real – • In mathematics a Padé approximant is the “best”
time and off – line packaged EMS (Energy Management System) approximation of a function by a rational function of given
applications. order – under this technique, the approximant’s power series
What is a Holomorphic Function? of the function is approximating.
A holomorphic function is a complex – valued function of one or
• The Padé approximant often gives better approximation of
more complex variables that is complex differentiable in a
the function than truncuating its Taylor series, and it may still
neighborhood of every point in its domain. If the derivative of f at
work where the Taylor series does not converge.
a point z0:
Importance and Objectives of Power Flow Studies
f(z) − f(z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim The power flow (or load flow) studies are the essential and vital
z→z0 z − z0 part of power system studies. Data about active and reactive
exist, we say that f is complex – power flows through the branches and the bus voltage under
differentiable at the point 𝑧0 . steady state is required by power system engineers. Power flow
If f is complex differentiable at every study provides such data. Power flow studies are extremely
point 𝑧0 in an open set U, we say that f important and essential for power system planning, designing,
is holomorphic on U. expansion design and for providing guidelines to control room
A continuous function which is not operating engineers (power controllers) in the following activities.
holomorphic is the complex conjugate. 1. Providing operating instructions to generating station and
The Algorithmn substation control rooms for loading, reactive power
Si∗ compensation, relay settings, tap – setting and switching
∑ Yik Vk = Iiload + ∗
Vi sequence. Selecting the optimum settings of overcurrent
k
The right hand side is left with constant relays.
– injection and constant – power 2. Analyzing the effect of rearranging the circuits on the power
components. Figure 96 flows, bus voltages.
The idea is, if we introduce a variable s, V = V(s), and 3. Preparing software for on – line operation, control and
S∗i monitoring of the power system.
• At s = s1, ∑k Yik Vk = Iiload + holds. 4. Analyzing the effect of temporary loss of generating station
Vi∗
• At s = s0, problem is relatively easy to solve. or transmission path on the power flow.
• V = V(s) is Holomorphic 5. Knowing the effect of reactive power compensation on bus
Then we can get form of V(s) on s = s0, and get value of V(s1) voltages.
• Obvious choice is: 6. Calculation of line losses for different power flow conditions.
sSi∗ 7. Evaluation of the operating performance of a power system
∑ Yik Vk (s) = sIiload + ∗ ∗ under normal steady state.
Vi (s )
k 8. Planning expansion of system. Introducing HVDC line,
• Now, V become a function of s. Vi∗ (s ∗ ) is used, not Vi∗ (s), interconnection, EHV ac lines etc.
to make the function Holomorphic 9. Obtaining initial input data for various other power system
• The equation is obviously solvable at s = 0 studies such as economic load dispatch, reactive power and
sSi∗ voltage, control, state estimation, fault calculations,
∑ Yik Vk (s) = sIiload +
sSi∗ V̅i (s) generation planning, transmission planning etc.
k
∑ Yik Vk (s) = sIiload + ∗ (s ∗ ) →
Vi ∗ ̅̅̅
sSi
k ∑ Yik Vk (s) = sIi∗load +
k
Vi (s) Short Circuit Analysis
• If we claim that V̅i (s) and Vi (s) are independent, they are A short circuit is a low – resistance connection established by
holomorphic accident or intention between two points in an electric circuit. This
• When V̅i (s) = Vi∗ (s ∗ ), the solution is physical solution. excessive electric current potentially causes circuit damage,
• Since V(s) is holomorphic, consider the power series overheating, magnetic stress, arcing, fire or explosion. The
expansion about s = 0. amount of current that is available in a short circuit is determined
∞ by the capacity of the system voltage sources and the
Vi (s) = ∑ ci [n]s n impedances of the system, including the fault.
n=0
1 ∞ Fault is any failure that interferes with the proper flow of current
= ∑ di [n]s n to the loads. When the insulation of the system breaks down or a
Vi (s) n=0

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 Power System Analysis and Design
conducting object comes in touch with a live point, a short circuit insulators, creating a current path from the phase to the structure
or a fault occurs. of the tower, which is grounded.
In circuit analysis, the term short circuit is used by analogy to Characteristics of Short Circuit
designate a zero – impedance connection between two nodes 1. Duration
which forces it to be at the same voltage. In an ideal short circuit, • Self – extinguishing
this means there is no resistance and no voltage drop across the • Transient
short. The electrical opposite of a short circuit is an open circuit, • Steady – state
which is infinite resistance between two nodes. 2. Origin
Causes of Short Circuit/Fault • Mechanical (break in a conductor, accidental electrical
1. When two bare conductors touch, a short circuit occurs. contact between two conductors via a foreign
Another type of short circuit occurs when some conductive conducting body such as a tool or an animal)
object such as a tool • Internal or atmospheric over voltages
or an animal, • Insulation breakdown due to heat, humidity or a
accidentally gets into corrosive environment
an overhead power 3. Location (inside or outside a machine or an electrical
line. If the object switchboard)
touches both the Figure 97 Bare Conductors Fault Types
lines at the same A bolted fault is a short circuit of very high magnitude
time, the electricity has a short circuit path available to return characterized by all three phases “bolted” together to create a
to the source before it goes to the customer's electric zero impedance connection. Normally, short circuit calculations
service. If the object is connected to the ground, the earth are performed on a bolted three-phase fault condition because
can act as a short circuit path. this establishes a “highest current” condition.
2. Improper wiring. It might happen that electricians may have An arcing fault results from a gap between two electrodes (such
connected temporary grounds or other conductors between as a loose wire on a terminal block). Arc welding is a common
phases/neutral and/or ground for safety purposes during example of the practical application of the heating due to arcing.
installation and testing. If these temporary conductors are The power supply for an arc welder can supply very high currents
unintentionally left connected when the circuit is energized, that flow through the welding rod and the metal pieces being
a short circuit results, producing what's called a “bolted welded. The point of contact between the rod and the metal
fault.” surfaces gets heated to the melting point, fusing a part of the rod
Workers who take voltage measurements or perform other and both surfaces of a single piece.
work on energized equipment can also unintentionally Ground faults normally occur either by accidental contact of an
bridge or short – out conductors in the equipment, creating energized conductor with normally grounded metal, or as a result
a short circuit. Short circuits had occurred when someone of an insulation failure of an energized conductor. The residual
placed a wrench on the switchboard busbars accidentally. current devices (RCD's) often known by other names, e.g., earth
It might happen that water leak or some other form of leakage circuit breakers (ELCB) detect a very much lower level
contamination creates a conductive path between of electricity flowing to earth and immediately switch the electricity
phases/neutral and/or ground. The air insulation will break off. Normal protective devices such as fuses and circuit breakers
down and produce a short circuit arc. do not offer the same level of personal protection against faults
3. Connecting a wire to the involving current flow to earth.
positive and negative Balanced Faults (symmetrical faults)
terminals of a battery. With • A Fault involving all the three phases.
low resistance in the
• This is less than 5% in occurrence
connection, high current
• The system remains balanced.
flows, causing the cell to
Unbalanced Faults (unsymmetrical faults)
deliver a large amount of
energy in a short time. Figure 98 Short Circuiting a Battery
• A fault involving only one or two phases.
4. Faulty wiring. • The majority of the faults are unsymmetrical in nature.
5. Salt spray or pollution on insulators. • The system is no longer balanced.
6. Synchronous generators, motors and condensers • Very common but difficult to analyze
7. Induction machines. The most common type of fault in a three-phase system is the
8. Electrical utility system. single line – to – ground (SLG (60 – 75%)), followed by the double
9. Wires are blowing together in the wind. line – to – ground faults (DLG (15 – 25%)), line – to – line (LL (5
10. Lightning. – 15%)) faults, and balanced three-phase faults.
Lighting strokes cause most faults on high – voltage transmission
Flashover is a condition that the voltage difference between the lines producing a very large transient that greatly exceeds the
phase and the ground is large enough to ionize the air around the rated voltage of the line. This voltage usually causes flashover

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 34

 Power System Analysis and Design
between the phases and/or the ground creating an arc. Since the 4. Blinding Light: As the arc is established, an extremely
impedance of this new path is small, an excessive current may bright flash of light occurs. The light can cause immediate
flow. Faults involving ionized current paths are also called vision damage and increase the potential for future vision
transient faults. They usually clear if power is removed from the deterioration.
line for a short time and then restored. 5. Toxic Smoke: Also expelled into the atmosphere are toxic
If one, or two, or all three phases break or if insulators break due combustion byproducts and copper oxides formed when the
to fatigue or inclement weather, this fault is called a permanent cooling copper vapor combines with oxygen.
fault since it will remain after a quick power removing. 6. Contact with Energized Components: The explosive
Approximately 75% of all faults in power systems are transient in nature of an arc fault increases the possibility that an
nature. energized conductor or components will make contact with
In electrical systems, the three phase short circuit condition workers in the area.
causes the highest fault currents. However, the majority incidents Because of the intense heat and destruction produced by an
of short circuit occur between a phase and neutral and between uncontrolled electrical arc, it is important to de-energize the circuit
a phase and earth (ground). It is also possible for short circuits to as quickly as possible after a short circuit.
arise between neutral and earth conductors, and between two OSHA is using the requirements of NFPA 70E, the industry's
conductors of the same phase. Such short circuits can be consensus standard for electrical safety, to judge whether the
dangerous, particularly as they may not immediately result in a employer "acted reasonably" in protecting its workers from arc
large current flowing and are therefore less likely to be detected. flash hazards. In many cases, this has resulted in employers
Possible effects include unexpected energization of a circuit facing substantial fines after arc flash events. OSHA 29 CFR Part
presumed to be isolated. 1910 contains many other sections that pertain to electrical safety
Potential Hazards in Short Circuit and arc flash hazards.
One of the major hazards of short circuit is “Arc Flash” which is Short Circuit or Fault studies form an important part of power
established when current begins passing through the ionized air. system analysis, and the problem consists of determining bus
Large volumes of ionized gasses, along with metal from the voltage and line current during faults. The three phase fault
vaporized conductors, are rapidly expelled. As the arc runs its information is used to select and set phase relays. Fault studies
course, electrical energy continues to be converted into extremely are used for the proper choice of circuit breakers and protective
hazardous forms of energy. All of these events usually occur in relaying. A power system network comprises of synchronous
less than 0.2 seconds. The potential effects are: generators, transformers, transmission lines and loads. During a
1. Intense Heat: The electrical current flowing through the fault, load current can be neglected because voltage dip very low
ionized air creates tremendously high levels of heat energy. so that current drawn by the loads can be overlooked in
This heat is transferred to the plasma, which rapidly expands comparison to fault currents. The magnitude of the fault current
away from the source of supply. Tests have shown that heat depends on the internal impedance of the synchronous generator
densities at typical working distances can exceed 40 cal/cm² and the impedance of the intervening circuit.
and the temperatures can exceed 20,000 °F. At typical arc Purpose of Fault/Short Circuit Studies
fault durations of less than one second, a heat density of 1. To determine the fault – current distribution and bus bar
only 1.2 cal/cm² on exposed flesh is enough to cause a voltage levels throughout the system during fault conditions.
second – degree burn. 2. To adjust and set the protective devices so we can detect
2. Thermo – Acoustic Shock Wave: As the conductive any fault and isolate the faulty portion of the system.
element that caused the arc is vaporized; the power a. To determine the current settings of the protective
delivered to the arc fault rises rapidly that corresponds to a relays and investigate their operation during faults.
rapid increase in surrounding pressure. The resultant shock b. To determine the rated breaking capacity of circuit
wave can create impulse sound levels well beyond OSHA's breakers.
allowable limits. Forces from the pressure wave can rupture 3. To protect the human being and the equipment during the
ear drums, collapse lungs or cause fatal injuries. abnormal operating conditions.
3. Molten Metal: At high fault current levels, plasma jets are 4. To determine the maximum current to ensure devices can
formed at the electrodes. Vaporized and the molten survive the fault.
electrode material is ejected at high velocity from these jets, 5. To design the grounding system.
reaching distances of several feet away. Since the molten 6. To provide good cable joints.
metal is typically over 1000 °C, it is a potential ignition Because the short circuit calculations are life safety related, they
source for conventional clothing. As copper vaporizes, it are mandated by 110.9 of the National Electrical Code which
expands by a factor of about 67,000. This rapid expansion states that “Equipment intended to interrupt current at fault levels
will result in near explosive forces on any nearby equipment shall have an interrupting rating sufficient for the nominal circuit
or workers. The strength of the explosion also causes a voltage and the current that is available at the line terminals of
significant amount of shrapnel to be accelerated away from the equipment. Equipment intended to interrupt current at other
the source. These particles can impact a nearby worker at than fault levels shall have an interrupting rating at nominal circuit
high velocity, resulting in physical trauma. voltage sufficient for the current that must be interrupted”.

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 Power System Analysis and Design
Article 240 of the National Electric Code provides the general is then possible to choose optimum time – current settings for
requirements for overcurrent protection. Parts I through VII are relays and breakers and plot the results. Engineers use the
for protective devices, not more than 600 volts nominal. Part VIII following general concepts when making these determinations:
is for supervised industrial applications operating at less than 600 1. Overcurrent protective devices should be selected to ensure
volts, and Part IX is for overcurrent protection greater than 600 that the short-circuit current rating of the system
volts, nominal. Several other sections of the National Electrical components is not exceeded should a short circuit or high –
Code relate to proper overcurrent protection. These sections level ground fault occurs.
include, among others: 2. To properly select equipment, short circuit levels at all
• 110 – 9 Interrupting Rating locations in the electrical system need to be calculated to
• 110 – 10 Component Protection ensure that equipment is applied within its rating.
• 230 – 65 Service Entrance Equipment 3. It is important to coordinate protective devices by choosing
• 240 – 1 Conductor Protection a main fuse or breaker with slower operating characteristics
• 250 – 95 Equipment Grounding Conductor Protection than the feeder breakers.
• 517 – 17 Health Care Facilities – Selective Coordination 4. The fault current or overload should always be interrupted
Compliance with these code sections can best be accomplished by the first protective device upstream — on the source side
by conducting a short circuit study and a selective coordination — of the fault location. In general, the protective device
study. Once the short circuit levels are determined, the engineer furthest downstream should have the lowest trip setting (in
can specify proper interrupting rating requirements, selectively amperes) and be the one that operates fastest for a given
coordinate the system and provide component protection. current level.
What is Coordination of protective devices? 5. Normal transformer inrush current and motor starting current
The diagram of a simple electrical system resembles a tree – like should never cause a protective device to operate.
configuration. The main power source corresponds to the tree 6. Overcurrent devices should interrupt the current as quickly
trunk, and the primary feeder circuits and branch circuits as possible after an overload or short circuit occurs.
correspond to large and small tree branches. The breakers and 7. Only listed products (such as UL listed) applied by their
fuses are located at strategic points in the system — usually at listing shall be considered to meet the requirements.
the main power entrance and the start of each primary and branch Which areas of the power distribution system are critical for short
circuit to minimize damage and the extent of the power outage. circuit calculations?
If the fault occurs near the end of a branch circuit, the fuse or The fundamental logic applied to calculate the short circuit current
breaker immediately upstream from that fault should open before value is that “the short circuit current is related to the short circuit
any other protective devices do, which would limit the resulting path impedance and system power.” Unfortunately, we never
power outage to only the portion of the circuit downstream of the know when and where a short circuit will occur. Accordingly
protective device. Similarly, if the fault occurs on a primary feeder, estimating the short circuit path impedance can be very complex.
the fuse or breaker for that feeder should open before any other Also, although the generator or system power may be known,
upstream protective devices. Selecting and setting the time – other consumers on the system add to that power under short
current characteristics of protective devices so they'll operate in circuit conditions. For example, as a motor decelerates, it acts as
this manner is called, “coordination.” a generator and contributes to the power driving the short circuit
When the branch breaker and main breaker are not coordinated, current. It is hard to determine the likely number of motors or other
the main breaker will trip when a fault occurs on a small branch consumers contributing power at the time the short circuit occurs.
circuit, exposing the entire facility to a complete power outage. Consequently to determine precisely the total power driving the
Conversely, if the branch breaker were coordinated with the short circuit can be hard. Apart from these complications, when a
upstream breakers and fuses, only the branch breaker generator experiences a short circuit current, it responds in a non
immediately upstream of the fault should trip. – linear fashion. In effect the generator impedance changes as
How to select and install the protection devices? the short circuit current develop; this again affects the short circuit
A short circuit and coordination analysis for the electrical system current at any point in time.
is necessary to choose the appropriate fuse and breaker/relay To obtain reliable, coordinated operation and assure that system
settings. The process begins with developing a single line components are protected from damage, it is necessary first to
diagram for the electrical distribution system. Equipment and calculate the available fault current at various critical points in the
conductor impedances, operating voltage, load values, starting electrical system. The crucial points in the system include:
currents, equipment ratings, and interrupting characteristics of • Service Entrance
the protective devices are represented on the diagram followed • Panel Boards
by calculating the short circuit path impedance using equations • Motor Control Centers
or software program. • Motor Starters
The short circuit calculation will identify any interrupting • Transfer Switches
equipment that may be inadequately rated for the available short- • Load Centers
circuit current. Using the results of the analysis of the system, it

