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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

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ISBN : 9789386629043
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DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
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Quick Revision Material

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC Converse and Contrapositive

NOT ù For the proposition
AND Ù (i) P ® Q, the Q ® P is called its converse.
OR Ú (ii) Ø Q ® Ø P is called its contrapositive.
IF ...THEN ® or Þ
Tautologies and Contradictions
IF AND ONLY IF « or Þ
OR (Ú) ‘A statement (or propositional function) which is true all possible
truth values of its propositional variables is called a tautology.’
P Q PÚQ A statement which is always false all possible truth values of its
F F F propositional variables is called a contradiction.
F T T Reasoning
T F T Logical reasoning is the process of drawing conclusion from
T T T premises using rules of inference.

NOT (ù ) List of Identities

1. P Û (P Ú P)
P ùP idempotence of Ú
T F 2. P Û (P Ù P)
F T idempotence of Ù
AND (Ù) 3. (P Ú Q) Û (Q Ú P)
commutativity of Ú
P Q P ÙQ 4. (P Ù Q) Û (Q Ù P)
F F F commutativity of Ù
5. [(P Ú Q) Ú R] Û [ P Ú (Q Ú R)]
F T F
associativity of Ú
T F F
6. [(P Ù Q) Ù R] Û [ P Ù (Q Ù R)]
T T T associativity of Ù
IMPLIES (®) 7. Ø (P Ù Q) Û [Ø P Ú Ø Q]
De-Morgan’s law
P Q P ®Q 8. Ø (P Ú Q) Û [Ø P Ù Ø Q]
F F T De-Morgan’s law
9. [P Ù (Q Ú R] Û [( P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù R)]
F T T
distributivity of Ù over Ú
T F F
10. [P Ú (Q Ù R] Û [( P Ú Q) Ù (P Ú R)]
T T T distributivity of Ú over Ù
IF AND ONLY IF (P « Q) 11. (P Ú True) Û True
12. (P Ù False) Û False
P Q P «Q 13. (P Ú False) Û P
F F T 14. (P Ù True) Û P
15. (P Ú Ø P) Û True
F T F
16. (P Ù Ø P) Û False
T F F
17. P Û Ø (Ø P)
T T T double negation
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18. (P ® Q) Û (Ø P Ú Q) 1. pÙqÞp pÞpÚq
implication 2. ~pÞp®q qÞp®q
19. (P « Q) Û (P ® Q) Ù (Q ® P) 3. ~ (p ® q) Þ p ~ (p ® q) Þ ~ q
equivalence 4. P Ù (P ® q) Þ q ~ p Ù (p Ú q) Þ q
20. [(P Ù Q) ® R] Û [P ® (Q ® R)] 5. (p ® q) Ù (q ® r) Þ p ® r
exportation Implications
21. [(P ® Q) Ù [P ® Ø Q) Û Ø P The relationship between propositions that can be derived from
absurdity the definitions of connectives.
22. [P ® Q Û (Ø Q ® Ø P) List of implication
contrapositive 1. P Þ (P Ú Q)addition
(1) Two formulae A and A* are said to be duals of each other if 2. (P Ù Q) Þ Psimplification
either one can be obtained from the other by replacing Ù by 3. [P Ù (P ® Q)] Þ Q modus ponens
Ú and Ú by Ù. 4. [(P ® Q) Ù Ø Q] Þ Ø P modus tollens
If the formula A contains special variables 1 or 0, then its 5. [Ø P Ù (P Ú Q)] Þ Q disjunctive syllogism
dual A* is obtained by replacing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1. 6. [(P ® Q) Ù (Q ® R)] Þ (P ® R) hypothetical syllogism
e.g., (i) Dual of (p Ú q) Ù r is (p Ù q) Ú r 7. (P ® Q) Þ [(Q ® R) ® (P ® R)]
(ii) Dual of (p Ù q) Ú 0 is (p Ú q) Ù 1. 8. (P ® Q) Ù [(R ® S) Þ [(P Ù R) ® (Q Ù S)]
(2) Tautology implications : A statement A is said to 9. [(P « Q) Ù (Q « R) Þ [(P « R)
tautologically imply a statement B if and only if A ® B is a
tautology which is read as “A implies B”. Predicate Logic
The implications listed below have important applications A predicate is a verb phrase template that describes a property of
which can be proved by truth tables : objects or relationship among objects represented by the
variables.
Set Theory & Algebra
ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON SETS 6. Absorption Law A È (A Ç B) = A ; A Ç (A È B) = A
7. De Morgan’s Law (A È B)c = Ac Ç Bc ; (A Ç B)c = Ac È Bc
Idempotent operation : For any set A, we have 8. Involution Law (Ac)c = A.
(i) A È A = A and Obs. Using the distributive law, we can extend the above result
(ii) A Ç A = A for three sets A, B, C
Identity operation : For any set A, we have | A È B È C | = | (A È B) È C |
(i) A È f = A and = | A È B | + | C | – | (A È B) Ç C |
(ii) A Ç U = A = | A | + | B | – | A Ç B | + | C | – | (A Ç C) È (B Ç C) |
i.e. f and U are identity elements for union and intersection = |A| + | B | + | C | – |A Ç B | – [ |A Ç C | + | B Ç C | –AÇ B Ç C | ]
respectively. hence follows the result
= | A | + | B | + | C | – | A Ç B | – | A Ç C | – | B Ç C | + | A Ç B Ç C|]
Commutative operation : For any set A and B, we have
(i) A È B = B È A CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF SETS
(ii) A Ç B = B Ç A and Ordered Pair : A pair of objects, listed in a specific order, is
(iii) A D B = B D A called an ordered pair, for example (a, b) is an ordered pair of two
i.e. union intersection and symmetric difference of two sets elements a and b, a is called the FIRST ELEMENT and b the
are commutative. SECOND ELEMENT.
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if any only if
a = c and b = d.
A – B ¹ B – A and A × B ¹ B × A Cartesian product of Sets : Let A and B are two non-empty sets.
The set of all ordered pairs (a, b) of elements a Î A and b Î B is
LAWS OF SET THEORY called the Cartesian Product of sets A and B and is denoted by
1. Commutative Law A × B. Thus A × B = {(a, b) : a ÎA, b Î B}
A È B = B È A ; A Ç B = B Ç A. For example : If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}, then
2. Associative Law (i) A × B = {(1, a)}, (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}
A È (B È C) = (A È B) È C REL ATI ONS
A Ç (B Ç C) = (A Ç B) Ç C
3. Distributive Law Let A and B be two non-empty sets. Then a relation (BINARY
A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C) RELATION) R from A to B is a subset of A×B.
A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C) That is, R is a relation from A to B Û RÍA × B
4. Complement Law If R Í A×A, the R is said to be a relation on A.
A È A° = U ; A Ç Ac = f. If (a, b) ÎR, then we write aRb and we say a is R related to b.
5. Identity Law Thus, (a, b) ÎR Û aRb.
A È f =A = fÈ A
If (a , b) Ï R , then we write a R b and say that a is not related to b.
A Ç U = A = U Ç A.
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DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A RELATION a plane. Then the relation ‘is parallel to on L is a transitive