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 36

 Power System Analysis and Design
Normally, short circuit studies involve calculating a bolted 3 – Circuit breakers shall be capable of being opened and closed
phase fault condition. manually. They can be operated electrically or pneumatically only
How to calculate short circuit current? if means for manual operation are also provided. They must
Although a short circuit produces an uncontrolled flow of current, clearly indicate whether they are open (off) or closed (on). Where
the resulting current is not infinite. There are a number of factors circuit breaker handles are operated vertically, the “up” position
that determine the magnitude of fault current. The key factors of the handle shall be the “on” position.
used to calculate the amount of short circuit current include: Circuit breakers shall be marked such that their ampere rating is
1. Operating voltage, often referred to as electrical pressure visible after installation, and shall be permitted to be made visible
2. System impedance or the resistance to current flow by the removal of a trim or cover. Every circuit breaker having an
In simple form, the equation for determining short circuit current interrupting rating other than 5000 amperes shall have its
is derived from Ohm's Law and is expressed as I = V / Z, where I interrupting rating shown on the circuit breaker. They shall be
is current, V is voltage, and Z is impedance. The voltage used in marked with a voltage rating not less than the nominal system
the calculation is the rated operating voltage of the circuit. The voltage that is indicative of their capability to interrupt fault
impedance value used is the sum of all the equipment and currents between phases or phase to ground.
conductor impedances from the source(s) of power to the point in An adjustable trip circuit breaker is a circuit breaker that has an
the circuit where the short circuit is postulated. Since the external means for adjusting the current setting (long time pickup
voltages, impedances, and resulting currents are vector setting). The rating of the circuit breaker is the maximum setting
quantities, these calculations can become very complex. Certain possible.
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) Making Capacity and Breaking Capacity: The performance of
publications detail how to calculate these currents if they are a circuit breaker under short circuit conditions is mainly defined
substantial. Most engineers now use commercially available by:
software to model the system and perform these calculations to a. Breaking capacity (Icu)
conform to the ANSI/IEEE 399 Standard, “Recommended b. Making capacity (Icm)
Practice for Power Systems Analysis”. The “breaking capacity” is defined with reference to the RMS
Overcurrent Protective Devices value of the symmetrical component of the short circuit current.
Distribution equipment such as circuit breakers and fuses are The “making capacity” is defined with reference to the maximum
common overcurrent protective devices that have interrupting or peak value of the prospective short circuit current. Since each
withstand ratings defined as the maximum RMS values of element with impedance modifies the short circuit current on the
symmetrical current. load side, and since a circuit breaker is an element with an
impedance of its own, the “prospective current” is defined as the
current flowing when the protection device is replaced by an
element with null impedance. The making capacity of every circuit
breaker or switch intended to be capable of being closed, if
necessary, on short circuit, should not be less than the maximum
value of the short circuit current at the point of installation; on
alternating current this maximum value corresponds to the peak
value allowing for maximum asymmetry.
A circuit breaker can't interrupt a circuit at the instant of inception
of a short. Instead, due to the relay time delay and breaker
Figure 99 Circuit Breaker and Fuse
contact parting time, it will interrupt the current after a period of
There are three types of circuit breakers:
five to eight cycles, by which time the DC component will have
1. Low voltage power circuit breakers – used primarily in draw-
decayed to nearly zero and the fault will be virtually symmetrical.
out switchgear. They have replaceable contacts and are
Maximum thermal and mechanical stress on the equipment
designed to be maintained in the field.
occurs during these first few cycles. It is therefore important to
2. Molded case circuit breakers are primarily used in panel
concentrate on what happens during the first half cycle when the
boards and switchboards where they are fix mounted.
current values are essentially asymmetrical. Fault analysis is
Molded case circuit breakers are rated in amperes at a
required to calculate and compare symmetrical and asymmetrical
specific ambient temperature. This ampere rating is the
current values in order to select a protective device to adequately
continuous current the breaker will carry in the ambient
protect a piece of electrical distribution equipment.
temperature for which it is calibrated in open air. According
Let – thru Current: The maximum instantaneous or peak current
to the National Electric Code, all overcurrent devices may be
which passes through the fuse is called the let – thru current. The
loaded to a maximum of 80% of their continuous ampere
let – thru current of a current – limiting fuse varies with the design,
rating, unless they are specifically listed for 100%.
ampere rating and available short circuit current. This value can
3. Insulated case circuit breakers- These utilize the
be expressed in RMS amperes also. The value of let – thru
characteristics of design from both classes. They are
current is used in determination of electrical equipment
primarily used in fix mounted switchboards.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 37

 Power System Analysis and Design
protection, as required by the NEC, Article 110 – 10 and CEC 14 adjustable devices. If a different operating characteristic or
– 200. current rating is needed, you must replace the fuse with a more
Current Limitation: The significant reduction of available short compatible type. Smaller molded case breakers typically aren't
circuit current, in a circuit, by use of a device that prevents this adjustable either and must similarly be replaced if a different
short circuit current from reaching its maximum value, is called operating characteristic or trip value is necessary. Most relays
“Current Limitation”. Fuses which perform this function are known and electronically controlled breakers, however, are designed
as Current Limiting. Current Limiting fuses operate in less than ½ with considerable flexibility. They offer a wide range of field –
cycle, thus interrupting the short circuit current before it can adjustable trip settings and operating curves.
achieve its maximum value. The resultant reduction (refer to Standard EHV protective equipment is designed to clear faults
shaded segment) is substantially less than the maximum value of within 3 cycles (50 ms at 60 Hz). Lower voltage protective
available short circuit current. equipment operates more slowly (for example, 5 to 20 cycles).
Basic Terminology use in Short Circuit Analysis
1. Direct current (DC) is electricity flowing in a constant
direction, and/or possessing a voltage with constant polarity.
In DC circuits, the polarity of the voltage source does not
change over time. By convention, we show DC current flow
as originating at the positive terminal of the source, traveling
through the circuit and returning to the negative terminal.
Common DC sources include batteries, photocells, fuel
cells, rectifiers and the common DC machines are motors
and generators.
2. Alternating current (AC) unlike Direct current (DC) flow first
in one direction then in the opposite direction in a sine (or
sinusoidal) waveform. 60 cycle AC currents change direction
60 times per second and one cycle = 1/60 second = 0.0167
second.
3. Since an alternating current varies continuously from 0 to
maximum to 0 first in one direction and then in the other, it
Figure 100 Fuse Behavior
is not readily apparent just what the true current value really
Figure 100 shows the current – limiting action of these fuses. The
is. The current at any point on a sine wave is called the
“Melting time” is the time required to melt the fusible link. The
“Instantaneous Current”. The current at the top of the
“Arching time” is the time required for the arc to burn back the
wave is called the “Peak” or “Crest” current. It is also
fusible link and reduce the current to zero. “Total Clearing Time”
possible to determine the “Arithmetic average value” of
is the sum of the melting and arcing times and is the time from
the alternating current, but none of these values correctly
fault initiation to extinction.
relate alternating current to direct current. RMS means root
Do the protection devices prevent short circuits?
mean square and is the square root of the average of all the
A common misconception is that fuses and circuit breakers will
instantaneous currents squared. Root mean square (RMS)
prevent short circuits or equipment failure. These protective
values equate AC to DC equivalents. Effective value of AC
devices are reactive and only operate after a failure has initiated.
equals effective value of DC. It is possible to say that the
The real job of overcurrent protective devices is to limit the
RMS value of a sinusoidal current (AC) represents that direct
damage and effect of a short circuit. They minimize the damage
current (DC) value which, in an equal time, produces the
at the point of failure, minimize or prevent injury, prevent damage
same heating effects.
to other equipment, and minimize the extent of the resulting
a. Effective Current: I = 0.707 Imax
power outage. If they're designed and adjusted to act very
b. Effective Voltage: E = 0.707 Emax
quickly, only a small amount of damage will occur because of the
c. Average Current: Iav = 0.636 Imax = 0.9 I
fault energy.
d. Average Voltage: Eav = 0.636 Emax = 0.9 E
Protective Devices Settings
4. The term total current is used to express the total or the
Circuit breaker and fuse operating characteristics are graphically
sum of the AC component and the DC component of an
represented by time – current curves. From these curves, you can
asymmetrical current. Total current and TOTAL
tell how long it will take for the protective device to interrupt at any
ASYMMETRICAL CURRENT have the same meaning and
value of current. These protective devices are typically designed
may be expressed in peak or RMS amperes.
to interrupt the current more quickly for higher current values and
5. A symmetrical current wave is symmetrical about the zero
slower for lower current values. For example, a bolted fault is
axis of the wave. This wave has the same magnitude above
interrupted more quickly than an overload.
and below the zero – axis. (See Figure 101)
Although fuse manufacturers offer a variety of fuse types, each
with its own curve shape and current rating, fuses are non –

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 38

 Power System Analysis and Design
8. Unfortunately, fault currents are neither symmetrical nor fully
asymmetrical but somewhere in between. The DC
component is usually short lived and is said to decay.

Figure 101
6. An asymmetrical current wave is not symmetrical about
the zero – axis. The axis of symmetry is displaced or offset
from the zero axis, and the magnitude above and below the Figure 104
zero axis are not equal. The axis of symmetry of an offset In figure 104, the DC component decays to zero in about
wave resembles a DC current. (see Figure 102) four cycles. The rate of decay is called “Decrement” and
depends upon the circuit constants. The DC components
would never decay in a circuit having reactance but zero
resistance, and would remain constant forever. In a circuit
having resistance but zero reactance the DC component
would decay instantly. These are theoretical conditions and
all practical circuits have some resistance and reactance,
and the DC component disappears in a few cycles. Since
fault currents are neither symmetrical nor fully asymmetrical
so what is the available short circuit current? We can say
Figure 102 that short circuit current normally takes on an asymmetrical
The asymmetrical currents can be readily handled, if characteristic during the first few cycles of duration and it is
considered to have an AC component and a DC component. symmetrical after about 4 cycles, and we can properly talk
Both components are theoretical. The DC component is about the available short circuit current in RMS symmetrical
generated within the AC system and has no external source. amperes after the DC component becomes zero. We can
also determine current at 1, 2, 3 cycles of any other time
after the short circuit started. The accepted practice is to use
the current which is available ½ cycle after the short circuit
starts.
9. Closing Angle: A short circuit fault can occur at any point
on the voltage wave of the circuit. The voltage wave
resembles the current wave and the two waves may be in
phase or out of phase. The magnitude and symmetry of the
current wave on a short circuit depends on the point of the
voltage wave at which the short occurs. In laboratory tests,
Figure 103
it is possible to pick the point on the voltage wave where the
Figure 103 shows a fully offset asymmetrical current with a
fault occurs by closing the circuit at any desired angle on the
steady DC component as its axis of symmetry. The
voltage wave. We can say that we pick the closing angle to
symmetrical component has the zero – axis as its axis of
produce the current conditions which we wish. This is called
symmetry. If the RMS or effective value of the symmetrical
‘controlled closing’.
current is 1, then the peak of the symmetrical current is 1.41.
10. Random Closing: In real life, faults occur at any and every
This is also the effective value of the DC component.
point on the voltage wave and in a laboratory, this can be
We can add these two effective currents together by the
duplicated by closing the circuit at random. This is known as
square root of the sum of the squares and get the effective
random closing. The following is true of a short circuit having
or RMS value of the asymmetrical current.
negligible resistance:
Iasm =√Idc 2 +Isym 2 a. If the fault occurs at zero voltage the current wave is
fully asymmetrical, thus the maximum value of short
7. An over current is a current that exceeds the ampere rating circuit current is obtained.
of the conductors (cable), equipment (motors, instruments) b. If the fault occurs at maximum voltage the current wave
or other devices. Overcurrent include short circuits and is completely symmetrical, and a minimum value of
overloads. They can occur because of normal conditions short circuit current is obtained.
such as motor starting, or abnormal conditions such as a
fault.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 39
 Power System Analysis and Design
c. Most natural faults occur somewhere between these Z = impedance (Ω)
two extremes. The phase angle θ gives the phase relationship between
11. Every practical circuit contains resistance (R) and inductive current and the voltage.
reactance (X). These are electrically in series. Their 12. Power factor is defined as a ratio of real power (KW) to
combined effect is called “Impedance (Z)”. Impedance is apparent power (KVA).
defined as the total opposition to current flow in a circuit. The KW Power
mathematical representation for the magnitude of pf= =Real
KVA Apparent Power
impedance in an AC circuit is
Z=√R2 +X2
where
Z = impedance (Ω) Figure 106 Power Triangle
R = resistance (Ω) The active current is in phase with the voltage. The actual
X = net reactance (Ω) current, as read on an ammeter, lags the voltage by an
amount equal to the phase angle.
Power factor= cos θ
The power factor is said to be 1 or unity or 100% when the
current and the voltage are in phase i.e. when 𝜃 =
0° (cos 0° = 1). The power factor is 0 when 𝜃 =
90° (cos 90° = 0).
13. X/R Ratio: In the impedance diagram above, the resultant
angle 𝜃 is between the voltage and current waves and is
called the “Phase Angle”. The voltage leads the current or
the current lags the voltage by an amount equal to the phase
angle.
Figure 105 Impedance Triangle The X/R value is determinant as to how long a short circuit
The current through a certain resistance is always in phase current will remain on a circuit, if uninterrupted by an
with the applied voltage. Resistance is shown on the zero – overcurrent protective device. Mathematically it is given by
axis. The current through an inductor lags applied voltage by X
= tan θ
90°; inductive reactance is shown along the 90° axis. R
Current through a capacitor leads applied voltage by 90°; If a circuit has an X/R ratio less than the value specified for
capacitive reactance is shown along the - 90° axis. Net the proof testing of a given breaker type, the circuit breaker
reactance in an AC circuit is the difference between can be evaluated by direct comparison of its short circuit
inductive and capacitive reactance. The mathematical rating with the calculated symmetrical fault current. When
representation for the calculation of net reactance when XL the circuit X/R ratio is above the specified value, multiplying
is greater than XC is factors must be applied to the calculated symmetrical short
X=XL -XC circuit current to properly evaluate the device rating.
where The X/R ratio determines the power factor of a circuit and
X = net reactance (Ω) table 9 shows the short circuit power factor relationships
XL = inductive reactance (Ω) Multiplying Factor
XC = capacitive reactance (Ω) Maximum Average
Equation below is the mathematical representation for the Short Single Three Maximum
Short
calculation of net reactance when XC is greater than XL. Circuit Phase Phase Peak
Circuit
Power RMS RMS Amperes
X=XC -XL X/R Ratio
Factor % amperes amperes at ½
Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and net
at ½ at ½ Cycle
reactance (X) in a circuit. The angle θ is the phase angle and Cycle Cycle
gives the phase relationship between the applied voltage 0 Infinite 1.732 1.394 2.828
and the current. Impedance in an AC circuit corresponds to 5 19.975 1.568 1.301 2.625
the resistance of a DC circuit. The voltage drop across an 10 9.9501 1.436 1.229 2.455
AC circuit element equals the current times the impedance. 20 4.8990 1.247 1.127 2.183
Equation below is the mathematical representation of the 30 3.1798 1.130 1.066 1.978
voltage drop across an AC circuit. 50 1.7321 1.026 1.013 1.694
V=IZ 100 0.0 1.000 1.000 1.414
where Table 8
V = voltage drop (V) 14. Withstand Rating: The energy of a fault can be measured
I = current (A) by the formula; Thermal Energy = I2t. For example, if a short
circuit is 10,000 amps (I) for .01 second, I2t = 1,000,000. A
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 40
 Power System Analysis and Design
short circuit of 7,500 amps can melt a #8 copper wire in 0.1 4πτ
second. The maximum specified value of Voltage and -
√ X
Current that equipment can safely “handle” is known as its k(τ)= 1+2e R

“Withstand Rating”. A short circuit current translates into

Mechanical Force (I2) and Thermal Energy (I2t) which can
destroy equipment and create hazardous conditions.
Therefore, for equipment protection, the ‘withstand rating’
should never be less than the available short circuit current
at the equipment location. In reality, such conditions cannot
always be avoided. Hence, the current – limiting ability of
fuses is utilized to reduce the short circuit current of a value
LESS THAN the equipment ‘withstand rating’.
15. Interrupting Rating: The maximum specified value of short
circuit current that an overcurrent protective device (fuse or
circuit breaker) can safely open or clear is known as its
“Interrupting Rating”. For circuit breakers, there are
numerous ratings ranging from 10,000 up (i.e. 10,000,
14,000, 22,000, 42,000, 65,000 etc). In the case of modern Variation of coefficient K depending on R / X or R / L (see IEC
current-limiting fuses (Class R, J and L) there is one rating; 60909).
200,000 amperes RMS. Older fuse types (Class H and K) R
-3( )
have 10,000, 50,000 or 100,000 ampere ratings. The K=1.02+0.98e X

Interrupting Ratings of overcurrent protective devices must Examples:

never be exceeded if serious damage is to be avoided. 1. A bolted short circuit occurs in the series RL with V = 20 kV,
Hence, the use of One Time or Renewable, 10,000 ampere X = 8 Ω, R = 0.8 Ω, and with maximum dc offset. The circuit
Class H fuses can create serious concern. Extreme caution breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine: (a)
must be exercised so that there 10,000 ampere rating is not the rms ac fault current, (b) the rms “momentary” current at
exceeded. This problem is eliminated with the application of 𝜏 = 0.5 cycle, which passes through the breaker before it
200,000 ampere rated fuses. opens, and (c) the rms asymmetrical fault current that the
Short Circuit Current for series RL Circuit breaker interrupts.
2. In an RL circuit, V = 220 V, L = 3 mH, R = 0.5 Ω and ω =
2π(60) rad/s. Determine (a) the rms symmetrical fault
current; (b) the rms asymmetrical fault current at the instant
the switch closes, assuming maximum dc offset; (c) the rms
asymmetrical fault current 5 cycles after the switch closes,
assuming maximum dc offset; (d) the dc offset as a function
of time if the switch closes when the instantaneous source
voltage is 244 volts.
3. In the RL circuit, let R = 0.125 Ω, L = 10 mH, and the source
voltage 𝑒(𝑡) = 151 sin(377𝑡 + 𝛼) 𝑉. Determine the
current response after closing the switch for the following
cases: (a) no dc offset; (b) maximum dc offset. Sketch the
current waveform up to t = 0.10 s corresponding to case (a)
and (b).
4. If the source impedance at a 13.2 kV distribution substation
bus is (0.5 + j1.5) Ω per phase, compute the RMS and
Figure 107 RL Circuit
di maximum peak instantaneous value of the fault current, for
L +Ri(t)=√2V sin (ωt+α) t≥0 a balanced three – phase fault. For the system (X/R) ratio of
dt 3.0, the asymmetrical factor is 1.9495 and the time of peak
Component Instantaneous Current (A) RMS Current (A)
Symmetrical √2V
IAC =
V is 7.1 ms.
(AC) iac (t)= sin (ωt+α-θ) Z
Z
DC Offset √2V t
idc (t)= sin (α-θ) e-τ Sudden Short Circuit of an Unloaded Synchronous Generator
Z
Asymmetrical i(t)=iac (t)+idc (t) A sudden short circuit at the terminals of an unloaded
(total) Irms (t)=√I2AC +idc (t)2
synchronous generator is an example of three – phase
With maximum dc
offset: symmetrical fault. The demagnetizing effect produced by the
Irms (τ)=K(τ)IAC armature reaction of the synchronous generator under steady
state three – phase short circuit condition is considered by a