Let A and B are two sets and R is a relation from A to B, relation, because of any l1, l2, l3, Î L.
i.e. R Í A × B l1||l2 and l2||l3 Þ l1||l3
7. Antisymmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is
The set of all the first components of the ordered pairs of the
antisymmetric if (a,b) ÎR and (b,a) ÎR Þ a = b
relation R is called the DOMAIN of R. Thus
If (a, b) Î R and (b, a) ÏR, then still R is an antisymmetric
domain of R = {aÎA : (a, b) Î R for some bÎB}
relation.
The set of all the second components of the ordered pairs of the Example : Let R be a relation on the set N of natural numbers
relation R is called the RANGE of R. Thus, defined by
range of R = {bÎB : (a, b) Î R for some a ÎA} xRY Û ‘x divides y’ for all x, y Î N
Clearly domain of R Í A and range of R Í B This relation is a antisymmetric relation on N.
The set B is called the CO-DOMAIN of R Since for any two numbers a, b Î N.
Example : a/b and b/a Þ a = b i.e. aRb and bRa Þ a = b
(i) If A = {1,2,3} and B = {a, b, c} let R = {(1,a) (1,c), (2, b) EQUI VAL ENCE RELATION
Then domain of R = {1, 2} range of R = {a, b, c}
A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if and only if
Number of Relations : Let A contains m elements and B contains
n element. Then A×B contains mn elements. Hence, A×B has (a) R is reflexive, i.e, aRa " aÎA
2mn subsets. That is the total number of relations from A to B are (b) R is symmetric, i.e., aRb Þ bRa
2mn. The relations f (called a VOID RELATION) and A × B (called (c) R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc Þ aRc
an UNIVERSAL RELATION) are said to be TRIVIAL RELATIONS Partial order relation :
from A to B. A relation R on a set A is a partial order relation if and only if.
Inverse Relation : The inverse relation of a relation R is the set (a) R is reflexive, i.e. aRa " aÎA
obtained by reversing each of the ordered pairs of R and is (b) R is antisymmetric i.e., aRb and bRa Þ a = b
denoted by R–1. (c) R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc Þ aRc.
Example : Relation of congruence modulo m :
(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c} Let m be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b are said to
If R = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b), (3, c)} Í A × B be “congruent modulo m” if a – b is divisible by m. We write
a º b (mod m)
Then R–1 = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 3)} Í B×A
Thus. a º b (mod m) [Read as “ a is congruent to b modulo m”]
TYPES OF RELATIONS ON THE SET A iff a – b is divisible by m; a, bÎI.
Let A be a set and R is a relation on A, i.e. R Í A × A. Then we define For example :
(i) 25 º 5 (mod 4) because 25–5 = 20 is divisible by 4.
1. Void Relation : If R = f , then R is called a void relation on A.
(ii) 23 º 2 (mod 3) because 23 –2 = 21 is divisible by 3
2. Universal Relation : If R = A×A, then R is called an universal (iii) 20 º/ 3 (mod 5) because 20 – 3 = 17 is not divisible by 5
relation on A.
The relation “ congruence modulo m” is an equivalence
3. Identity Relation : A relation R is defined as an identity relation on I.
relation if R = {(a, a) : a Î A}. Thus in an identity relation on
A, every element of A is related to itself only. Identity relation DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN AND RANGE
on A is also denoted by IA. Thus If f A ® B is a function, then A is called domain, B is called co-
IA = {(a, a) : a Î A} domain of f.
Example : If A = {1, 2, 3}, then IA = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3,3)} Range :
4. Reflexive Relation : A relation R is said to be a reflexive If f : A ® B is a function, then set of all images of the elements of
relation on A if every element of A is related to itself. A is called range of f.
Thus R is reflexive Û (a,a) ÎR, i.e. aRa " aÎA Range is a subset of the co-domain, i.e. f (A) Í B.
e.g. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {p, q, r} and f = (1, q), (2, q), (3, q), (4, q)},
[The symbol " is read as “for every element”] then f is a function.
Example : Let A = {1, 2, 3} be a set. Domain = A, Co-domain = B.
Then R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3), (2, 1)} is a reflexive Range of f = f (A) = {f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4)}
relation on A. = {q, q, p, q} = {p, q}
5. Symmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is defined as a \ f (A) Í B
symmetric relation if (a,b) ÎR Þ (b, a) ÎR That is,
aRb Þ bRa, where a, bÎA.
KINDS OF FUNCTIONS
Example : Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let R1 be relation on 1. One-to-one Function (or injective function)
A given by R1 = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1), (2, 2), (4, 1)} is a A function f : A ® B is called one-one mapping if every
symmetric relation on A. distinct element of A has a distinct image in B.
6. Transitive relation : A relation R on a set A is defined as a Thus, a function f : A ® B is one-one
transitive relation if (a,b) ÎR and (b,c) ÎR Þ (a,c) ÎR 2. Many-one Function : A function f : A ® B is many-one if
That is, aRb and bRc Þ aRc, where a, b, c, ÎA. two or more different elements of A have the same image in B.
Example : Let L be the set of all straight line in Thus, f : A ® B is many-one if
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3. Onto or Surjective Function : The function f : A ® B is (a1a 2 .....a n ) -1 = a n-1a n--11.........a1-1
said to be an onto function if every element of B is image of
at least one element of A. Theorem 6 :
For a surjective function f, Cancellation laws hold in a group, i.e. If (G, .) is a group then
Range of f = co-domain (B) I. a, b, c Î G, ab = ac
4. Into Function : If the function f : A ® B is such that there Þ b=c
is at least one element of B which is not the image of any II. a, b, c, Î G, ba = ca
element of A, then f is called an into function. Þ b = c.
For an into function f. Definition 4.
Range of f Ì co-domain (B) If (G, .) be a gorup and a Î G, n Î z, then an is defined as follows :
f f I. a0 =e
II. If n > 0, then a1 = a; an+1 = an . a
x1 y1 x1 y1
x2 y2 x2 y2 III. If n < 0, then an = (a–n)–1
x3 y3 x3 y3 Theorem 7.
y4
A B A B
Let (G, .) be a group and a Î G.
Many-one Into One - One Into If m, n Î Z, then
f f I. am . an = am+n = anam