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 41

 Power System Analysis and Design
reactance Xa in series with induced emf. The series combination o There are three periods of time:
of reactance Xa and leakage reactance Xl is called synchronous ▪ Sub – transient period: first cycle or so after the
reactance Xd (direct axis synchronous reactance in the case of fault – AC current is very large and falls rapidly;
salient pole machines). (1st 10 to 20 ms of the fault)
When a symmetrical 3 ▪ Transient period: current falls at a slower rate; (up
– phase fault occurs at to 500 ms)
the terminals of a ▪ Steady – state period: current reaches its steady
synchronous value.
generator, the resulting o It is possible to determine the time constants for the
current flow in the sub – transient and transient periods.
phases of the generator Component Instantaneous Current (A) RMS Current (A)
t t t t
appear as shown. The Symmetrical '' '
iac (t)=√2(I
- -
-I )e T'' +(I' -ISS )e T' +ISS
- -
Iac (t)=(I'' -I' )e T'' +(I' -ISS )e T' +ISS
(AC)
current can be
Eg
represented as a Sub transient I'' =
transient DC X''d
Eg
component added on Transient
'
I=
X'd
top of a symmetrical AC Steady – Eg
component. ISS =
state Xd
Before the fault, only DC Offset -
t
idc (t)=√2I''e TA
AC voltages and
currents are present,
Irms (t)=√I2AC +idc (t)2
but immediately after
Figure 108 Asymmetrical With maximum dc offset:
the fault, both AC and (total)
i(t)=iac (t)+idc (t)
2
DC currents are present Irms (t)=√I2AC + (√2I''e TA )
-
t

Fault Current Transients in Machines

• When the fault occurs, the AC component of current jumps
to a very large value, but the total current cannot change • The AC current flowing in the generator during the sub –
instantly since the series inductance of the machine will transient period is called the sub – transient current and
prevent this from happening. is denoted by I”. The time constant of the sub – transient
• The transient DC component of current is just large enough current is denoted by Td” (direct axis short circuit sub
such that the sum of the AC and DC components just after transient time constant) and it can be determined from the
the fault equals the AC current just before the fault. slope. This current can be as much as 10 times the steady
– state fault current.
• Since the instantaneous values of current at the moment of
the fault are different in each phase, the magnitude of DC • The AC current flowing in the generator during the
components will be different in different phases. transient period is called the transient current and is
denoted by I’. The time constant of the transient current is
• These DC components decay quickly, but they initially
denoted by Td’ (direct axis short circuit transient time
average about 50 – 60% of the AC current flow the instant
constant). This current is often as much as 5 times the
after the fault occurs. The total initial current is therefore
steady – state fault current.
typically 1.5 or 1.6 times the AC component alone.
• After the transient period, the fault current reaches a
• Symmetrical AC component of the fault current
steady – state condition Iss. This current is obtained by
dividing the induced voltage by the direct axis
synchronous reactance
EA
ISS =
Xd
• The time constant of the steady state current is denoted
as TA (armature time constant).
• The rms value of the AC fault current in a synchronous
generator varies over time as
t t
- -
I(t)=(I'' -I' )e T'' +(I' -ISS )e T' +ISS
• The direct axis sub transient and transient reactances are
defined as the ratio of the internal generated voltage to
the sub-transient and transient current components

Figure 109 Symmetrical AC Component of Fault Current

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 Power System Analysis and Design
EA EA transformer to a 500 kV circuit breaker and a 500 kV
Xd '' = Xd ' = transmission line. The generator reactances are Xd” = 0.17,
I'' I'
Turbo Water Wheel
Synchronous Synchronous Xd’ = 0.30, and Xd = 1.5 per unit, and its time constants are
Generator Generator (with
(solid rotor) dampers)
Condenser Motor Td” = 0.05, Td’ = 1.0, and TA = 0.10 s. The transformer series
Xd 1.1 1.15 1.80 1.20 reactance is 0.10 per unit; transformer losses and exciting
Xq 1.08 0.75 1.15 0.90 current are neglected. A three – phase short circuit occurs
Xd’ 0.23 0.37 0.40 0.35
Xq’ 0.23 0.75 1.15 0.90
on the line side of the circuit breaker when the generator is
Xd” 0.12 0.24 0.25 0.30 operated at rated terminal voltage and at no load. The
Xq” 0.15 0.34 0.30 0.40 breaker interrupts the fault 3 cycles after fault inception.
X2 0.13 0.29 0.27 0.35 Determine:
X0 0.05 0.11 0.09 0.16
R(dc) 0.003 0.012 0.008 0.01
a. the sub transient current through the breaker in per unit
R(ac) 0.005 0.012 0.008 0.01 and kA rms; and
R2 0.035 0.10 0.05 0.06 b. the rms asymmetrical fault current the breaker
Td0’ 5.6 5.6 9.0 6.0 interrupts, assuming maximum dc offset.
Td’ 1.1 1.8 2.0 1.4
Td” = Tq” 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.036
Neglect the effect of the transformer on the time constants.
Ta 0.16 0.15 0.17 0.15
Table 9 Typical average values of synchronous machine constants Short Circuit Calculations
Examples: Short Circuit Calculations can be done using the following
1. A 100 MVA, 13.8 kV, Y-connected, 3 phase 60 Hz methods:
synchronous generator is operating at the rated voltage and 1. The “impedance” method, used to calculate fault currents at
no load when a 3 – phase fault occurs at its terminals. Its any point in an installation with a high degree of accuracy.
reactances per unit to the machine’s own base are X = 1.0, This method involves adding the various resistances and
X’ = 0.28 and X’’ = 0.12 pu and the time constants are T’ = reactances of the fault loop separately, from (and including)
10 secs. And T’’ = 0.04 sec. The initial DC component the source to the given point, and then calculating the
averages 50% of the initial AC component. corresponding impedance. The Isc value is finally obtained
a. What is the AC component of current in this generator by applying Ohm’s law. All the characteristics of the various
the instant after the fault? elements in the fault loop must be known (sources and
b. What is the total current (AC + DC) in the generator wiring systems).
right after the fault occurs? 2. The “composition” method, which may be used when the
c. What will the AC component of the current be after 2 characteristics of the power supply are not known. The
cycles? After 5 s? upstream impedance of the given circuit is calculated on the
2. A 500 MVA 20 kV, 60 Hz synchronous generator with basis of an estimate of the short circuit current at its origin.
reactance Xd” = 0.15, Xd’ = 0.24, Xd = 1.1 per unit and time Power factor cos ϕ ≈ R / X is assumed to be identical at the
constants Td” = 0.035, Td’ = 2.0, TA = 0.20 s is connected to origin of the circuit and the fault location. In other words, it is
a circuit breaker. The generator is operating at 5% above assumed that the elementary impedances of two successive
rated voltage and at no – load when a bolted three – phase sections in the installation are sufficiently similar in their
short circuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The characteristics to justify the replacement of vectorial addition
breaker interrupts the fault 3 cycles after fault inception. of the impedances by algebraic addition. This approximation
Determine: may be used to calculate the value of the short circuit current
a. the sub transient fault current in per unit and kA rms; modulus with sufficient accuracy for the addition of a circuit.
b. maximum dc offset as a function of time; and 3. The “conventional” method, which can be used when the
c. rms asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker impedances or the ISC in the installation upstream of the
interrupts, assuming maximum dc offset. given circuit are not known, to calculate the minimum short
3. Two identical synchronous machines, each rated 60 MVA, circuit currents and the fault currents at the end of a line. It
15 kV, with a sub transient reactance of 0.1 pu, are is based on the assumption that the voltage at the circuit
connected through a line of reactance 0.1 pu on the base of origin is equal to 80% of the rated voltage of the installation
the machine rating. One machine is acting as a synchronous during the short circuit or the fault. Conductor reactance is
generator, while the other is working as a motor drawing 40 neglected for sizes under 150 mm2. It is taken into account
MW at 0.8 pf leading with a terminal voltage of 14.5 kV, when for large sizes by increasing the resistance 15% for 150
a symmetrical three – phase fault occurs at the motor mm2, 20% for 185 mm2, 25% for 240 mm2 and 30% for 300
terminals. Determine the sub transient currents in the mm2. This method is used essentially for final circuits with
generator, the motor, and the fault by using the internal origins sufficiently far from the source. It is not applicable in
voltages of the machines. Choose a base of 60 MVA, 15 kV installations supplied by a generator.
in the generator circuit. 4. Standard IEC 60909 (VDE 0102) applies to all networks,
4. A 1500 MVA 20 kV, 60 Hz three – phase generator is radial or meshed, up to 550 kV. This method, based on the
connected through a 1500 MVA 20 kV ∆/500 kV Y Thevenin theorem, calculates an equivalent voltage source

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 43

 Power System Analysis and Design
at the short circuit location and then determines the where
corresponding short circuit current. All network feeders as ∑ 𝑅 is the sum of series resistances
well as the synchronous and asynchronous machines are ∑ 𝑋 is the sum of series reactances
replaced in the calculation by their impedances (positive Phase – to – phase short circuit clear to earth
sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence). All line This is a fault between two phases, supplied with a phase – to –
capacitances and the parallel admittances of non – rotating phase voltage VLL. In this case, the short circuit current ISC2 is less
loads, except those of the zero – sequence system, are than that of a three – phase fault:
neglected.
The short circuit currents can be calculated based on the
impedance represented by the “circuit”. This impedance may be
calculated after separately summing the various resistances and
reactance’s in the fault loop, from (and including) the power
source to the fault location. Mathematically the short circuit
impedance (Zsc) is given by relation:
VLL √3ISC3
2 2 ISC2 = = ≈0.86ISC3
2ZSC 2
ZSC =√(∑ R) + (∑ X) For a fault occurring near rotating machines, the impedance of
the machines is such that ISC2 is close to ISC3.
where
Phase – to – neutral short circuit clear to earth
𝑍𝑆𝐶 is the total impedance This is a fault between one phase and the neutral, supplied with
∑ 𝑅 is the sum of series resistances a phase – to – neutral voltage
∑ 𝑋 is the sum of series reactances
The calculation of short circuit currents (Isc) is based on the Ohm’s
law:
Vn
ISC =
√3ZSC
where
The short circuit current ISC1 is:
𝐼𝑆𝐶 is the short circuit current (for three phase fault) VLL
𝑉𝑛 is the nominal network voltage at no – load (this is 3 to 5% ISC1 =
greater than the on – load voltage across the terminals). √3(ZSC +ZLN )
𝑍𝑆𝐶 is the total impedance In certain special cases of phase – to – neutral faults, the zero –
The short circuit currents values shall be different for the different sequence impedance of the source is less than ZSC (for example,
type of faults. at the terminals of a star – zigzag connected transformer or of a
Three Phase Short Circuit generator under sub transient conditions).
This fault involves all three phases. In this case, the phase – to – neutral fault current may be greater
than that of a three – phase fault.
Phase – to – earth fault (one or two phases)
This type of fault brings the zero – sequence impedance Z0 into
play.

Short circuit current ISC3 is equal to:

VLL
ISC3 =
√3ZSC
where The short circuit current ISC0 is:
ISC3 is the short circuit current for three phase fault VLL
ISC0 =
VLL is line to line voltage √3(ZSC +Z0 )
ZSC is the total impedance (𝑍𝐿 shown on the diagram is the line Except when rotating machines are involved (reduced zero
impedance) sequence impedance), the short circuit current ISC0 is less than
Calculation of the short circuit current requires only calculation of that of a three – phase fault. Calculation of ISC0 may be necessary,
ZSC and is given by depending on the neutral system (system earthing arrangement),
in view of defining the setting thresholds for the zero sequence
2 2
(HV) or earth fault (LV) protection devices.
ZSC =√(∑ R) + (∑ X)

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 Power System Analysis and Design
Summarizing, the maximum available current for AC circuits is 36 1000 1500
calculated for a three – phase bolted or solid fault. This is 52 – 72.5 3000 5000
generally considered as the fault which generates the highest Table 10
currents (except for conditions). When there are no rotary Short circuit kVA and X/R may need to be derived from other data.
machines, or when their action has decreased, this value When Utility Company Provides the Short Circuit Current
represents also the steady state short circuit current and is taken Short circuit current (ISC) is sometimes supplied by the Power
as reference to determine the breaking capacity of the protection Company rather than short circuit kVA. This current is the current
device. Minimum available current is calculated for a line to line in one phase of a three – phase bolted fault. The short circuit kVA
arcing fault. can then be calculated from the short circuit current using the
IMPEDANCE METHOD following equation.
Total fault current at any location in the power system includes √3ISC VLL 3ISC VLN
contributions from all sources such as network impedances, kVASC = =
1000 1000
transformers, motors, generators, cables and miscellaneous When Utility Company Provides the Power Factor instead of X/R
elements like capacitors, switchgear, rectifiers etc. The amount Power factor (PF) is sometimes specified instead of X/R. This
of impedance between the source and the short circuit location must be the short circuit power factor. Power factor is defined as
has a direct effect on the amount of short circuit current that will the cosine of the angle between voltage and current. X/R is the
flow during a fault. If the utility increases circuit conductor size, tangent of this same angle. X/R can be found from power factor
replaces the service transformer with a larger unit, or installs a by taking the tangent of the inverse cosine of the power factor.
new generating station near the customer, the available short X
circuit current will increase. If little impedance exists between the = tan ( cos-1 pf )
R
source of power and the location of the postulated fault, the When Utility Company Provides neither the X/R nor the Power
resulting short circuit can be very large, possibly more than Factor
100,000 A. When neither X/R nor power factor are specified, it is usually safe
Distribution Network Impedances to assume the impedance of the utility is all reactance and X/R is
Generally speaking, points upstream of the power source are not infinite. Unless there are many miles of transmission line, the
taken into account. Available data on the upstream network is impedance of the utility will be mainly reactance in the generator.
therefore limited to that supplied by the power distributor, i.e. only This is all the data needed for the utility. From this data, the
the short circuit power in MVA. Thus, the first step in analyzing a impedance (Z), resistance (R), and reactance (X) can be
power system is to get the data for the power available at the site, calculated manually as follows:
the utility data. The power company will be able to supply this 1. Calculating Impedance (Z)
information for the point in the power system where their Impedance is calculated from VLL and short circuit kVA.
responsibility for the power system ends and the customer’s
V2LL
responsibility starts. A common location for this point is the Z=
secondary of a pole or pad mounted transformer. If the customer kVASC (1000)
is responsible for the transformer, the transition point would be 2. Calculating Resistance (R) and Reactance (X)
the primary of the transformer. Sometimes a pole mounted Resistance and reactance are then calculated from the
disconnect will be the transition point. The power company will impedance using X/R.
specify where in the system their responsibility ends. Since: Z=√X2 +R2
To calculate the short circuit currents; it is necessary to know the R=
Z
and X=R ( )
X
network short circuit power (kVASC), the line to line voltage (VLL) 2 R
√1+(X)
and X/R. Short circuit kVA is the power available at a bolted three R

phase fault, which means all three phases connected together Resistance and reactance are calculated at the voltages for
with no added impedance. X/R is the ratio of reactance to the points in the circuit where the short circuit currents are
resistance in the supply. In a MV network the rated voltage is the calculated. For example, even though the utility voltage may
unique parameter usually known. The short circuit power can be 69 kV, if the short circuit currents are being calculated
indicatively vary from 250MVA to 500MVA for systems up to further down the circuit where the voltage is 2400 V, the
30kV. When the voltage level rises, the short circuit power can resistance and reactance will be calculated at 2400 V.
indicatively vary between 700MVA and 1500MVA. The voltage Calculate resistance and reactance for the utility at the utility
values of the MV distribution network and the relevant short circuit voltage and work down through a circuit, encountering
power values accepted by the Standard IEC 60076 – 5 are transformers. Applying the conservation of energy, energy
reported in table 10: into the transformer (V12/R1) equals energy out of the
Distribution
Short Circuit Short Circuit transformer (V22/R2).
Apparent Power Apparent Power V2 2
Network Voltage
(MVA) – European (MVA) – North R2 =R1 ( )
(kV) V1
Practice American Practice
7.2 – 12 – 17.5 – 24 500 500 where R2 = resistance at the secondary voltage

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 45

 Power System Analysis and Design

R1 = resistance at primary voltage R = line resistance

V2 = secondary voltage X = line reactance
V1 = primary voltage L = length of cable
Transformers Cable Resistance
Transformers are specified by output voltage (V), kVA rating, The resistance per unit length is calculated as
ρ
percent impedance (%Z), and X/R ratio. All this information, with R=
the exception of X/R, is usually on the transformer nameplate. If A
where
X/R is not specified on the nameplate, a value of 4.9 is typical and
A = cross – sectional area of the conductor
can be used in calculations. Impedance (Z) is calculated from V,
𝜌 = conductor resistivity; however the value used varies,
kVA, and %Z.
depending on the calculated short circuit current (minimum or
%Z V2 %Z V2 maximum)
Z= = *
100000kVA 100 VA The resistance values are generally given for a reference
Resistance and reactance are then calculated from Z and X/R as temperature of 20°C. Cables operating temperature has an effect
they were for the utility network. on the resistance of a cable. Most cables have a rated operating
Three Winding Transformers temperature of 90 °C. Aerial cable is rated 75 °C. The cables
The most common three winding transformers are usually have higher resistances at their rated operating temperature
specified like two separate transformers with no inter – winding ratings than at ambient temperature. The resistance at rated
impedance. When three winding transformers have separate inter operating temperature can be calculated from the resistance at
– winding impedance specified, it is usually specified as ambient temperature using the following formula.
reactance (X) and resistance (R) in ohms. Three sets of X and R R2 =R1 [1+α(T2 -T1 )]
must be supplied; primary – secondary (ps), primary – tertiary where
(pt), and secondary – tertiary (st). Xps and Rps are measured in
𝑅2 = resistance at operating temperature
the primary with the secondary short circuited and the tertiary
open. Xpt and Rpt are measured in the primary with the tertiary 𝑅1 = resistance at ambient temperature
short circuited and the secondary open. Xst and Rst are measured 𝑇2 = rated operating temperature
in the secondary with the tertiary short circuited and the primary 𝑇1 = ambient temperature
open. The three – winding transformer is modeled as follows. 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistivity which depends on the
type of material (for copper it is 3.95 × 10−3 corresponding to
temperature 𝑇1 at 20°C)
When calculating maximum available current, the resistance of
the cable at ambient temperature should be used. However, the
current that causes the cable to reach its highest temperature
The impedances are related by the following formulas.
may not be the maximum available current. If the cable is initially
Zps =Zp +Zs at a temperature between ambient and its rated operating
Zpt =Zp +Zt temperature and a short circuit occurs, it is possible that the cable
Zst =Zs +Zt will reach a higher final temperature at a current lower than the
Zp =0.5(Zps +Zpt -Zst ) maximum available current.
Zs =0.5(Zps +Zst -Zpt )
Zt =0.5(Zpt +Zst -Zps )
In the equations, all impedances must be referred to a common
voltage. Note that Xst and Rst are measured at the secondary
voltage. If all impedances are to be at the primary voltage, Xst and
Rst must be transferred.
CABLES
The impedance value of the cables and other connection
elements (overhead lines, bus bar etc) depends on different Cable Reactance
factors (constructional techniques, temperature, etc....) which Reactance of most cables is published by the manufacturer. The
influence the line resistance and the line reactance. These two reactance in ohms per 1000 feet of aerial cables with one foot
parameters expressed per unit of length are given by the spacing can be found with the following formula.
manufacturer of the cable. The impedance is generally expressed 1
by the following formula: XL =0.02298 ln ( )
GMR
Z=(R+X)*L GMR is the geometric mean radius in feet. It can be calculated by
where multiplying the wire outside diameter (OD) in inches by 0.03245.
Z = line impedance GMR≅Re-0.25 ≅0.3894D≅0.03245d

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 46

 Power System Analysis and Design
where the terminals, the motor supplies a current that disappears even
R = wire radius in feet more rapidly, according to time constants in the order of:
D = wire diameter in feet • 20 ms for single cage motors up to 100 kW
d = wire diameter in inches • 30 ms for double cage motors and motors above 100 kW
The reactance of aerial cable depends on the spacing between • 30 to 100 ms for very large HV slip ring motors (1,000 kW)
wires. For overhead lines, the reactance increases slightly in In the event of a short circuit, an asynchronous motor acts like a
proportion to the distance between conductors and therefore in generator to which impedance (sub transient only) of 20 to 25%
proportion to the operating voltage. Reactance at spacing other is attributed. Consequently, the large number of LV motors, with
than one foot can be calculated with the following formula. low individual outputs, may be a source of difficulties in that it is
not easy to foresee the average number of motors running that
ln(spacing)
xnew =xold [1+ ] will contribute to the fault when a short circuit occurs. Individual
1 calculation of the reverse current for each motor, taking into
ln ( )
GMR account the line impedance, is therefore a tedious and futile task.
The following average values can be used: Also when a fault condition occurs, power system voltage will
X = 0.3 ohm /km (LV lines) drop dramatically. All motors that are running at that time will not
X = 0.4 ohm /km (MV or HV lines) be able to sustain their running speed and as those motors slow
In general, a cable with a large cross sectional area has small in speed, the stored energy within their fields will be discharged
impedance. into the power line. The nominal discharge of a motor will
contribute to the fault a current equal to up to four times its full
load current.
Common practice, notably in the United States, is to take into
account the combined contribution to the fault current of all the
asynchronous LV motors in an installation. This reduces the
impedance at that point.
MOTORS Adding impedances in parallel is most easily done by first
For a motor the resistance is considered to be negligible and the converting resistance and reactance to conductance and
reactance value may be listed on the name plate along with the susceptance, adding the conductances and susceptances, and
horsepower rating. Motors have two values of reactance; sub – converting the conductance and susceptance back to resistance
transient and transient. and reactance. Conductance, susceptance, resistance, and
1. Sub – transient reactance is the reactance of the motor reactance are related by the following formulas.
during the first cycle of the short circuit. R X
2. Transient reactance is the reactance of the motor during the G= 2 2 -B= 2 2
R +X R +X
remainder of the short circuit. G -B
The sub – transient and transient reactances are usually given in R= 2 2 X= 2 2
per unit values and will vary depending on whether the motor is G +B G +B
where:
induction, 6 – pole synchronous, or 8 to 14 – pole synchronous.
R = resistance
It also varies between induction motors rated less than or equal
X = reactance
to 600 volts and induction motors rated greater than 600 volts.
G = conductance
Induction motors do not contribute to a short circuit after the first
B = susceptance
cycle. The typical values of sub – transient and transient
When sizing the transformer for motor loads, the fault current
reactance for are tabulated below.
contribution from the motors is typically not considered for sizing.
Sub – Transient Transient
However, the motor contribution must be considered when sizing
Type of Motor Reactance (per Reactance (per
unit) unit)
all branch circuit fuses and circuit breakers. The interrupting
DC 0.15 0.30
capacity ratings of feeder breakers must equal or exceed the total
6 – pole short circuit capacity available at the point of application.
0.15 0.23 GENERATORS
Synchronous
8 to 14 – pole Generators impedance calculations are not straightforward. The
0.20 0.30
Synchronous impedance of the generator, which is constituted practically by
Induction ≤ 600 V 0.25 - the reactance, only, has no definite value, but it varies instant by
Induction > 600 V 0.17 - instant, because the magnetic flux does not reach immediately
Asynchronous motor the steady state configuration. If the reactances are not available
When an asynchronous motor is cut from the network, it from the generator nameplate, the following values can be
maintains a voltage across its terminals that disappear within a indicated as order of quantity for the various reactances:
few hundredths of a second. When a short circuit occurs across 1. Sub – transient reactance: the values vary from 10% to 20%
in turbo alternators (isotropic machines with smooth rotor)

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 47

 Power System Analysis and Design
and from 15% to 30% in machines with salient pole rotor Capacitors will feed a short circuit just like motors and generators.
(anisotropic); The following formula calculates reactance for a capacitor using
2. Transient reactance: it can vary from 15% to 30% in turbo a tolerance of 15%.
alternators (isotropic machines with smooth rotor) and from 1.15V2
30% to 40% in machines with salient pole rotor (anisotropic); X=
1000kVAR
3. Synchronous reactance: the values vary from 120% to 200% where:
in turbo alternators (isotropic machines with smooth rotor) V = voltage
and from 80% to 150% in machines with salient pole rotor kVAR = kilovolt – amperes reactive
(anisotropic). What about special cases?
Table below lists typical values of reactance for DC and four types Other elements may add some impedance. This is the case for
of AC generators. The four types are two – pole turbine, four – harmonics filters and inductors used to limit the short circuit
pole turbine, salient pole with dampers and salient pole without current. They must, of course, be included in calculations, as well
dampers. as wound – primary type current transformers for which the
Sub – Transient Transient impedance values vary depending on the rating and the type of
Type of Generator Reactance (per Reactance (per construction. Below are some special cases that must be handled
unit) unit)
carefully.
DC 0.15 0.30 1. What if there is rectifier in the circuit? Efficiency is the only
2 – Pole Turbine 0.09 0.15
4 – Pole Turbine 0.14 0.23
rating needed for rectifiers. If no efficiency rating is specified,
Salient Pole with 99% can be assumed. Current through the rectifier is
0.20 0.30 reduced by the factor Efficiency (%) / 100.
Dampers
Salient Pole without 2. What if there is an automatic transfer switch? If the system
0.30 0.30
Dampers involves one or more transfer switches, the short circuit and
Reactance is calculated with the following formula. coordination studies must consider various possible
Xpu V2 operating parameters, such as source and load
X= configurations for these switches.
1000kVA 3. What if there is an emergency generator? If the system
where:
Xpu = per unit reactance includes one or more emergency generators, it will have a
V = voltage similar number of transfer switches. Each of the possible
kVA = kilovolt – ampere rating operating scenarios must then be considered when
Capacitors performing the short circuit and coordination studies.
A shunt capacitor bank located near the fault location will 4. What if the system is supported by a UPS or back – up
discharge, thus increasing the short circuit current. This damped battery? An uninterruptible power supply requires special
oscillatory discharge is characterized by a high initial peak value attention when performing a short circuit and coordination
that is superposed on the initial peak of the short circuit current, study. Since a UPS and battery represent a load during
even though its frequency is far greater than that of the network. normal operation but a source during utility outage
Depending on the timing between the initiation of the fault and the situations, the protective devices must be sized for either
voltage wave, two extreme cases must be considered: condition. Manufacturer recommendations must be
considered.
• If the initiation of the fault coincides with zero voltage, the
5. What if there is co – generation? Co – generation can
short circuit discharge current is asymmetrical, with a
present special difficulties since available fault current can
maximum initial amplitude peak
be high with a generating unit connected directly to the
• Conversely, if the initiation of the fault coincides with
system. Often the addition of a cogeneration facility will
maximum voltage, the discharge current superposes itself
require that protective equipment be replaced with higher
on the initial peak of the fault current, which, because it is
rated equipment.
symmetrical, has a low value
6. What about other miscellaneous equipment? Certain
It is therefore unlikely, except for very powerful capacitor banks,
devices (circuit breakers, contactors with blow – out coils,
that superposition will result in an initial peak higher than the peak
direct thermal relays, etc.) have an impedance that must be
current of an asymmetrical fault.
taken into account, for the calculation of short circuit current,
It follows that when calculating the maximum short circuit current,
when such a device is located upstream of the device
capacitor banks do not need to be considered. However, they
intended to break the given short circuit and remain closed
must nonetheless be considered when selecting the type of circuit
(selective circuit breakers). For LV circuit breakers, for
breaker.
example, a reactance value of 0.15 mΩ is typical, while the
During opening, capacitor banks significantly reduce the circuit
resistance is negligible. For breaking devices, a distinction
frequency and thus affect current interruption.
must be made depending on the speed of opening. Certain
Capacitors are specified by kVAR on their nameplates. This is
devices open very quickly and thus significantly reduce short
kVA reactive. If no tolerance is specified, 15% may be used.
circuit currents. This is the case for fast – acting, limiting
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 48
 Power System Analysis and Design
circuit breakers and the resultant level of electrodynamic travels 6000 feet through number 2/0, 15 kV, mine power feeder
forces and thermal stresses, for the part of the installation cable to an underground power center. The power center has a
concerned, remains far below the theoretical maximum. secondary voltage of 1040 volts and is rated 1350 kVA with 5.0%
MINIMUM AVAILABLE CURRENT impedance. Power then travels 850 feet through number 2/0, 2
Minimum available current is calculated for a line to line arcing kV, shielded trailing cable to a continuous miner. If a short circuit
fault using the following formula. occurs on the continuous miner at the point where the trailing
0.95VLL cable ends, what are the minimum and maximum available short
IMIN = circuit currents?
2ZMAX
where: Step 1: Utility impedance, using
VLL = line to line voltage 1040 V
ZMAX = maximum impedance 10402
Z= =0.01139 Ω
This formula is used for AC and the DC output from a three phase 95 M
rectifier. The factor of 0.95 accounts for voltage fluctuations. The 0.1139
R= =0.0021 Ω
maximum impedance is calculated from the maximum √1+(5.23)2
resistances and reactances for all the elements in the circuit. For X=0.0021(5.23)=0.0112 Ω
AC circuits, the current is further reduced by multiplying by an Step 2: Cable, ACSR #2 AWG
arcing fault factor, KA. This factor is listed in table below for d=0.316 in
various voltages. GMR≅0.03245d=0.0103
Voltage (V) KA 1
V ≤ 480 0.85 XL =0.02998 ln ( )
GMR
480 < V ≤ 600 0.90 =0.1052 Ω
600 < V ≤ 1040 0.95 Since it has 3 foot spacing:
1040 < V 1.0
For DC circuits the arc voltage depends on the current. First, the spacing Ω
Xnew =Xold [1+ ln ] =0.1305
current is calculated with the previous equation. If the calculated 1 1000 ft
ln ( )
current is greater than or equal to 600 amperes, the arc voltage GMR
is 60 volts. If the calculated current is less than 600 amperes, the 10402
arc voltage is calculated with the following formula X=0.1305(1.2)× =0.0001 Ω
1842-I
34.5kV2
[ ] Ω 1 mile
VARC =e 303
R75 =1.753 × ×1200=0.3984 Ω
where: mile 5280 ft
I = initially calculated current R75 R75
R20 = = =0.0003 Ω
The voltage is then reduced by the arc voltage and the available 1+α(75-20) 1+(0.00393)55
current is recalculated. Step 3: Substation
MAXIMUM AVAILABLE CURRENT 6.08(1040)2
Maximum available current for AC circuits is calculated for a three Z= =0.0066 Ω
10 MVA (100)
– phase bolted fault using the following equation. 0.0066
VLL R= =0.0013 Ω
IMAX-AC = √1+(4.9)2
√3ZMIN X=0.0013(4.9)=0.0064 Ω
where: Step 4: Power Cable, 2/0, 15 kV
VLL = line to line voltage 0.038 10402
ZMIN = minimum impedance 𝑋=6000 ft× ( ) =0.0016 Ω
1000 ft 124702
Maximum available current for DC circuits is calculated for a line
to line bolted fault using the following equation. 0.0792 10402
RMIN =6000 ft × ( ) =0.0033 Ω
VLL 1000 ft 124702
IMAX-DC =
2ZMIN RMAX =RMIN (1+α(90-20))=0.0042 Ω
where: Step 5: Power Center; Assuming X/R = 4.9
VLL = line to line voltage 5(1040)2
ZMIN = minimum impedance Z= =0.0401 Ω
1350 KVA (100)
Design Example 1: A mine is supplied by a 95 MVA of power at 0.0401
34.5 kV with an X/R ratio of 5.23. The power travels 1200 feet R= =0.0080 Ω
through number 2, ACSR aerial cable with three – foot spacing to √1+(4.9)2
a substation. The substation has a secondary voltage of 12.47 kV X=0.0080(4.9)=0.0393 Ω
and is rated 10 MVA with 6.08% impedance. The power then Step 6: Shielded Cable, 2/0