(a )
x1 y1 x1 y1 m n
x2 y2 x2 y2 II. = a mn
x3 x3 y3
Definition 5.
A B
Many-one Onto Let (G, .) be a group. An element a Î G is called idempotent if a2 = a.
One - One Onto
Definition 6.
Bijective function : A function f : A ® B is a bijective A group (G, .) is called finite group if G is a finite set The number of
function if f is one-one as well as onto, i.e. f is injective and different elements in G is callled order of the fininte group (G, .). It
surjective both. is denoted by O(G).
Definition 7.
GROUP
A group (G, .) is called infinite group if G is an infinite set. The
A semigroup with identity and in which every element is invertible order of an infinite group is defined to be ¥.
is called a group. Definition 8.
Definition 1 If S is a finite set containing n elements, then group of all
Let G be a non-empty set and * be a binary operation on G. Then bijections on S is called a permutation group or symmetric group.
algebraic system (G, *) is called a group if It is denoted by Pn or Sn.
I. a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c, " a, b, c Î G Note : 0(Sn) = n!
II. $e Î G Þ a * e = e * a = a, " a Î G
III. a Î G LATTICE
Þ $b Î G Þ a * b = b * a = e It is a partially ordered set (P, £) in which any two elements Î P
• The element e in condition II of the definition of a group is has single GLB and single LUB.
called identity element of the group.
Join = LUB
• The element b corresponding to a in condition III of the
definition of a group is called inverse of a in the group.
(a) (b)
Definition 3 :
A group (G, *) is said to be a non-abelian group, if (G, *) is not
abelian. Meet = GLB
PROPERTIES OF A GROUP. Fig. (a)
Theorem 1 : In the Fig. (a) GLB and LUB are shown, which are also called
In a group, identity element is unique. meet and join respectively.
Theorem 2 :
In a group, inverse of every element is unique. 4 d
Theorem 3 :
c
( ) 3 a b
-1 2
If (G, .) be a group and a Î G , then a -1 = a.
Theorem 4 :
If (G, .) be a group and a, b Î G, then (ab)–1 = b–1a–1 1 e
Theorem 5 : Fig. (b) Lattice Fig. (c) Non-Lattice
If (G, .) be a group and a1, a2, .... an Î G, then
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The poset shown in Fig. (c) is not a lattice since a and b have two Closed Interval
LUBs namely c and d.
b
From first lattice, following relations are obtained :
1 £ 2, 1 £ 3, 2 £ 4 and 3 £ 4.
Here 2 and 3 are not compared. a
If (P, £ ) is a lattice, then (P, ³ ) is also a lattice, we define as
³ follows
Fig. Interval [a, b]
(x £ y) Þ y ³ x. Let a £ b.
In other words, GLB and LUB are interchanged if we interchange Then closed interval of a and b is defined as
relations £ and ³. [a, b] = [x/ a £ x and x £ b].
Clearly any closed interval is a chain.
In terms of lattices, operations of meet and join on (L, £) become Duality
the operations of join and meet on (L, £).
The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by interchanging
DUAL LATTICE Boolean sums and Boolean products and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
e.g., The dual of x Ù (y Ú 0) is x Ú (y Ù 1)
For the lattice (P, £ ) the dual is (P, ³).
Boolean Algebra (Definition)
The duals are shown in the figure below. The diagram of (P, ³)
can be obtained from that of (P, £) by simply turning it upside
down.
1. x Ù1 = x }
x Ú 0 = x Identity laws

5 1
2.
x Ú x' = 1
}
x Ù x' = 0 Domination laws

4 3. (x Ú y) Ù z) = x Ù (y Ù z) }
(x Ú y) Ú z = x Ú (y Ú z) Associative laws

}
2 3
x Ú y = y Ú x Commutative laws
2 3 4. xÙy =yÙx

1 5
4
5.
x Ú (y Ù z) = (x Ú y) Ù (x Ú z)
}
x Ù (y Ú z) = (x Ù y) Ú (x Ù z) Distributive laws

1£2£ 4£ 5 5³4³ 2³ 1 Boolean Algebra Homomorphism

1£3£ 4£ 5 5³4³ 3³ 1 If (A, +, .,', 0, 1) and (B, Ù, Ú, –, 0', 1') are two Boolean algebras,
a function h : A ® B is called a Boolean algebra homomorphism
if h preserves the two binary operation and the unary operations
Let a * b = meet of a and b = GLB, and a Å b = join of a and b = LUB in the following since, for all a, b Î A
SUB-LATTICE. (a) h(a + b) = h(a) Ú h(b)
Let (L, *, Å) be a lattice and let S Í L. The set (S, *, Å) is called (b) h(a × b) = h(a) Ù h(b)
sublattice iff it is closed under * and Å. Sublattice is itself a (c) h (a' ) = h' (a)
lattice. A Boolean homomorphism h : A ® B is a Boolean isomorphism
if h is one-to-one onto B.

Combinatorics

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF COUNTING n!

(i) P(n, r) or nPr =
1. Principle of Addition : If an event can occur in 'm' ways and ( n - r )!
another event can occur in 'n' ways independent of the first n!
event, then either of the two events can occur in (m + n) (ii) C(n, r) or nCr = r!( n - r )! . The symbol nCr is also deonoted
ways.
2. Principle of Multiplication : If an operation can be ænö
performed in 'm' ways and after it has been performed in any by çç ÷÷ .
èrø
one of these ways, a second operation can be performed in
'n' ways, then the two operations in succession can be IMPORTANT RESULTS
performed is (m × n) ways.
n
nP and nC : If n Î N and 'r' is an integer such that 0 £ r £ n , 1. P0 = 1, n Pn = n!; n
C 0 = 1, n
Cn = 1
r r
then we define the following symbols : 2. n
Pr = r! n C r
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RESULT - 4 : To find the number of Permutations of 'n' different
3. n
Pr = r.n -1 Pr -1 + n -1Pr = n. n -1Pr -1 things, taking 'r' at a time, when each thing can be repeated 'r'
4. If r £ s £ n , then nPs is divisible by nPr. times:
In the problem we have to fill 'r' vacant places with 'n' things with
n n n -1
5. Cr = C r -1 that is, r. n C r = n . n -1C r -1 and repetition. Obviously, each place can be filled in 'n' ways, leaving
r again n ways for the other place.
n n +1 Hence, the number of ways of filling r-places with 'n' things = n
Cr C r +1
= × n × n × ....... × n (r factors) = n r
r +1 n +1
RESULT - 5 : Number of circular permutations of 'n' distinct
n -1
6. n. C r -1 = (n - r + 1) n C r -1 objects :
The total number of circular permutations of 'n' distinct things is
n n +1
7. C r -1 + n C r = Cr (n – 1)!.
If no distinction is made between anti-clockwise and clockwise
n n
8. Cr = C n -r 1
arrangements, then the number of permutations is (n – 1)!
n 2
9. C x = n C y Û x = y or x + y = n
CONDITIO NAL PERMUTATIONS
n
10. C 0 + n C1 + n C 2 + ..... + n C n = 2 n 1. Number of permutations of n things taking r at a time, when
n n n n n -1 a particular object is to be always included in each =
11. C 0 + C 2 + ..... = C1 + C3 + ........= 2
r . n -1Pr -1 .
2 n +1 2 n +1 2 n +1 2n
12. C0 + C1 + ..... Cn = 2
2. Number of permutations of n things taking r at a time, when
PERMUTATIONS a particular object is never taken in any arrangement = n -1
Pr .
Each of the arrangements, which can be made by taking, some or 3. Number of permutations of n different things taking all at a
all of a number of things is called a PERMUTATION. time, when m specified things always come together
RESULT - 1 : To find the number of permutations of 'n' things = m!( n - m + 1)! .
taken 'r' at a Time :
4. Number of permutations of n different things taking all at a
The number of ways of filling 'r' places with 'n' things
time, when m specified things never come together
n! = n!- m!(n - m + 1)!
= n( n - 1)(n - 2)....(n - r + 1) ways = ways = n Pr ways.
[ n - r ]!
5. Number of permutations of n different things taking r at a
The above formula for nPr involves following conditions : time, in which two specified objects always occur together
1. All the things are distinct.
= 2! ( r - 1) n - 2 Pr - 2
2. Repetition of things is not allowed in any of the
arrangements. 6. Number of ways of arranging n objects on a circle taking r
3. No arrangement is repeated. at a time
4. The arrangement is linear. n
Pr
RESULT - 2 : The number of permutations of 'n' things taken = , if clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are
r
all at a time.
distinct
This will be given by above formula after taking r = n.
n
Thus, required number of ways = nPn = n! Pr
= , if clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements cannot
RESULT - 3 : To find the number of permutations of 'n' things 2r
taken all at a time, when 'p' are alike of one kind, 'q' are alike be distinguished.
of Second, 'r' alike of Third, and so on :
Let 'x' be the required number of permutations.
COMBINATI ONS :
If p alike things are replaced by p distinct things, which are also Each of the selections that can be made with a given number of
different from others, then without changing the positions of objects taken some or all of them at a time is called a
other things these new p-things can be arranged in p! ways. COMBINATION.
Each of 'x' permutations will give p! permutations. Thus the total RESULT-1 : To find the number of combinations of 'n' dissimilar
number of permutations now are x (p!) things taken 'r' at a time :
With a similar argument for 'q' - alike and 'r' - alike things, we get n!
that if all things are different the number of permutations would = nCr
r !(n - r )!
be x(p!) (q!) (r!)
Thus, the total number of combinations of 'n' dissimilar things
But number of permutations of 'n' distinct things; taken all at a taken 'r' at a time is nCr.
n! The number of combinations of 'n' dissimilar things taken all at a
time = nPn = n!, thus, ( x) p! q! r! = n! Þ x =
p! q! r! time = nCn = 1.
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RESULT-2 : To find the number of Combinations of 'n' different Then, the generating function of b is
things taking some or all at a time : ¥ ¥