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 49

 Power System Analysis and Design
0.031 At the end of the aerial cable:
X= ×850=0.02635 Ω
1000 ft 345002
0.0839 ZMIN =√0.00572 +0.01292 =0.0141× =15.5164 Ω
RMIN = ×850=0.0713 Ω 10402
1000 ft 34500 2
RMAX =0.0713(1+0.00393(70))=0.0909 Ω ZMAX =√0.00672 +0.01292 =0.0145 × =15.9566 Ω
Step 7: Computing for short circuit current: 10402
0.95KA VLL 0.95(34500)
𝑅𝑀𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝑀𝐴𝑋 X IMIN = = =1056 A setting
2ZMAX 2(15.5164)
VLL 34500
Utility 0.0021 0.0021 0.0112 IMAX = = = 1248 A sizing
Aerial Cable 0.0003 0.0004 0.0001 √3ZMIN √3(15.9566)
Substation 0.0013 0.0013 0.0064 ❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 1.248
Power Feeder 0.0033 0.0042 0.0016 kA and sets at a minimum of 1.056 kA.
Power Center 0.0080 0.0080 0.0393 At the utility end:
Trailing Cable 0.0713 0.0909 0.0264 ZMIN =ZMAX =√0.00212 +0.01122
Total 0.0863 0.1069 0.085 345002
=0.0114× =12.5452 Ω
ZMIN =√0.08632 +0.0852 =0.1211 Ω 10402
0.95KA VLL 0.95(34500)
ZMAX =√0.10692 +0.0852 =0.1366 Ω IMIN =
2ZMAX
= =1306 A setting
2(12.5452)
0.95KA VLL 0.95(0.95)(1040) VLL 34500
IMIN = = =3436 A setting IMAX = = =1588 A sizing
2ZMAX 2(0.1366)
√3ZMIN √3(12.5452)
VLL 1040
IMAX = = =4958 A sizing ❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 1.588
√3ZMIN √3(0.1211)
kA and sets at a minimum of 1.306 kA.
❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 4.958
Design Example 2: Consider a 20 kV network that supplies a HV
kA and sets at a minimum of 3.436 kA.
/ LV substation via a 2 km overhead line, and a 1 MVA generator
At the end of the power center:
that supplies in parallel the bus bars of the same substation. Two
ZMIN =√0.0152 +0.05862 =0.0605 Ω 1,000 kVA parallel – connected transformers supply the LV bus
bars which in turn supply 20 outgoers to 20 motors, including the
ZMAX =√0.0162 +0.05862 =0.0607 Ω
0.95KA VLL 0.95(0.95)(1040)
one supplying motor M. All motors are rated 50 kW, all connection
IMIN = = =7757 A setting cables are identical and all motors are running when the fault
2ZMAX 2(0.0605)
VLL 1040 occurs. The ISC3 and IP values must be calculated at the various
IMAX = = =9892 A sizing fault locations indicated in the network diagram, that is:
√3ZMIN √3(0.0607)
❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 9.892 a. Point A on the HV bus bars, with a negligible impedance
kA and sets at a minimum of 7.757 kA. b. Point B on the LV bus bars, at a distance of 10 meters from
At the end of the power feeder: the transformers
124702 c. Point C on the bus bars of an LV sub distribution board
ZMIN =√0.0072 +0.01932 =0.0205× =2.9473 Ω d. Point D at the terminals of motor M
10402 Then the reverse current of the motors must be calculated
124702 at C and B, then at D and A.
ZMAX =√0.0082 +0.01932 =0.0209 × =3.0048 Ω
10402 At Fault A (HV bus bars):
IMIN =
0.95KA VLL 0.95(12470)
= =2010 A setting Upstream Network
2ZMAX 2(2.9473) (20kV)2
IMAX =
VLL
=
12470
=2396 A sizing Zup = =0.8 Ω
√3ZMIN √3(3.0048) 500 MVA
❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 2.396 Xup =0.98Zup =0.784 Ω
kA and sets at a minimum of 2.010 kA. Rup =0.2Xup =0.16 Ω
At the end of the substation: Overhead line (50 mm2)
124702 0.4
ZMIN =√0.00372 +0.01772 =0.0181× =2.6022 Ω XCO = ×2=0.8 Ω
10402 1 km
124702 0.018
ZMAX =√0.00382 +0.01772 =0.0181 × =2.6022 Ω RCO = ×2000=0.72 Ω
50 m
10402 Generator
0.95KA VLL 0.95(12470)
IMIN = = =2276 A setting 15 (20 kV)2
2ZMAX 2(2.6022)
VLL 12470 XG = × =60 Ω
IMAX = = =2767 A sizing 100 1 MVA
√3ZMIN √3(2.6022) RG =0.1XG =6 Ω
❖ The breaker to be use should have a size of at least 2.767 XA =(0.784+0.8)∥60=1.5433 Ω
kA and sets at a minimum of 2.276 kA.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 50
 Power System Analysis and Design

RA =(0.16+0.72)∥6=0.7674 Ω 410 V
IB = =35182.7305 A=ISC3
ZA =√X2A +R2A =1.7236 Ω
√3(6.7281 m)
R
-3( B )
20 kV k=1.02+0.98e XB =1.4605
IA = =6699.3533 A=ISC3 IPB =√2ISC3 k= 72667.1878 A
√3(1.7236) If Fault Arc occurs,
R
-3( A )
k=1.02+0.98e XA =1.2405 ISC3 (max)=0.8 ISC3 =28146.1844 A
IPA =√2ISC3 k=11753.0041 A IPB (max)=58133.75 A
ISC3 (min)=0.5 ISC3 =17591.3653 A
IPB (min)=36333.59 A
At Fault C (LV sub distribution board):
Circuit Breaker
Xcb =0.15 mΩ
Cable 1 (one 400 mm2 cable per phase)
0.15m
XC1 = ×80=12 mΩ
1m
ρl 80
RC1 = =0.036× =7.2 mΩ
A 400
XC =XB +0.15m+12m=18.6511 mΩ
RC =RB +7.2m=8.933 mΩ

ZC =√X2C +R2C =20.68 mΩ

410 V
IC = =11446.4995 A=ISC3
√3(20.68 m)
R
-3( C )
k=1.02+0.98e XC =1.2529
IPC =√2ISC3 k= 20282.0066 A
At Fault D (terminals of motor M):
Circuit Breaker
Xcb =0.15 mΩ
At Fault B (Main LV switchboard bus bars): Cable 2 (one 35 mm2 cable per phase)
Transformers 0.09m
1 5 4102 XC2 = ×30=2.7 mΩ
ZT = × × =4.2025 mΩ 1m
2 100 1MVA ρl 30
XT ≈ZT RC2 = =0.023× =19.3 mΩ
A 35
RT =0.2 XT =0.8405 mΩ XD =XC +0.15m+2.7m=21.5011 mΩ
Circuit Breaker RD =RC +19.3m=28.233 mΩ
Xcb =0.15 mΩ
Bus bars (1 – 400 mm2 bar per phase) ZD =√X2D +R2D =35.488 mΩ
0.15m
Xb = ×10=1.5 mΩ 410 V
1m ID = = 6670.2438 A=ISC3
ρl 10 m √3(35.488 m)
Rb = =0.023× =0.57 mΩ R
-3( D )
A 400 mm2 k=1.02+0.98e XD =1.0391
410 2
XB =XA ( ) +4.2025 mΩ+0.15 mΩ+1.5 mΩ IPD =√2ISC3 k= 9801.7292 A
20 kV Reverse Current of Motors:
=6.5011 mΩ It is often faster to simply consider the motors as independent
2
410 generators, injecting into the fault a “reverse current” that is
RB =RA ( ) +0.8405 mΩ+0.57 mΩ =1.733 mΩ superimposed on the network fault current.
20 kV
Motor (50 kW):
ZB =√X2B +R2B =6.7281 mΩ 25 4102
Xm = × =605 mΩ
100 50kW
( )
0.9(0.8)
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 51
 Power System Analysis and Design

Rm =0.2Xm =121 mΩ IMB =20IM =7431.9985 A

At Fault C: R
-3( M )
XM =605 m+2.7 m=607.7 mΩ k=1.02+0.98e XM =1.4999
RM =121 m+19.3 m=140.3 mΩ IPMB =√2IMB (1.4999)=15764.5986 A
If Fault Arc occurs,
ZM =√X2M +R2M =623.6853 mΩ The new steady state value and peak value is:
ISC3 (max)=IB +(0.8)IMB
410
IM = =379.5401 A =28146.1844+5945.5988=34091.7832 A
√3(623.6853m) IPC (max)=IPB +(0.8)IPB
IMC =20IM =7590.8027 A =58133.75+12611.6789=70745.4289 A
R
-3( M ) ISC3 (min)=IB +(0.5)IMB
k=1.02+0.98e XM =1.5103
=17591.3653 +3715.9993=21307.3646 A
IPMC =√2IMC (1.5103)=16213.0949 A IPC (min)=IPB +(0.5)IPB
The new steady state value and peak value is: =36333.59+7882.2993=44215.8893 A
ISC3 =IC +IMC =11446.4995+7590.8027=19036.5265 A or
IPC =IPC +IPMC =20282.0066+16213.0949=36495.1015 A 50kW
or IMB =4.8×20× =9387.8093 A
50kW √3(410)0.8(0.9)
R
IMC =4.8×20× =9387.8093 A -3( M )
√3(410)0.8(0.9) k=1.02+0.98e XM =1.4999
R
-3( M ) IPMB =√2IMB (1.4999)=19913.2232 A
k=1.02+0.98e XM =1.5103
If Fault Arc occurs,
IPMC =√2IMC (1.5103)=20051.2974 A The new steady state value and peak value is:
The new steady state value and peak value is: ISC3 (max)=IB +(0.8)IMB
ISC3 =IC +IMC =11446.4995+9387.8093=20833.5925 A =28146.1844+7510.2474=35656.4318 A
IPC =IPC +IPMC =20282.0066+20051.2974= 40333.304 A IPC (max)=IPB +(0.8)IPB
Note: The first approach uses the actual reactance of the motor =58133.75+15930.5786=74064.3286 A
to get the reverse current while the second one is from its name ISC3 (min)=IB +(0.5)IMB
plate rating times the ratio of the starting current over rated =17591.3653 +4693.9047=22285.27 A
current. From the value computed the first approach show a
IPC (min)=IPB +(0.5)IPB
conservative approach in terms of its reverse current.
=36333.59+9956.6116=46290.2016 A
At Fault D:
At Fault A:
607.7m
XMD = +2.7m=34.6842 mΩ 410
19 IMA =7431.9985 ( ) =152.356 A
140.3m 20kV
RMD = +19.3m=26.6842 mΩ or
19 410
IMA =9387.8093 ( ) =192.4501 A
ZMD =√X2MD +R2MD =43.7612 mΩ 20kV
The following values are negligible that is why,
410 20 kV
IMD = =5409.2121 A IA = =6699.3533 A≈ISC3
√3(43.7612m) √3(1.7236)
R R
-3( MD ) -3( A )
k=1.02+0.98e XMD =1.1175 k=1.02+0.98e XA =1.2405
IPMD =√2IMD (1.1175)= 8548.3752 A IPA ≈√2ISC3 k=11753.0041 A
The new steady state value and peak value is: Rough Calculation:
ISC3 =ID +IMD =6670.2438+5409.2121=12079.4559 A Ignoring small value of resistance and reactance,
IPC =IPD +IPMD =9801.7292+8548.3752= 18350.1044 A At Fault D:
At Fault B:
∑ X =4.2025m+1.5m+12m=17.7025 mΩ
XM =605 m+2.7 m+12m=619.7 mΩ
RM =121 m+19.3 m+7.2m=147.5 mΩ ∑ R =7.2m+19.3m=26.5 mΩ
ZM =√X2M +R2M =637.012 mΩ ZD =√R2 +X2 =31.8689 mΩ
410 410
IM = =371.5999 A I'D = =7427.5245 A
√3(637.012 m) √3(31.8689m)

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 Power System Analysis and Design
50kW It can also be expressed in terms of KVA and KV:
ID =I'D +4.8×20× (KVA)X
√3(0.8)(410)(0.9) %X= x 100
=16815.5338 A=ISC3 10(KV)2
Assuming k for both motor reverse current and fault d current where:
equal to 1, X – reactance in ohms
50kW If X is the only reactance element in the circuit, then the short
IPD =√2I'D +4.8×20× √2 circuit current is given by:
√3(0.8)(410)(0.9) V
=23780.7559 A ISC =
The said method is a quick evaluation for short circuit X
Hence,
computation with error remaining on the side of safety. 100
Symmetrical Faults are faults on the power system which give ISC =IFL ( )
rise to %X
Percentage reactance of an equipment depends upon its kVA
symmetrical
currents. They rating. Generally, the various equipment used in the power
system have different kVA ratings. Therefore, it is necessary to
occur when all the
three conductors find the percentage reactances of all the elements on a common
of a three – phase kVA rating. This common kVA rating is known as base kVA. The
value of this base kVA is quite unimportant and may be:
line are brought
together 1. equal to that of the largest plant
2. equal to the total plant capacity
simultaneously in
to a short circuit condition. This type of fault is may involve ground 3. any arbitrary value
or may not involve ground. This type of fault occurs infrequently The conversion can be effected by using the following relation:
base kVA
but leads to the most severe fault current flow against which the %X @ base value= ( ) %X @ rated kVA
system must be protected. The three – phase symmetrical fault rated kVA
on a line causes a collapse of the system voltage accompanied Short Circuit KVA (Short Circuit Capacity/Fault Level) is the
by an immediate reduction of power transmission capability to product of the normal system voltage and short circuit current at
naught. the point of fault and expressed in KVA.
Limitations: Let: V = nominal phase voltage in volts
1. Short circuit currents are limited by the impedance of the IFL = full load current at base KVA
system up to the point of the fault. %X = % reactance of the system on base KVA up
to the fault point
KVASC =3VISC /1000 but ISC =IFL ( 100⁄%X )
KVASC =KVAFL (100/%X)
Another important point is that the circuit breakers rated MVA
breaking capacity is based on three phase fault MVA. In fact high
precision is not necessary when calculating the three phase fault
2. The short circuit current from the generating station will have level because circuit breakers are manufactured in standard
a limited value by the impedance of the generator and sizes. Generally, for three phase fault calculation, the following
transformer and the point of the fault. Thus, the knowledge assumptions are made:
of the impedances of various equipment and circuits in the 1. The emfs of all generators are 1˂0° pu. This assumption
line of the system is very important for the determination of simplifies the problem and it means that the voltage is at its
short circuit currents. nominal value and the system is operating at no load at the
3. Per phase analysis can be considered, since the condition time if fault. Since all emfs are equal and in phase, all the
in the other phases are similar. generators can be replaced by a single generator.
The reactance of generators, transformers, reactors etc. is 2. Charging capacitances of the transmission line are ignored.
usually expressed in percentage reactance to permit rapid short 3. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances.
circuit calculations. Percentage Reactances is the percentage of Winding resistances, shunt admittances and Δ – Y phase
the total phase voltage drop in the circuit when full load current is shifts are neglected.
flowing. 4. The system resistances are neglected and only the inductive
IFL X reactance of different elements is taken into account.
%X= x 100
V Three Phase Short Circuit Calculations
where: Case 1: Simple Circuits and Loads ignored.
IFL – full load current The Calculations for the three – phase fault are easy because the
V – phase voltage circuit is completely symmetrical and calculations can be done for
X – reactance in ohms per phase only one phase.

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 Power System Analysis and Design
Steps in Solving Symmetrical Fault Calculations 2. A 3 – phase transmission line operating at 10 kV and having
1. Draw a single line diagram of the complete network a resistance of 1Ω and reactance of 4 Ω is connected to the
indicating the rating, voltage and percentage reactance of generating station bus bars through 5 MVA step – up
each element of the network. transformer having a reactance of 5%. The bus bars are
2. Choose a numerically convenient value of base kVA and supplied by a 10 MVA alternator having 10% reactance.
convert all percentage reactances to this base value. Calculate the short circuit kVA fed to symmetrical fault
3. Corresponding to the single line diagram of the network, between phases if it occurs
draw the reactance diagram showing one phase of the a. at the load end of transmission line
system and the neutral. Indicate the % reactances on the b. at the high voltage terminals of the transformer
base kVA in the reactance diagram. The transformer in the 3. The plant capacity of a 3 – phase generating station consists
system should be represented by a reactance in series. of two 10,000 kVA generators of reactance 12% each and
4. Find the total % reactance of the network using series, one 5000 kVA generator of reactance 18%. The generators
parallel and Delta – Wye transformations keeping the are connected to the station bus bars from which load is
identity of the fault point intact. Find the total reactance of taken through three 5000 kVA step – up transformers each
the system as seen from the fault point (Using Thevenin’s having a reactance of 5%. Determine the maximum fault
Theorem). MVA which the circuit breakers on low voltage side and high
5. Find the full load current corresponding to the selected base voltage side may have to deal with.
kVA and the normal system voltage at the fault point. Let it 4. The estimated short circuit MVA at the bus bars of a
be I. generating station A is 1500 MVA and of another station B
6. Solve for short circuit KVA and current. is 1200 MVA. The generated voltage at each station is 33
Per Unit Method kV. If these stations are interconnected through a line having
If the normal (rated) system voltage is taken as the base voltage, a reactance of 1Ω and negligible resistance, calculate the
the per unit pre – fault voltage at the fault point, Vfpu = 1.0 pu. possible short circuit MVA at both stations.
Hence, per unit fault (short – circuit) current is given by 5. Calculate the subtransient fault curent that results when a
Vfpu 1 three phase short circuit occurs at F, given that the
Ifpu = = transformer voltage on the high voltage side is 66 kV prior to
Xeqpu Xeqpu
the fault.
The actual fault current is
If =Ifpu ×Ibase
The per unit fault level or fault MVA or short – circuit MVA or short
– circuit capacity (SCC) is given by
1
MVAfpu =Vfpu ×Ifpu =
Xeqpu
The actual value of the fault MVA is given by
MVAb
MVAf =MVAfpu ×MVAb = 6. Three 10 MVA generators each having a reactance of 0.2
Xeqpu
pu are running in parallel. They feed a transmission line
Examples:
through a 30 MVA transformer having per unit reactance of
1. The Figure shows the single line diagram of a 3 – phase
0.05 pu. Find the fault MVA for a fault at the sending end of
system. The percentage reactance of each alternator is
the line.
based on its own capacity. Find the short circuit current that
7. An 11.2 kV bus – bar is fed from three synchronous
will flow into a complete 3 phase short circuit at F.
generators as shown. Calculate the fault current and MVA if
three phase symmetrical fault occurs on the bus – bar.

8. A transformer rated at 30 MVA and having a reactance of

0.05 pu is connected to the bus – bars of a transformer
station which is supplied through two 33 kV feeder cables
each having an impedance of (1 + j2). One of the feeder is
connected to a generating station with plant rated at 60 MVA
connected to its bus – bars having reactance of 0.10 pu and
the other feeder to a station with 80 MVA of generating plant

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 54

 Power System Analysis and Design
with reactance of 0.15 pu. Calculate the MVA supplied to the For such case, it is necessary to compute the terminal voltage at
fault in the event of a short circuit occuring between the fault location before fault takes place. This kterminal voltage is
secondary terminals of the transformer. known as the pre – fault voltage.
9. A three phase fault occurs in the system as shown in the Connecting the load to the system causes the current to flow in
Figure. Find the total fault current, the fault level and fault the network. Voltage drop due to system impedance cause the
current supplied by each generator. voltage magnitude at different buses to be deviated from 1.0 pu.
The pre – fault voltage and the ZTH are used in calculating the
fault current.
The fault current represents two components:
1. The Load Current
2. The Short Circuit Current
Consider a load (synchronous Motor) connected to a
synchronous generator through a transmission line. The circuit
10. Consider the single line diagram of a power system shown. model of the network could be represented as shown
The transient reactance of each part of the system is as
shown and expressed in pu on a common 100 MVA base.
Assuming that all generators are working on the rated
voltages, when a three – phase fault with impedance of j0.16
pu occurs at bus 5. Find: The fault currents and bus
voltages. Find the current flowing between buses 3 and 4
during symmetrical three phase fault at bus 5

Normal Operation Condition:

IG =IM =IL
During fault condition in the system, the generator as well as the
load (synchronous motor) will supply the faulted terminals with
power from the energy stored in their windings.

Fault Condition at Load Terminal:

IG =(IF )G +IL
IM =-(IF )M +IL
IF =(IF )G +(IF )M
Examples:
1. The Motor is drawing 40 MW at 0.8 pf leading with terminal
Case 2: Simple Circuits and Loads not ignored. voltage of 10.95 kV. Calculate the total current in the
Generally, the fault currents are much larger than the load generator and motor during 3 phase short circuit.
currents. Therefore, the load current can be neglected during fault
calculations.
There are some cases where considering the load current is an
essential factor in fault calculations. Superposition technique is
proposed for such cases to compute the fault current.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 55

 Power System Analysis and Design
2. A synchronous generator and a synchronous motor each b. Determine the voltages during the fault at buses 1, 3
rated 50 MVA, 11 kV having 20% sub transient reactance and 4.
are connected through a transformer and a line. The c. Compute the fault currents contributed to bus 2 by the
transformers are rated 50 MVA, 11/66 kV and 66/11 kV with adjacent unfaulted bus 1, 3 and 4.
leakage reactance of 10% each. The line has a reactance of d. Find the current flow in the line from bus 3 to bus 1.
10% on a base of 50 MVA, 66 kV. The motor is drawing 40 Assume the prefault voltage at bus 2 to be 1∠0 𝑝𝑢,
MW at 0.8 pf leading a terminal voltage of 10.5 kV when a and neglect all prefault currents.
symmetrical three phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Selection of Circuit Breakers
Find the sub transient current in the generator, motor and A circuit breaker is a mechanical switch capable of interrupting
fault. fault currents and of reclosing. When circuit breaker contacts
Case 3: Large Circuits separate while carrying current, an arc forms. The breaker is
For large circuits, the bus impedance matrix is used in solving for designed to extinguish the arc by elongating and cooling it. The
the three – phase short circuit current and same steps are use fact that ac arc current naturally passes through zero twice during
like in case 1 and case 2. 60 Hz cycle aids the arc extinction process.
Z11 Z12 … Z1n ⋯ Z1N 0 E1 (1) The selection of a circuit breaker for a location depends on the
maximum possible fault MVA (short circuit MVA) to be interrupted
Z21 Z22 ⋯ Z2n ⋯ Z2N 0 E2 (1)
⋮ with respect to the type and location of the fault, and generating
⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
= ⋮ capacity and synchronous motor load connected to the system.
Zn1 Zn2 ⋯ Znn ⋯ ZnN -IFn " -VF
… A three – phase symmetrical fault which is very rare in occurrence
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ generally gives the maximum fault MVA and a circuit breaker
[ZN1 ZN2 … ZNn ⋯ ZNN ] [ 0 ] [EN (1) ] must be capable of interrupting it. An exception is an L – G (line
IFn "=VF /Znn – to – ground) fault close to a synchronous generator. The rated
(1)
Zkn MVA interrupting (breaking) capacity of a circuit breaker must be
Ek =Zkn (-IFn ")=- (VF ) more than or equal to the fault MVA required to be interrupted.
Znn
Zkn From the current viewpoint, the following two factors are to be
Ek = (1- ) VF considered in selecting the circuit breaker:
Znn 1. The maximum instantaneous current which the circuit
Self – impedances: the diagonal elements of the bus impedance breaker must carry (withstand)
matrix. 2. The total current when the circuit breaker contacts part to
Mutual impedances: the off – diagonal elements of the bus interrupt the circuit
impedance matrix. Two of the circuit breaker ratings which require the computation
Examples: are: rated momentary current and rated interrupting current.
1. The bus impedance matrix for a three – bus power system Symmetrical momentary fault current is obtained by using sub
is transient reactances for synchronous machines. The current
0.12 0.08 0.04 which a circuit breaker must interrupt is usually asymmetrical
𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑗 [0.08 0.12 0.06] per unit since it contains the decaying dc component (dc offset current).
0.04 0.06 0.08 The asymmetrical momentary fault current is calculated by
where sub transient reactances were used to compute Zbus. multiplying the symmetrical fault current by a factor of 1.6 to
Prefault voltage is 1.0 per unit and prefault current is account for the presence of dc offset current.
neglected. The interrupting current is, of course, lower than the momentary
a. Draw the bus impedance matrix equivalent circuit (rake current and depends on the speed of the breaker, such as, 8, 5,
equivalent). Identify the per unit self and mutual 3, or 2 cycles, which is a measure of the time from the occurrence
impedances as well as the pre – fault voltage in the of the fault to the extinction of the arc. Breakers of various speeds
circuit. are classified by their rated interrupting times. The rated
b. A three – phase short circuit occurs at bus 2. Determine interrupting time of a circuit breaker is the period between the
the sub transient fault current and the voltage at buses instant of energizing the trip circuit and the arc extinction on an
1, 2 and 3 during the fault. opening operation. The tripping delay time which is usually
2. A single line diagram of a four – bus system forms the assumed to be ½ cycle for relays to pick up precedes the rated
following impedance matrix: interrupting time.
0.25 0.2 0.16 0.14 Initiation of short Energization of Parting of Extinction of arc
0.2 0.23 0.15 0.151 circuit trip circuit primary on primary
𝑍𝑏𝑢𝑠 = 𝑗 [
0.196 0.1
] per unit arcing contacts
0.16 0.15
contacts
0.14 0.151 0.1 0.195 Time Opening Time Arcing Time
Let a three – phase fault occurs at bus 2 of the network. Tripping Delay Interrupting Time
a. Calculate the initial symmetrical RMS current in the Contact Parting Time
fault.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 56

 Power System Analysis and Design
A simplified method for breaker selection is called the “E/X Related Required Capabilities
Current Values
simplified method”. The maximum symmetrical short circuit 3 – Second Closing
Max
current at the system location in question is calculated from the Rated Values Rated
Symmetrical
Short Time and
Max Current Latching
prefault voltage and system reactance characteristics, using Voltage
Interrupting
Capability
Carrying Capability
Divided Capability
computer programs. Resistances, shunt admittances, non – Rated by K K Times Rated Short Circuit
1.6K Times
Rated
rotating impedance loads, and prefault load currents are Rated Permissible (kV, Current Short
Interrupting Tripping rms) Circuit
neglected. Then, if the X/R ratio at the system location is less than (Cycles) Delay (kA, rms) (kA, rms) Current
15, a breaker with a symmetrical interrupting capacity equal to or (Seconds) (kA, rms)

above the calculated current at the given operating voltage is 5 2 5.8 24 24 38

5 2 12 23 23 37
satisfactory. However, if X/R is greater than 15, the dc offset may 5 2 12 24 24 38
not have decayed to a sufficiently low value. In this case, a 5 2 23 36 36 58
method for correcting the calculated fault current should not be 5 2 40 21 21 33
greater than 80% of the breaker interrupting capability. 5 2 60 23 23 37
5 1 121 20 20 32
Preferred ratings for outdoor circuit breakers (symmetrical 3 1 121 40 40 64
current basis of rating) (Application Guide for AC High – 3 1 121 40 40 64
Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current 3 1 121 63 63 101
Basis, ANSI C37.010) 3 1 121 40 40 64
Rated Values
3 1 121 63 63 101
Identification
Voltage Current 3 1 145 20 20 32
Rated 3 1 145 40 40 64
Rated
Nominal
Rated
Rated Continuous
Short 3 1 145 40 40 64
Nominal 3 – Max Circuit 3 1 145 63 63 101
Voltage Voltage Current at
Phase MVA Voltage Current (at
Class (kV,
Class (kV,
Range Factor 60 Hz
Rated Max 3 1 145 80 80 128
rms) (K) (Amperes,
rms)
rms)
kV) 3 1 145 40 40 64
(kA, rms) 3 1 145 63 63 101
14.4 250 15.5 2.67 600 8.9 3 1 145 80 80 128
14.4 500 15.5 1.29 1200 18 3 1 169 16 16 26
23 500 25.8 2.15 1200 11 3 1 169 31.5 31.5 50
34.5 1500 38 1.65 1200 22 3 1 169 40 40 64
46 1500 48.3 1.21 1200 17 3 1 169 50 50 80
69 2500 72.5 1.21 1200 19 3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
115 121 1.0 1200 20 3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
115 121 1.0 1600 40 3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
115 121 1.0 2000 40 3 1 242 40 40 64
115 121 1.0 2000 63 3 1 242 40 40 64
3 1 242 63 63 101
115 121 1.0 3000 40
3 1 362 40 40 64
115 121 1.0 3000 63 3 1 362 40 40 64
138 145 1.0 1200 20 2 1 550 40 40 64
138 145 1.0 1600 40 2 1 550 40 40 64
138 145 1.0 2000 40 2 1 765 40 40 64
138 145 1.0 2000 63 2 1 765 40 40 64
138 145 1.0 2000 80 Terms and Definitions Used with Circuit Breakers
138 145 1.0 3000 40 1. Rated maximum voltage: Designates the maximum rms
138 145 1.0 3000 63 line – to – line operating voltage. The breaker should be
138 Not 145 1.0 3000 80 used in systems with an operating voltage less than or equal
161 169 1.0 1200 16 to this rating.
161 169 1.0 1600 31.5 2. Rated low frequency withstand voltage: The maximum
161 Applicable 169 1.0 2000 40 60 Hz rms line – to – line voltage that the circuit breaker can
161 169 1.0 2000 50
withstand without insulation damage.
230 242 1.0 1600 31.5
3. Rated impulse withstand voltage: The maximum crest
230 242 1.0 2000 31.5
230 242 1.0 3000 31.5
voltage of a voltage pulse with standard rise and delay times
230 242 1.0 2000 40 that the breaker insulation can withstand.
230 242 1.0 3000 40 4. Rated voltage range factor K: The range of voltage for
230 242 1.0 3000 63 which the symmetrical interrupting capability times the
345 362 1.0 2000 40 operating voltage is constant.
345 362 1.0 3000 40 5. Rated continuous current: The maximum 60 Hz rms
500 550 1.0 2000 40 current that the breaker can carry continuously while it is in
500 550 1.0 3000 40 the closed position without overheating.
700 765 1.0 2000 40
700 765 1.0 3000 40

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 Power System Analysis and Design
6. Rated short circuit current: The maximum rms 2. A three phase circuit breaker has a 15.5 kV rated maximum
symmetrical current that the breaker can safely interrupt at voltage, 9 kA rated short circuit current, and a 2.67 rated
rated maximum voltage. voltage range factor.
7. Rated momentary current: The maximum rms a. Determine the symmetrical interrupting capability at 10
asymmetrical current that the breaker can withstand while in kV and 5 kV operating voltages.
the closed position without damage. Rated momentary b. Can this breaker be safely installed at a three phase
current for standard breakers is 1.6 times the symmetrical bus where the symmetrical fault current is 10 kA, the
interrupting capability. operating voltage is 13.8 kV, and the (X/R) ratio is 12?
8. Rated interrupting time: The time in cycle on a 60 Hz basis 3. A 500 kV three phase transmission line has a 2.2 kA
from the instant the trip coil is energized to the instant the continuous current rating and a 2.5 kA maximum short time
fault current is cleared. overload rating, with a 525 kV maximum operating voltage.
9. Rated interrupting MVA: For a three – phase circuit Maximum symmetrical fault current on the line is 30 kA.
breaker, this is √3 times the rated maximum voltage in kV Select a circuit breaker for this line.
times the rated short circuit current in kA. It is more common 4. A 69 kV circuit breaker has a voltage range factor K = 1.21,
to work with current and voltage ratings than with MVA a continuous current rating of 1200 A, and a rated short
rating. circuit current of 19000 at the maximum rated voltage of 72.5
Types of Circuit Breaker According to Voltage kV. Determine the maximum symmetrical interrupting
1. Power Circuit Breaker (more than 1500 V) capability of the breaker. Also, explain its significance at
2. Low Voltage Circuit Breaker (up to 1500 V) lower operating voltages.
Types of Circuit Breaker According to Medium Fuses
1. Air The fuse consists of a metal “fusible” link or links encapsulated in
2. Oil a tube, packed in filler material, and connected to contact
3. SF6 terminals. Silver is a typical link metal, and sand is a typical filler
4. Gas material.
5. Vacuum During normal
Simplified Method of Selection of Circuit Breakers operation, when the
Interrupting Capacity – The current in which the circuit breaker fuse is operating
must be able to interrupt at the time contacts apart. below its continuous
KAIC = Factor x ISC current rating, the
For Circuit Breaker above 600 V electrical resistance of
Factor Duty Cycle the link is so low that it
simply acts as a
1.0 8
conductor. If an
1.1 5
overload current from one to about six times its continuous
1.3 3
current rating occurs and persists for more than a short interval
1.2 2
of time, the temperature of the link eventually reaches a level that
1.4 15
causes a restricted segment of the link to melt. A gap is then
For Circuit Breaker below 600 V formed and an electric arc is established. As the arc causes the
KAIC = ISC link metal to burn back, the gap width increases. The resistance
Momentary Current Rating – the current which a breaker carry of the arc eventually reaches such a high level that the arc cannot
immediately after the fault occurs. be sustained and it is extinguished. The current flow within the
MCR = factor x ISC fuse is then completely cut off.
For Circuit Breaker above 600 V If the fuse is subjected to fault currents higher than about six times
Factor its continuous current rating, several restricted segments melt
1.6 HV above 5kV simultaneously, resulting in rapid arc suppression and fault
Directly feed from generator clearing. Arc suppression is accelerated by the filler material in
1.5 (remote from the station) the fuse.
600 to 5000 V Terms and Definitions Used with Fuses
For Circuit Breaker below 600 V 1. Voltage Rating: This rms voltage determines the ability of
MCR = 1.25 ISC fuse to suppress the internal arc that occurs after the fuse
Examples: link melts. A blown fuse should be able to withstand its
1. The Calculated symmetrical fault current is 17 kA at a three voltage rating. Most low voltage fuses have 250 or 600 V
phase bus where the operating voltage is 64 kV. The X/R ratings. Ratings of medium voltage fuses ranges from 2.4 to
ratio at the bus is unknown. Select the proper circuit breaker 34.5 kV.
for this bus. 2. Continuous current Rating: The fuse should carry this rms
current indefinitely, without melting and clearing.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 58

 Power System Analysis and Design
3. Interrupting current Rating: This is the largest rms • It is difficult to cool large coils of the reactors by fans.
asymmetrical current that the fuse can safely interrupt. Most • The use of these reactors is limited to system voltage
modern, low voltage current limiting fuses have a 200 kA of 33 kV
interrupt rating. Standard interrupt ratings for medium 2. Magnetically shielded type or oil – immersed type
voltage current limiting fuses include 65, 80 and 100 kA. • High factor of safety against flashover
4. Time Response: The melting and clearing time of a fuse • Smaller size
depends on the magnitude of the overcurrent or fault current, • High thermal capacity
and is usually specified by a Terms and Definitions Used with Reactors
“time – current” curve. 1. Rated Current It is the rms value of the current which the
Selection of High Voltage Fuses reactor can carry continuously without exceeding a specified
Three Phase KVA Interrupting Duty (KVAID) temperature rise dependent on the type of insulation used.
KVAID = KVASC (For Current Limiting Fuses above 600 V) 2. Rated Short Circuit Current It is the rms value of the
Kilo Ampere Interrupting Capacity or Duty (KAIC) symmetrical fault current which the reactor can carry for
KAIC = Factor x ISC specified short time.
For Current Limiting fuses above 600V 3. Over Current Factor It is the ratio of rms symmetrical
Factor: 1.6 through fault current to rated current.
For Low voltage fuses below 600V 4. Over Current Time It is the time in seconds that the reactor
Factor: 1.25 can carry the above fault current without suffering damage.
Reactor Control of Short Circuit Currents 5. Rated Voltage It is the line to line system voltage for which
With the fast expanding power system, the fault level (i.e. the the reactor is designed.
power available to flow into a fault) is also rising. The circuit 6. Short Circuit Rating The reactors should be capable of
breakers connected in the power system must be capable of withstanding the mechanical and thermal stresses during
dealing with maximum possible short circuit currents that can short circuit at its terminals for a specified period of time.
occur at their points of connection. Generally, the reactance of Location:
the system under fault conditions is low and fault currents may 1. In series with each generator
rise to a dangerously high value. If no steps are taken to limit the 2. In series with each feeder
value of these short circuit currents, not only will the duty required 3. In bus bars
of circuit breakers be excessively heavy, but also damage to lines Generator Reactor – when the reactors are connected in series
and other equipment will almost certainly occur. with each generator.
In order to limit the short circuit currents to a value which the
circuit breakers can handle, additional reactances known as
reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable
points.
A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large
inductance as compared to its ohmic resistance. The forces on
the turns of these reactors under short circuit conditions are
considerable and, therefore, the windings must be solidly braced.
It may be added that due to very small resistance of reactors,
there is very little change in the efficiency of the system.
Advantages:
1. Reactors limit the flow of short circuit current and thus
protect the equipment from overheating as well as from
failure due to destructive mechanical forces.
2. Troubles are localized or isolated at the point where they Disadvantages:
originate without communicating their disturbing effects to 1. There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the
other parts of the power system. This increases the chances reactors even during normal operation.
of continuity of supply. 2. If a bus bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus bar, the
3. They permit the installation of circuit breakers of lower rating. voltage at the bus bar will be reduced to a low value, thereby
Types causing the generators to fall out of step.
1. Unshielded type or dry type 3. If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply to
• These reactors are not suitable for outside service other is likely to be affected.
since they do not conform to the usual metal clad switch Feeder Reactor – the reactors are connected in series with each
gear principle. feeder.
• These reactors require large space because the
magnetic field due to load current is practically
unrestricted.