n
B(z) = å br z r = å (a r a r )z r
C1 + n C 2 + n C 3 + .............. + n C n = 2 n - 1 r =0 r =0
RESULT-3 : The number of selections of some or all out of (p + ¥
q + r + ..... ) things out of which p are alike of one kind, q - alike = å a r (az) r = A(az)
of second kind and so on : r =0

The total number of required ways B(z) = A(az)

= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) ...... – 1 e.g., The generating function of the numeric function
RESULT-4 : The number of selections of one or more things 1
ar = 1, r ³ 0 is A(z) =
from 'p' identical things of one kind, 'q' identical things of a 1- z
second kind, 'r' identical things of a third kind and 'n' different 4. Let A(z) be the generating function of a. Then, z1 A(z) is
things the generating function of Sia for any positive integer i.
The total number of required ways 5. Let A(z) be the generating function of a. Then,
= (p + 1) (q + 1) (r + 1) 2n – 1 z–i[A(z) – a0 – a1z – a2z2 – ...–ai–1 zi–1]
is the generating function of S–i a.
C O U NT I N G e.g., The generating function of ar = 3r+2, z ³ 0 is
Basic Counting Rules.
æ 1 ö æ 9z 2 ö 9
There are two basic counting rules which can be used to solve A( z ) = z -2 ç - 1 - 3z ÷ = z -2 ç ÷÷ =
è 1 - 3z ç
many different counting problems. ø è 1 - 3z ø 1 - 3z
(i) Sum Rule : If first task can be done in n 1 ways and a second 6. For b = Da, the generating function is given by
task in n2 ways, and if these tasks are such that they cannot 1
be done at the same time, then there are n 1 + n2 ways to do B(z) = [A(z) - a 0 ] - A(z)
either task. z
and for b = Ñ a
(ii) Product Rule : Whenever a procedure can be broken down B(z) = A(z) – z A(z)
into two tasks and then there are n1 ways to do the first 7. Let C = a*b, i.e., C is the convolution of two numeric
task and n 2 ways to do the next task after the first task has functions and its generating function
been done, then there are n1n2 ways to do the procedure. C (z) = A(z) · B(z)
GENERATING FUNCTION Cr = a 0br + a1br -1 + a 2b r - 2 + ... + a r -1b1 + a r b0
The generating function for the sequence a1, a2, ...., ar, .... of real is the coefficient of zr in the product of
numbers of a numeric functions (a0, a1, a2, ...ar,...) is the infinite
series. (a 0 + a1z + a 2 z 2 + ... + a r z r + ...)(b 0 + b1z + b2z 2 + ... + b r z r + ...)
A(z) = a0 + a1z + a2z2 + ...+ arzr + ... RECURRENCE RELATIONS
n
A recurrence relation for the sequence {ar} is an equations that
A(z) = å a r z r expresses ar in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the
r =1
sequence.
Some Results A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence if its terms satisfy
1. Let a and b are any two discrete numeric functions and b = the recurrence relation.
aa, then e.g., The recurrence relation ar = ar–1 + 3 with initial condition
B(z) = a A(z) a1 = 2 defines the sequence {2, 5, 8, 11...}.
where B(z) is the generating function corresponding to Order of recurrence relation : The order of a recurrence relation
numeric b and A(z) is that of a. (or difference equation) is the difference between the largest
e.g., The generating function of the numeric function and smallest subscript appearing in the relation.
a r = 5 × 2r r ³ 0 e.g., ar = ar–1 + ar–2 is a recurrence relation of order 2.
Degree of the recurrence relation : The degree of a recurrence
1 relation is the highest power of a r occuring in that relations.
is A(z) = 5 ×
1 - 2z Example a 3r + 3a r2-1 + 6a r4-2 + 4a r -3 is a recurrence relation of
2. For any three discrete numeric functions a, b and c, if c = a +
b, then C(z) = A(z) + B(z) is the generating function degree 3.
representation. Linear recurrence relation with constant coefficients : A
e.g., The generating function of the numeric function recurrence relation of the form.
ar = 1r + 2r (r ³ 0) C0 a r + C1a r -1 + C2 a r -2 + C3arr -3 + ... + Ck a r -k = f (r) ...(i)
1 1 Where, Ci’s are constants is called a linear recurrence relation
is A(z) = + with constant coefficients of kth order, provided C0 and Ck both
1 - z 1 - 2z are non-zero. f(r) is the function of the independent variable ‘r’
3. Let a be a numeric function and A(z) its generating function. only.
Let b be a numeric function such that e.g., 3ar + 6ar–1 = 2r is the first order linear recurrence relation
br = arar with constant coefficients.
9
A recurrence relation is said to be linear if it's degree is one. Eq. (ii) is called characteristic equation. The solutions of this
equaiton are called the characteristic roots of the recurrence
Homogeneous Solution of the Recurrence Relation
relation.
A homogeneous solution of a linear difference equation with
A characteristic equation of kth degree has k characteristics
constant coefficients is of the form Aa 1r , where a1 is called a
roots. Two cases of the roots may arise.
characteristic root and A is a constant determined by the bounded
(i) If roots are distinct and real. Then
conditions. Consider a recurrence relation in the form
C0 a r + C1a r -1 + C2 a r - 2 + ... + ..Ck a r -k = 0 ...(i) a (h) r r r
r = A1a1 + A 2 a 2 + ... + A k a k