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 Power System Analysis and Design
b. Tie Bar System

Advantages:
1. If a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactors Advantages:
will not affect the busbar voltage, thus there is little tendency 1. There are effectively two reactors in series between
for the generator to lose synchronism. sections so that the reactors must have
2. The fault on the other feeder will not affect the other feeders approximately half the reactance of those used in
and consequently the effects of faults are localized. comparable ring system.
Disadvantages: 2. Additional generators may be connected to the
1. There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the system without requiring changes in the existing
reactors even during normal operation. reactors.
2. If a short circuit occurs at the bus bars, no protection is Examples:
provided to the generators. However, this is of little 1. A 3 phase, 20 MVA, 10 kV alternator has internal reactance
importance because such faults are rare and modern of 5% and negligible resistance. Find the external reactance
generators have considerable leakage reactance to enable
per phase to be connected in series with the alternator so
them to withstand short circuit across their terminals.
3. If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder that steady current on short circuit does not exceed 8 times
reactors will have to be increased to keep the short circuit the full load current.
currents within the ratings of the feeder circuit breakers. 2. Three 20 MVA generators, each with 0.15 pu reactance, are
Bus bar Reactors – the reactors are located in the busbars connected through three reactors to a common bus – bar of
a. Ring System voltage 11 kV. Each feeder connected to the generator side
In this system, busbar is divided into sections and these of a reactor has 200 MVA circuit breaker. Determine the
sections are connected through reactors as shown. minimum value of reactor reactance.
3. The section bus bars A and B are linked by a bus bar reactor
rated at 5000 kVA with 10% reactance. On bus bar A, there
are two generators each of 10,000 kVA with 10% reactance
and on B two generators each of 8000 kVA with 12%
reactance. Find the steady MVA fed into a dead short circuit
between all phases on B with bus bar reactor in the circuit.

Advantages:
1. Under normal operating conditions, each generator
will supply its own section of the load and very little 4. A three phase short – circuit fault occurs at point F in the
power will be fed by other generators. system show. Calculate the fault current.
2. Low power loss and voltage drop in the reactors
3. If a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator
mainly feeds the fault while the current fed from other
generators is small due to the presence of the
reactors.

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 Power System Analysis and Design
5. A small generating station has two alternators of 3000 kVA symmetrical through its main elements: generators, transmission
and 4500 kVA and percentage reactances of 7% and 8% lines, synchronous reactors etc.
respectively. The circuit breakers have a rupturing capacity There are three ways in which unsymmetrical faults may occur in
of 150 MVA. It is desired to extend the system by a supply a power system:
from the grid via a transformer of 7500 kVA and 7·5% i. Single line – to – ground fault (L — G)
reactance. Find the reactance of the reactor connected in
the bus bar section to prevent the circuit breakers being
overloaded, if a symmetrical short circuit occurs on an
outgoing feeder connected to it. Assume the bus voltage =
3300 V.

Single Line to Ground Fault

6. Find the reactance per phase external to a generator with

0.06 pu internal reactance such that the steady current on
short circuit shall not exceed 8 times the full load current.
The generator rating is three phase, 10 MVA, 0.8 pf and 11
KV.
7. The main bus – bars in a generating station are divided into
three sections, each section being connected to a tie – bar
lay a similar reactor. One 20 MVA, three phase, 50 Hz, 11 Line – to Ground Fault on Phase A
kV generator, having a short circuit reactance of 0.15 pu, is ISCLG =Ia
connected to each section bus – bar. When a short circuit but Ia =Ia0 +Ia1 +Ia2
takes place between the phases of one of the section bus – since Ib =Ic =0 then Ia0 =Ia1 =Ia2
bars, the voltage on the remaining section falls to 60 percent thus, Ia =3Ia1 =3Ia2 =3Ia0
of the normal value. Calculate the reactance of each reactor.
8. The diagram shows a sample power system. If the circuit
breaker used is of 2000 MVA, calculate the capacity of the
reactor in case of the fault occuring at point F, so that the
circuit breaker could be used quite safely.

Sequence Network Connection for Single Line – to – Ground

Fault
By KVL:
Ea -Ia1 Z1 -Ia2 Z2 -Ia0 (Zo +3Zf )=0
Those faults on the power system which give rise to Therefore:
unsymmetrical fault currents (i.e. unequal fault currents in the Ea
lines with unequal phase displacement) are known as Ia1 =
unsymmetrical faults. Z1 +Z2 +Z0 +3Zf
3Ea
On the occurrence of an unsymmetrical fault, the currents in the ISCLG =
three lines become unequal and so is the phase displacement Z1 +Z2 +Z0 +3Zf
among them. It may be noted that the term ‘unsymmetry’ applies If %Z:
only to the fault itself and the resulting line currents. However, the 3Irated ×100
system impedances and the source voltages are always ISCLG =
%Z1 +%Z2 +%Z0 +3%Zf
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 61
 Power System Analysis and Design
If Zpu: Therefore:
3Ibase Ea
ISCLG = Ia1 =
Z1pu +Z2pu +Z0pu +3Zfpu Z1 +Z2 +Zf
Zf = 0 if bolted fault and it is equal to the arc impedance for an Consider Ib:
arcing fault. Ib =Ib0 +Ib1 +Ib2
ii. Line – to – line fault (L — L) Ib =A2 Ia1 -AIa1 =√3Ia1
√3Ea
ISCLL =√3Ia1 =
Z1 +Z2 +Zf
If %Z:
√3Irated ×100
ISCLL =
%Z1 +%Z2 +%Zf
If Zpu:
√3Ibase
ISCLL =
Z1pu +Z2pu +Zfpu
Zf = 0 if bolted fault and it is equal to the arc impedance for an
arcing fault.
iii. Double line – to – ground fault (L — L — G)
Line to Line Fault (2 – phase Fault)

Double Line to Ground Fault

Line – to – Line Fault between Phase B and Phase C

ISCLL =Ib =Ic
but Ia1 =-Ia2
since Ia =Ia0 =0

Double Line to Ground Fault between Phase B and Phase C

ISCDLG =3Ia0
1
but Ia0 = (Ib +Ic )
3
since Ia =0

Sequence Network Connection for Line – to – Line Fault

By KVL:
Ea -Ia1 Z1 +Ia2 (Z2 +Zf )=0
Ea -Ia1 (Z1 +Z2 +Zf )=0

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 Power System Analysis and Design
The generator neutral is solidly grounded. Find the values of
the three sequence reactances of the alternator. Ignore
resistances.
6. The diagram shows a power network. The far end of the line
is connected to an infinite bus. Data for this system are given
below. (a) Draw the positive, negative and zero – sequence
networks. (b) when both the generators and infinite bus
operating 1.0 pu voltage on no load, a L – G fault occurs at
Sequence Network Connection for Double Line to Ground Fault one of the terminals of transformer T1. Calculate the fault
Ea current.
Ia1 = Positive Negative Zero
Z (Z +3Z )
Z1 + 2 0 f G1 0.15 0.15 0.08
Z2 +Z0 +3Zf G2 0.25 0.25 -
By CDR: T1 & T2 0.15 0.15 0.15
Z2 Line 0.20 0.20 0.40
Ia0 =Ia1
Z2 +Z0 +3Zf Infinite 0.15 0.15 0.05
Ea Z2 bus
Ia0 = 7. A 11 kV, 30 MVA generator has x1 = x2 = 0.2 pu and x0 =
Z1 (Z2 +Z0 +3Zf )+Z2 (Z0 +3Zf )
3Ea Z2 0.05 pu, a line to ground fault occurs on the generator
ISCDLG = terminal. Find the fault current and line to line voltages
Z1 (Z2 +Z0 +3Zf )+Z2 (Z0 +3Zf ) during fault conditions. Assume that the generator neutral is
solidly grounded.
If %Z:
3Irated ×100×%Z2
ISCDLG =
%Z1 (%Z2 +%Z0 +3%Zf )+%Z2 (%Z0 +3%Zf )
If Zpu:
3Ibase ×Z2pu
ISCDLG = 8. A 50 MVA, 11 kV, three phase alternator was subjected to
Z1pu (Z2pu +Z0pu +3Zfpu )+Z2pu (Z0pu +3Zfpu ) different types of faults. The fault currents were: 1870 A for
Zf = 0 if bolted fault and it is equal to the arc impedance for an three phase fault, 2590 A for line – line fault and 4130 for
arcing fault. line – ground fault. The alterantor neutral is solidly grounded.
Examples: Find the three sequence reactances of the alternator.
1. A 3 phase AC generator rated 125 MVA, 13.8 kV, has a 9. The network shows a sample power system. A double line
positive, negative and zero reactances of 5%, 5% and 2% to ground fault occurs on phases b and c at point F in the
respectively. If this generator is grounded through a system. Find the fault current in phase c of G1. Both the
resistance of 0.2 Ω. Calculate the following: machines are rated 1.2 MVA, 0.6 kV with x1 = x2 = 0.10 pu
a. Fault current for a three phase fault and x0 = 0.05 pu. Transformers are 1.2 MVA each with
b. Fault current for a two phase fault leakage reactance of 0.05 pu. Transmission line reactances
c. Fault current for a single line to ground fault of the neutral grounding reactors are 0.50 pu on the MVA
d. Fault current for a double line to ground fault base of machines.
2. Three single phase transformer each rated 100 kVA, 24 kV
primary and 277 V secondary with 4% impedance have their
primary connected in delta and secondary in wye. What is
the fault current delivered for a 2 phase fault?
3. A 3 phase, 11 kV, 30 MVA turbo alternator has a positive 10. A 30 kV, 50 MVA generator having a solidly grounded
equal to negative reactance of 0.15 pu and zero sequence neutral and x1 = 0.25 pu, x2 = 0.15 pu and x0 = 0.05. What
reactance of 0.02 pu. Calculate the fault current for a line to reactance must be placed in the generator neutral to limit the
line fault. fault current for bolted L – G fault to that for a bolted three
4. At a certain point of a power system network of positive, phase fault?
negative and zero sequence impedances of 0.25 pu, 0.25 11. What reactance must be placed in the neutral of problem 20
pu and 0.30 pu respectively. The base MVA is 100. The to limit the magnitude of the fault current for a bolted line –
voltage level at that point is 34.5 kV. Determine zero to – ground fault to that for a bolted three phase fault.
sequence component for a one line to ground fault. 12. A three phase, 10 MVA, 11 kV generator with a solidly
5. A 50 MVA, 11 kV three – phase alternator was subjected to earthed neutral point supplies a feeder. For generator xg1 =
different types of faults. The fault currents are as under: 1.2 Ω, xg2 = 0.9 Ω and xg0 = 0.4 Ω. For feeder xL1 = 1.0 Ω, xL2
3 – Phase fault = 2000 A; Line – to – Line fault = 2600 A; = 1.0 Ω and xL3 = 1.0 Ω. A L – G fault occurs at the far end
Line – to – ground fault = 4200 A

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 63

 Power System Analysis and Design
of the feeder. Determine the voltage to neutral of the faulty the contributions to the fault currents are shited by ± 30°, which
phase at the terminals of the generator. affects both the magnitude as well as the angle of the phase
13. A 3 kV, 3 MVA altenrator has a solidly earthed neutral point. components of these fault contributions for unsymmetrical faults.
Its positive, negative and zero sequence reactances are 2.4 Sequence Bus Impedance Matrix
Ω, 0.45 Ω and 0.3 Ω respectively. The alternator was The bus impedance matrix use in solving balanced fault is the
operating on no load, sustains a resistive fault between the positive sequence component of a given network. The same
‘a’ phase and the earth, this fault has a resistance of 1.2 Ω. process will be done in unbalanced fault calculation wherein it is
Calculate the fault current and the voltage to earth of the ‘a’ extended by representing each sequence network as a bus
phase. impedance equivalent circuit (or as a rake equivalent). A bus
14. Two identical star connected synchronous generators, one impedance matrix can be computed for each sequece network by
of which has its star point grounded, supply 11 kV bus bars. inverting the corresponding bus admittance network. For
An 11/66 kV ∆/Y connected transformer with the star point simplicity, resistances, shunt admittances, nonrotating
grounded is supplied from the bus bars. The impedances impedance loads, and prefault load currents are neglected.
which are referred to 11 kV are given as: xg1 = 3.0 Ω, xg2 = Single Line – to – Ground Fault
2.0 Ω and xg0 = 1.0 Ω and for transformer xT1 = 3.0 Ω, xT2 = VF
3.0 Ω and xT0 = 3.0 Ω. Determine the fault current for a In-0 =In-1 =In-2 =
Znn-0 +Znn-1 +Znn-2 +3ZF
simple earth fault (a) on a bus bar and (b) at an HV terminal Line – to – Line Fault
of the alterantor. Find also the voltage of the two healthy bus VF
bars in case (a). In-1 =-In-2 =
15. A three phase 75 MVA, 0.8 power factor (lagging), 11.8 kV Znn-1 +Znn-2 +ZF
Y – connected alternator which has its star point solidly In-0 =0
grounded supplied a feeder. Given that xg1 = 1.70 pu, xg2 = Double – Line – to – Ground Fault
0.18 pu and xg0 = 0.12 pu and for feeder xL1 = 0.10 pu, xL2 = VF
In-1 =
0.10 pu and xL0 = 0.30 pu. Determine the fault current and Znn-2 (Znn-0 +3ZF )
Znn-1 + [ ]
the line – to – neutral voltages at the generator terminals for Znn-2 +Znn-0 +3ZF
L – G fault occuring at the distant end of the feeder. Znn-0 +3ZF
16. A 20 MVA, 11 kV, 3 – phase, 50 Hz generator has its neutral In-2 =(-In-1 )
Znn-0 +3ZF +Znn-2
earthed through a 5% reactor. It is in parallel with another Znn-2
identical generator having isolated neutral. Each generator In-0 =(-In-1 )
has a positive sequence reactance of 20%, negative Znn-0 +3ZF +Znn-2
sequence reactance of 10% and zero sequence reactance Vk-0 0 Zkn-0 0 0 In-0
of 15%. If a line to ground short circuit occurs in the common [Vk-1 ] = [VF ] - [ 0 Zkn-1 0 ] [In-1 ]
bus bar, determine the fault current. Vk-2 0 0 0 Zkn-2 In-2
17. The per unit values of positive, negative and zero sequence If bus k is on the unfaulted side of a ∆ - Y transformer, then the
reactances of a network at fault are 0.08, 0.07 and 0.05. phase angles of Vk-1 and Vk-2 ared modified to account for ∆ - Y
Determine the fault current if the fault is double line – to – phase shifts.
ground. Example:
18. A 3 – phase, 3 – wire system has a normal voltage of 10.4 The zero, positive and negative sequence bus impedance
kV between the lines. It is supplied by a generator having matrices for a three – bus three – phase power system are
positive, negative and zero sequence reactances of 0.6, 0.5 0.10 0 0
and 0.2 Ω per phase respectively. Calculate the fault current Zbus0 =j [ 0 0.20 0 ] per unit
which flows when a line – to – line fault occurs at the 0 0 0.10
generator terminals. 0.12 0.08 0.04
19. A 3 – phase, 11 kV, 25 MVA generator with X0 = 0.05 pu, X1 Zbus1 =Zbus2 =j [0.08 0.12 0.06] per unit
= 0.2 pu and X2 = 0.2 pu is grounded through a reactance of 0.04 0.06 0.08
0.3 Ω. Calculate the fault current for a single line to ground 1. Determine the per unit fault current and per unit voltage at
fault. bus2 for a bolted three – phase fault at bus 1. The pre fault
20. A 3 – phase, 11 kV, 10 MVA alternator has sequence voltage is 1.0 per unit.
reactances of X0 = 0.05 pu, X1 = 0.15 pu and X2 = 0.15 pu. 2. Determine the per unit fault current and per unit voltage at
If the generator is on no load, find the ratio of fault currents bus2 for a bolted single line – to – ground fault at bus 1. The
for L – G fault to that when all the 3 – phases are dead short pre fault voltage is 1.0 per unit.
– circuited. 3. Determine the per unit fault current and per unit voltage at
Effect of ∆ - Y transformer phase shift on fault currents bus2 for a bolted line – to – line fault at bus 1. The pre fault
A ∆ - Y transformer phase shits have no effect on the fault side voltage is 1.0 per unit.
of the ∆ - Y transformers. However, on the other side of the ∆ - Y
transformers, the positive and negative sequence components of