Since, right hand side of Eq. (i) is set to zero, we substitute Aar (ii) If the roots are multiple roots. Let a1 be a root of
for ar. Eq. (i) become multiplying m, then
C0 Aa r + C1Aa r -1 + C2Aa r - 2 + .. + Ck Aa r -k = 0 (A1r m-1 + A 2r m- 2 + ... + A m-1r + A m )a1r
Aa r -k [C0a k + C1a k -1 + C2a k -2 + ... + Ck ] = 0 is a homogeneous solution.
Note : Although, there is no question asked in past GATE exams
C0a k + C1a k -1 + C2a k -2 + ... + Ck = 0 ...(ii) from this chapter still, reading of this chapter would be
helpful in future GATE exams.
Graph Theory
PATHS, CONNECTIVITY Then w(G) £ w(G - e) £ w(G) + 1
Path and its length in a graph (multigraph) G : A path a in G where w(a) is number of connected components of G.
with origin v0 and end vn is an alternating sequence of vertices Theorem 2 :
and edges of the form.
An edge e of a grpah G is a bridge if e is not a part of any cycle
v0 , e1 , v1 , e 2 , v2 ,..., e n -1 , vn -1 , e n , v n in G.
where each edge ei is incident on vertices vi–1 and vi. The number Theorem 3 :
of edges, n is called length of a. When there is no ambiguity, we Let G be a graph with n vertices, and q edges and, let w(G)
denote a by its sequence of edges, a = (e1, e2, ... en), or by its denote number of connected components of G. Then G has
sequence of vertices a = (vo, v1, ..., vn). at least n-w(G) edges, i.e. q ³ n-w(G)
Corollary : A graph with n vertices less than (n – 1) edges can
BRIDGE OR CUT EDGE not be connected.
On removing an edge from a graph, the number of connected Theorem 4 :
components of the graph either remains unchanged or it increases Let G be a graph with n vertices, then following three statements
by exactly 1. So, an edge e of a graph G is called bridge or cut edge, are equivalent.
if the subgraph G=e has more connected components than G has.
I. G is tree
Theorem 1 :
II. G is an acyclic graph with (n – 1) edges.
Let e be an edge of the graph G and, as usual let G-e be the
III. G is a connected graph with (n – 1) edges.
subgraph obtained by deleting e.
Spanning Trees and Connect or Problems
Let G be a graph. A subgraph H of G is called a spanning subgraph T is a minimal spanning tree of G.
of G if vertex set of H is same as the vertex set of G. Similarly, a Following steps are required.
spanning tree of a graph G is a spanning subgraph of G, that is a
tree. Step 1 : Choose e1, an edge of G, such that weight of e1, w(e1) is
as small as possible and e1 is not a loop.
Theorem.
Step 2 : If edges e1, e2, .... ei have been chosen, then choose an
A graph G is connected if it has a spanning tree. edge ei+1 not already chosen, such that
(i) induced subgraph G [(e1,.....ei+1)] is acyclic, and
(ii) w(ei+1) is as small as possible.
Step 3 : If G has n vertices, stop after n-1 edges have been
K4 chosen. Otherwise repeat step 2.
Greedy Algorithms :
Cayley's theorem
Greedy algorithms are essentially algorithms that proceed by
The complete graph Kn has nn–2 different spanning trees. selecting the choice that looks best at the moment.
Kruskal’s Algorithm Prim’s Algorithm :
In this algorithm, choose an edge of G which has smallest weight Another algorithm used for finding a minimal spanning tree is
among the edges of G which are not loops. This algorithm gives Prim’s algorithm. It chooses a vertex first and chooses and edge
an acyclic subgraph T of G and theorem given below proves that with smallest weight incident on that vertex.
10
The algorithm involves following steps. Clearly, a graph may have many different maximal matchings and
Step 1 : Choose any vertex v1 of G. of different sizes. Among these, the maximal matchings with the
Step 2 : Choose an edge e1=v1v2 of G such that v2 ¹ v1 and e1 largest number of edges are called largest maximal matchings.
has smallest weight among the edges of G incident with In Fig. (b), a largest maximal matching is shown in heavy lines.
v1 . The number of edges in a largest maximal matching called
Step 3 : If edges e1, e2, ......., ei have been chosen involving end matching number of the graph.
points v1, v2, .....vi + 1. Choose an edge vi+1 = vjvk with
COVERINGS
vj Î {vi ..........vi + 1} and vk Ï [v1, ....... vi + 1] such that
ei + 1 has smallest weight among the edges of G with In a graph G a set g of edges is said to cover G if every vertex in
precisely one end in [v1, ......... vi + 1]. G is incident on at least one edge in g. A set of edges that covers
Step 4 : Stop after n – 1 edges have been chosen. Otherwise go a graph G is called edge covering, covering subgraph, or simply
to step 3. a covering of G.
e.g. a graph G is trivially its own covering. Spanning tree in a
CUT VERTICES AND CONNECTIVITY connected graph (or a spanning forest in an unconnected graph)
Cut vertex is analogue of a bridge. A vertex v of a graph is called is another covering. Hamiltonian circuit (if it exists) in a graph is
a cut vertex of G if also a covering.
w(G – v) > w(G),
Where w(G) are number of components in graph G, i.e. a cut
vertex breaks a graph into a subgraph having more connected
components, then G has

G–V
(a) (b)
Fig. Graph and two of its minimal coverings
w (G) = 1 w (G – v) = 3

Fig. Graph after deleting cut vertex v Detection of Planarity

Every subgraph of a planar graph is planar and that every graph
ISOMORPHISM OF GRAPHS which has non-planar graph is also non-planar. A disconnected
graph is planar iff each of its components is planar. Similarly, in a
Let G(V, E) and G*(V*, E*) are graphs and f : V ® V* is a one-to-
separable graph, planarity of each block can be considered
one correspondence beta sets of vertices such that [u, v] is an
independently. Thus, a separable graph is planar iff each of its
edge of G if and only if {f (u), f(v)} is an edge of G*. Then f is
block is planar. Thus, we need to consider only non-separable
isomorphism between G and G*, and G and G* are called
connected graph.
isomorphic graphs. Normally, we do not distinguish between
isomorphic graphs (even though their diagrams may “look Colouring of Graphs
different”). A colouring of a graph G is an assignment of colours to its
MATCH IN GS vertices such that no adjacent vertices have the same colour. A
given graph can be properly coloured in many different ways.
Maximal Maching We are finding the minimum number of colours with which a
It is a matching to which no edge in the graph can be added. given graph can be properly coloured.
e.g. in a complete graph of three vertices (i.e. a triangle) any single e.g., There are three different proper colouring of a graph with
edge is a maximal matching. The edges shown by heavy lines. different number of colours.
Yellow Yellow Red

Green Green Yellow

Red Blue Red Blue Red Blue

(a) (b)
Fig. Graph and two of its maximal matchings. Pink Yellow Yellow
Five colours are used Four colours are used Three colours are used
11