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 64

 Power System Analysis and Design
4. Determine the per unit fault current and per unit voltage at applicable to electrical networks with a nominal voltage of less
bus2 for a bolted double line – to – ground fault at bus 1. The than 550 kV and the standard explains the calculation of minimum
pre fault voltage is 1.0 per unit. and maximum short circuit currents. The former is required in
Broken Conductor Faults view of calibrating overcurrent protection devices and the latter is
In broken conductor (or open conductor) faults, the load currents used to determine the rated characteristics for the electrical
cannot be neglected, as these are the only currents that are equipment.
flowing in the network. The load currents prior to the fault are Procedure:
assumed to be balanced. 1. Calculate the equivalent voltage at the fault location, equal
Single Conductor open on phase ‘a’ to
cVLL
where c is a voltage factor required in the calculation
√3
to account for:
a. Voltage variations in space and in time
b. Possible changes in transformer tappings
c. Sub transient behavior of generators and motors
Depending on the required calculations and the given
voltage levels, the standardized voltage levels are indicated
as
In the case of open conductor faults, the voltages are measured Rated Voltage Voltage Factor c for calculation
across the break, such as a – a′. VLL of
For the single conductor broken on phase “a” condition, shown,
ISC max ISC min
the boundary conditions are
LV (100 t0 1000
Ia =0, Vb =Vc =0
V)
This condition is mathematically identical to the condition in the L
If tolerance + 6% 1.05 0.95
– L – G fault, except that the voltages are measured in a different
If tolerance + 1.1 0.95
manner. The connection of sequence networks will also be the
10%
same except that the points considered for connection are
MV and HV
different.
1 to 550 kV 1.1 1
Two Condcutors open on phases ‘b’ and ‘c’
Values for voltage factor c (see IEC 60909)
2. Determine and add up the equivalent positive sequence,
negative sequence and zero sequence impedances
upstream of the fault location.
3. Calculate the initial short circuit current using the
symmetrical components depending on the type of fault.
4. Once the rms value of the initial short circuit current (Ik”) is
known, it is possible to calculate the other values:
For the two conductors broken on phases “b” and “c” condition, a. IP, peak value
the boundary conditions are b. Ib, rms value of the symmetrical short circuit breaking
Va =0, Ib =Ic =0 current
This condition is mathematically identical to the condition in the L c. idc, aperiodic component
– G fault. The connection of sequence networks will also be the d. Ik, rms value of the steady state short circuit current
same except that the points considered for connection are Effect of the distance separating the fault from the generator
different. When using this method, two different possibilities must always
Simultaneous faults be considered:
Sometimes, more than one type of fault may occur • The short circuit is far from the generator, the situation in
simultaneously. These may all be short circuit faults, such as a networks where the short circuit currents do not have a
single line – to – ground fault on one phase, and a line – to – line damped, alternating component.
fault between the other two phases. They may also be short This is generally the case in LV networks, except when high
circuit faults coupled with open conductor faults. power loads are supplied by special HV substations;
Solution methods are similar, if the equations are considered, • The short circuit is
however they may not have an equivalent circuit to ease analysis. near the
Sometimes, the constraints required cannot be directly translated generator, the
to connections, but may also need ideal transformers to account situation in
for the different conditions. networks where
Standard IEC 60909 (VDE 0102) the short circuit
Standard IEC 60909 defines and presents a method currents do have a
implementing symmetrical components. The method is

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 65

 Power System Analysis and Design
damped, alternating component. This generally occurs in HV 1
systems, but may occur in LV systems when, for example, xT =XT
Zbase
an emergency generator supplies priority outgoers. and cmax is the voltage factor related to the nominal voltage
The main differences between these two cases are: of the network connected to the low voltage side of the
• For short circuits far from the generator network transformer.
• The initial (Ik”), steady-state (Ik) and breaking (Ib) short The impedance correction factor must also be applied to the
circuit currents are equal (Ik” = Ik = Ib) transformer negative sequence and zero sequence
• The positive sequence (Z1) and negative sequence (Z2) impedances when calculating unbalanced short circuit
impedances are equal (Z1 = Z2) currents.
Note however that asynchronous motors may also add to a short Impedances ZN between the transformer starpoints and
circuit, accounting for up to 30% ofthe network ISC for the first 30 earth must be introduced as 3ZN in the zero sequence
milliseconds, in which case Ik” = Ik = Ib no longer holds true. system without a correction factor.
Conditions to consider when calculating the maximum and • Factors KG and KS or KSO are introduced when calculating
minimum short circuit currents the short circuit impedances of generators and power station
• Calculation of the maximum short circuit currents must take units (with or without on – load tap – changers)
into account the following points The subtransient impedance in the positive sequence
• Application of the correct voltage factor c network must be calculated by:
corresponding to calculation of the maximum short ZGK =KG ZG =KG (RG +jxd ")
circuit currents with RG representing the stator resistance of a synchronous
• Among the assumptions and approximations machine and the correction factor
mentioned, only those leading to a conservative error VLL cmax
should be used KG =
Vbase 1+xd " sin φG
• The resistances per unit length RL of lines (overhead
It is advised to use the following values for RGf (fictitious
lines, cables, phase and neutral conductors) should be
calculated for a temperature of 20 °C resistance of the stator of a synchronous machine) when
calculating the peak short circuit current.
• Calculation of the minimum short circuit currents requires
𝑅𝐺𝑓 = 0.05𝑥𝑑 " for generators with voltage rating greater
• Applying the voltage factor c corresponding to the
minimum permissible voltage on the network than 1kV and MVA rating greater than or equal to 100.
• Selecting the network configuration, and in some cases 𝑅𝐺𝑓 = 0.07𝑥𝑑 " for generators with voltage rating greater
the minimum contribution from sources and network than 1kV and MVA rating less than 100.
feeders, which result in the lowest short circuit current 𝑅𝐺𝑓 = 0.15𝑥𝑑 " for generators with voltage rating less than
at the fault location 1 kV.
• Taking into account the impedance of the busbars, the The impedance of a power station unit with an on – load tap
current transformers, etc. – changer is calculated by:
• Considering resistances RL at the highest foreseeable Zs =KS (t2r ZG +ZTHV )
temperature with correction factor:
0.004 V2base V2LV cmax
RL = [1+ (θe -20℃)] ×RL20 KS = 2 2
℃
where RL20 is the resistance at 20 °C; θe is the permissible VLL VHV 1+ xd "-xT | sin φG
|
VHV
temperature (°C) for the conductor at the end of the short and tr =
VLV
circuit.
ZS is used to calculate the short – circuit current for a fault
The factor 0.004 / °C is valid for copper, aluminium and
outside the power station unit with an on – load tap –
aluminium alloys.
changer.
Impedance correction factors
The impedance of a power station unit without an on – load
Impedance correction factors were included in IEC 60909 to meet
tap – changer is calculated by:
requirements in terms of technical accuracy and simplicity when
calculating short circuit currents. The various factors, presented ZSO =KSO (t2r ZG +ZTHV )
here, must be applied to the short circuit impedances of certain with the correction factor:
elements in the distribution system. Vbase VLV cmax
KSO = (1±pT )
• Factor KT for distribution transformers with two or three VLL (1+pG ) VHV 1+xd " sin φG
windings ZSO is used to calculate the short circuit current for a fault
ZTK =KT ZT outside the power station unit without an on – load tap –
cmax changer.
KT =0.95 ( )
1+0.6xT • Factors KG,S, KT,S or KG,SO, KT,SO are used when calculating
where xT is the relative reactance of the transformer: the partial short circuit currents for a short circuit between
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 66
 Power System Analysis and Design
the generator and the transformer (with or without an on – where μ = is a factor defined by the minimum time delay t min and
load tapchanger) of a power station unit the Ik” / Ir ratio which expresses the influence of the sub transient
o Power station units with an on – load tap – changer and transient reactance, with Ir as the rated current of the
cVLL generator.
IkG "= Steady – state short circuit current Ik
√3KG,S ZG
The amplitude of the steady – state short circuit current Ik
where:
cmax depends on genrator saturation influences and calculations is
KG,S = therefore less accurate than for the initial symmetrical current Ik”.
1+xd " sin φG The proposed calculation methods produce a sufficiently
cmax accurate estimate of the upper and lower limits, depending on
KT,S =
1-xT sin φG whether the short circuit is supplied by a generator or a
o Power station units without an on – load tap – changer synchronous machine.
cVLL • The maximum steady – state short circuit current, with the
IkG "= synchronous generator at its highest excitation, may be
√3KG,SO ZG calculated by:
where:
Ikmax =λmax Ir
1 cmax
KG,SO = • The minimum steady – state short circuit current is
1+pG 1+xd " sin φG calculated under no load, constant (minimum) excitation
1 cmax conditions for the synchronous generator using the
KT,SO = equation:
1+pG 1-xT sin φG
Initial short circuit current (Ik”) Ikmin =λmin Ir
The different initial short – circuit currents are calculated using the 𝜆 is a factor defined by the saturated synchronous reactance xd
equations of balanced and unabalanced fault depending on the sat.

fault applied. The 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 values for turbo generators and for machines
Peak short circuit current iP with salient poles are indicated as: (series 1 in IEC 60909)
Peak value iP of the short circuit current in no meshed systems,
the peak value iP of the short circuit current may be calculated for
all types of faults using the equation:
ip =K√2IK "
K = is a factor depending on R/X and can be calculated
approximately using the following equation:
R
-3( )
K=1.02+0.98e X
Short circuit breaking current I b
Calculation of the short circuit breaking current IB is required only
when the fault is near the generator and protection is ensured by
time delayed circuit breakers. Note that this current is used to
determine the breaking capacity of these circuit breakers.

Design Example 1: A power station unit S comprises a generator

G and a transformer T with an on – load tap – changer. It is
necessary to calculate, in compliance with IEC 60909, the initial
short-circuit current Ik” as well as the peak iP and steady – state I
Ikmax short circuit currents and the breaking short circuit current Ib
during a three phase fault:
a. Outside the power station unit on the busbars at point F1
b. Inside the power station unit at point F2
The following information is available:
a. The impedance of the connection between generator G and
transformer T may be neglected
b. The voltage factor c is assumed to be 1.1
c. The minimum dead time tmin for calculation of Ib is 0.1 s
This current may be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy d. Generator G is a cylindrical rotor generator (smooth poles)
using the following equation: e. All loads connected to the busbars are passive
Ib =μIK "

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 67

 Power System Analysis and Design

The short circuit breaking current 𝐼𝑏𝑆 is calculated by:

IbS =μ×I"kS
𝐼"𝑘𝐺
Factor 𝜇 is a function of ratio and the minimum dead time
𝐼𝑟𝐺
𝐼"𝑘𝐺
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Ratio is calculated by:
𝐼𝑟𝐺
I"kG 2.08 kA 240 kV
= × =3.46
IrG 6.873 kA 21 kV
𝐼𝑘"
According the 𝜇 vs curve at 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.1 𝑠, 𝜇 ≈ 0.85, hence:
𝐼𝑟
IbS =0.85×2.08=1.77 kA
The maximal steady – state short circuit current 𝐼𝑘𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
calculated by:
21 kV
IkS =1.65×6.873 kA× =0.99 kA
240 kV
The factor 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.65 is obtained in the curve of turbo
𝐼"𝑘𝐺
generators for the ratio = 3.46 and 𝑥𝑑𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 2.0
𝐼𝑟𝐺
Three Phase Fault at 2:
1.1 ×21kV
I"kG =
Three Phase Fault at 1: √3KG,S (0.2999)
Impedance of the transformer 1.1
KG,S = =0.994
15 240 kV2 1+(0.17×0.626)
ZTHV = × =34.56 Ω
100 250 MVA I"kG =44.74 kA
240 kV2 The peak short circuit current 𝑖𝑝𝐺 is calculated by:
RTHV =520kW× =0.479 Ω
250 MVA ipG =κG √2×I"kG
XTHV =√34.562 -0.4792 =34.557 Ω
𝑅𝐺𝑓
Based on impedance 𝑍𝐺𝑓 , it is possible to calculate = 0.05,
𝑋"𝑑
ZTHV =0.479+j34.557 Ω
Impedance of the generator hence 𝜅𝐺 = 1.86
17 21kV2 ipG = 1.86√2 × 44.74 = 𝟏𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑨
X"d = × =0.2999 Ω The short circuit breaking current 𝐼𝑏𝐺 is calculated by:
100 250MVA
ZG =RG +jX"d =0.0025+j0.2999 𝑖𝑏𝐺 = 𝜇 × 𝐼"𝑘𝐺
𝐼′′𝑘𝐺
|ZG |=0.2999 Ω Factor 𝜇 is a function of ratio and the minimum dead time
𝐼𝑟𝐺
SrG >100 MVA, therefore RGf =0.005X"d , hence ZGf =0.015+j0.2999 𝐼′′𝑘𝐺
220kV2 21kV2 1.1 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Ratio is calculated by:
𝐼𝑟𝐺
KS = × × =0.913
2 2
21kV 240kV 1+|0.17-0.15|×0.6258 I''kG 44.74 kA
2 = =6.51
240kV IrG 6.873 kA
Zs =0.913 (( ) ×(0.0025+j0.2999)+(0.479+j34.557))
21kV 𝐼𝑘"
According the 𝜇 vs curve at 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.1 𝑠, 𝜇 ≈ 0.71, hence:
𝐼𝑟
Zs =0.735+j67.313 (ZSf =2.226+j67.313 if we consider ZGf (to
calculate ip)) IbS =0.71×44.74=31.77 kA
1.1×220 kV The maximum steady – state short circuit current 𝐼𝑘𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
I"kS = =0.023-j2.075 kA calculated by:
√3(0.735+j67.313) IkG =1.75×6.873 kA=12 kA
|I"kS |=2.08 kA The factor λmax =1.75 is obtained in the curve of turbo generators
𝑅𝑆𝑓
Based on impedance ZSf, it is possible to calculate = 0.033 I"kG
𝑋𝑆𝑓 for the ratio =6.51 and xdsat =2.0
IrG
and 𝜅𝑆 = 1.908 Design Example 2: A 20 kV network supplies a transformer T
The peak short circuit current 𝑖𝑝𝑆 is calculated by: connected to a set of bus bars by a cable L. It is necessary to
ipS =κS √2×I"kS =1.908√2×2.08=5.61 kA calculate, in compliance with IEC 60909, the initial short circuit

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 68

 Power System Analysis and Design
current Ik” and the peak short circuit current iP during a three 1.05
phase, then a phase – to – earth fault at point F1. KT =0.95 =0.975
1+(0.6×0.03831)
The following information is available: ZTLV =0.975×(4.83+j16.10)=(4.71+j15.70) mΩ
a. The impedance of the connection between the supply and Impedance of the cable
transformer T may be neglected 4
b. Cable L is made up of two parallel cables with three ZL =0.5×(0.208+j0.068)× =(0.416+j0.136)mΩ
100
conductors each, where: Total impedance seen from point F1
l = 4m; 3 x 185 mm2 Al 𝑍𝑘 = 𝑍𝑄𝑡 + 𝑍𝑇𝐾 + 𝑍𝐿 = (5.18 + 𝑗16.37) 𝑚Ω
ZL = (0.208 + j0.068) Ω/km Calculation of 𝐼𝑘" and 𝑖𝑝 for a three phase fault
R(0)L = 4.23RL; X(0)L = 1.21XL 1.05×400
c. The short circuit at point F1 is assumed to be far from any I"k = =14.12 kA
√3×17.17
generator R RK 5.18
= = =0.316
X Xk 16.37
R
-3( )
κ=1.02+0.98e X =1.4
ip =1.4√2×14.12=27.96 kA
Phase to Earth Fault at 1:
Determining the zero sequence impedances
For transformer T (Dyn5 connection), the manufacturer indicates:
R(0)T =RT and X(0)T =0.95XT
with the impedance correction factor 𝜅𝑇 , the zero – sequence
impedance is
Z(0)TK =KT (RT +j0.95XT )=(4.712+j14.913) mΩ
For cable L:
Z(0)L =(4.23RL +j1.21XL )=(1.76+j0.165) mΩ
Calculation of 𝐼′′𝑘 and 𝑖𝑝 for a phase – to – earth fault
Z(1) =Z(2) =ZK =(5.18+j16.37) mΩ
Z(0) =Z(0)TK +Z(0)L =(6.47+j15.08) mΩ
Z(1) +Z(2) +Z(0) =(16.83+j47.82) mΩ
The initial phase – to – earth short circuit current can be
calculated as:
Three Phase Fault at 1:
1.05×400√3
Impedance of the supply network (LV side) I''k1 = =14.35 kA
1.1×20 0.41 kV 2 50.70
ZQt = ×( ) =0.534 mΩ The peak short circuit current 𝑖𝑝1 is calculated with the factor 𝜅
√3×10 20 kV obtained via the positive – sequence:
𝑅𝑄
Since there is no other information, it is assumed that = 0.1, ip1 =1.4√2×14.35=28.41 kA
𝑋𝑄
hence: Typical Available Short Circuit Duties in Philippine Systems
SCMVA
XQt =0.995ZQt =0.531 mΩ System Usual Range of SC RECOMMENDATION
SYSTEM
Voltage MVA FOR USE IN
RQt =0.1XQt =0.053 mΩ CALCULATIONS
ZQt =(0.053+j0.531) mΩ From Primary Unit
Impedance of the transformer 2.40 kV 15 – 150 MVA 150 MVA Substation Internal
to the Industry
4 (410)2 From Primary Unit
ZTLV = × =16.81 mΩ 3.60 kV 20 – 200 MVA 200 MVA Substation Internal
100 400 kVA to the Industry
4600(410)2 From Primary Unit
RTLV = =4.83 mΩ 4.16 kV 25 – 250 MVA 250 MVA Substation Internal
(400 kVA)2
to the Industry
From Primary Unit
XTLV =√Z2TLV -R2TLV =16.10 mΩ 6.90 kV 50 – 500 MVA 350 MVA Substation Internal
to the Industry
ZTLV =(4.83+j16.10) mΩ Typical electric
400kVA 13.2 kV 100 – 1000 MVA 500 MVA
cooperative
xT =16.10 mΩ× =0.03831 MEPZ 1, MEPZ 2,
4102 13.8 kV 100 – 1000 MVA 500 MVA Davao Light and
The impedance correction factor can be calculated as: Power, etc.

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 69

 Power System Analysis and Design
Visayan Electric [17] Spring 2013 - Howard Hughes. (n.d.). Retrieved from
23.0 kV 150 – 1500 MVA 750 MVA
Company
MERALCO, http://www.egr.unlv.edu/~eebag/740symmetrical%20fault%20cu
34.5 kV 150 – 1500 MVA 1000 MVA rrent%20calculations.
CEPALCO
69.0 kV 150 – 1500 MVA 1500 MVA VECO, TRANSCO [18] Stevenson, William D. Jr. (1982). Elements of Power
115.0 kV 250 – 2500 MVA 2500 MVA TRANSCO
Source: CESEEPS International Association, INC.
System Analysis. McGraw – Hill Book Company
[19] Theraja, B.L., and Theraja, A.K. (2003). A Textbook of
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Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 70