Proportional and First Order Logic 8. A function f : ¥ + ® ¥ +, defined on the set of positive
integers ¥ +, satisfies the following properties:
1. The statement (Ø p) Þ (Ø q) is logically equivalent to
which of the statements below? [2017, Set - 1, 1 Mark] [2016, Set 1, 2 Marks]
I. p Þ q II. q Þ p f (n) = f (n/2) if n is even
f (n) = f (n+5) if n is odd
III. (Ø q) Ú p IV. (Ø p) Ú q
(a) I only (b) I and IV only Let R = {i| $ j : f ( j) = i} be the set of distinct values that
f takes.The maximum possible size of R is_______.
(c) II only (d) II and III only
9. Consider the following expressions:[2016, Set 2, 1 Mark]
2. Consider the first-order logic sentence F: " x ( $ y R(x,y)). (i) false (ii) Q
Assuming non-empty logical domains. which of the sentences
(iii) true (iv) PÚQ
below are implied by F? [2017, Set - 1, 1 Mark]
(v) ØQÚP
I. $ y ( $ y R(x, y)) II. $ y ( " x R(x, y)) The number of expressions given above that are logically
III. " y ( $ x R(x, y)) IV. Ø $ x ( " y Ø R(x, y)) implied by Þ P ^ (P Þ Q) is ________.
(a) IV only (b) I and IV only 10. A binary relation R on ¥ × ¥ is defined as follows: (a,
(c) II only (d) II and III only b)R(c, d). If a £ c or b £ d, consider the following
3. Let p, q, r denote the statements “It is raining”. “It is propositions: [2016, Set 2, 2 Marks]
cold”, and “It is pleasant”. respectively. Then the P: R is reflexive
statement “It is not raining and it is pleasant, and It is Q: R is transitive
not pleasant only if it is raining and it is cold” is Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
represented by [2017, Set - 2, 1 Mark] (a) Both P and Q are true.
(a) (Ø p Ù r) Ù (Ø r ® (p Ù q)) (b) P is true and Q is false.
(b) (Ø p Ù r) Ù (p Ù q) ® Ø r) (c) P is false and Q is true.
(c) (Ø p Ù r) Ú (p Ù q) ® Ø r) (d) Both P and Q are false.
(d) (Ø p Ù r) Ú (r ® (p Ù q)) 11. Which one of the following well-formed formulae in
predicate calculus is NOT valid? [2016, Set 2, 2 Marks]
4. If the ordinary generating function of a sequence {an }µ
n =0 (a) ( " x p(x) Þ " xq(x)) Þ ( $ x Ø p(x) Ú " xq(x))
1+z (b) ( $ x p(x) Ú $ xq(x)) Þ $ x (p(x) Ú q(x))
is 3 , then (a3 – a0) is equal to ________.
(1–z) (c) $ x (p(x) Ù q(x)) Þ ( $ x p(x) Ù $ xq(x))
[2017, Set - 2, 2 Mark] (d) " x (p(x) Ú q(x)) Þ ( " x p(x) Ú " xq(x))
5. Let p, q, r, s represent the following propositions: 12. Consider a set U of 23 different compounds in a Chemistry
lab. There is a subset S of U of 9 compounds, each of
[2016, Set 1, 1 Mark]
which reacts with exactly 3 compounds of U. Consider the
p: x Î {8, 9, 10, 11,12} following statements: [2016, Set 2, 2 Marks]
q: x is a composite number I. Each compound in U \ S reacts with an odd number
r: x is a perfect square of compounds.
s: x is a prime number II. At least one compound in U \ S reacts with an odd
The integer x > 2 which satisfies Ø((p Þ q) ^ ( Ø r Ú Ø s)) is _____. number of compounds.
III. Each compound in U \ S reacts with an even number
6. Let an be the number of n-bit strings that do NOT contain of compounds.
two consecutive 1s. Which one of the following is the
Which one of the above statements is ALWAYS TRUE?
recurrence relation for an? [2016, Set 1, 1 Mark]
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(a) an = an–1+ 2an–2 (b) an = an–1+ an–2
(c) Only III (d) None
(c) an = 2an–1+ an–2 (d) an = 2an–1+ 2an–2
13. The value of the expression 1399 (mod 17), in the range
7. The coefficient of x12 in (x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + ...)3 is _______ . 0 to 16, is ______ . [2016, Set 2, 2 Marks]
[2016, Set 1, 2 Mark]
12
What is the value of fg(h(2,5,7,3), 4,6,8)?
x g(h(x))
14. If g(x) =1 – x and h(x) = , then is 20. Consider the following two statements.[2015, Set 2, 1 Mark]
x -1 h(g(x))
S1: If a candidate is known to be corrupt, then he will not be
[2015, Set 1, 1 Mark] elected
S2: If a candidate is kind, he will be elected.
h(x) -1
(a) (b) Which one of the following statements follows from S1 and
g(x) x S2 as per sound inference rules of logic?
x (a) If a person is known to be corrupt, he is kind
g(x)
(c) (d) (b) If a person is not known to be corrupt, he is not kind
h(x) (1 - x) 2
(c) If a person is kind, he is not known to be corrupt
15. Suppose L = {p,q,r,s,t} is a lattice represented by the (d) If a person is not kind, he is not known to be corrupt
following Hasse diagram: 21. Let R be the relation on the set of positive integers such that
t aRb if and only if a and b distinct and have a common divisor
other than 1. Which one of the following statements about
R is true? [2015, Set 2, 1 Mark]
r s (a) R is symmetric and reflexive but not transitive
q
(b) R is reflexive but not symmetric and not transitive
(c) R is transitive but not reflexive and not symmetric
p (d) R is symmetric but not reflexive and not transitive
For any x, y Î L, not necessarily distinct, x Ú y and x Ù y are 22. Suppose U is the power set of the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. For
join and meet of x, y respectively. Let L3 = {(x,y,z): x,y,z Î L} any T Î U, let |T| denote the number of elements in T and T1
be the set of all ordered triplets of the elements of L. Let pr denote the complement of T. For any T, R Î U, let T\ R be the
be the probability that an element (x, y, z) Î L3 chosen set of all elements in T which are not in R. Which one of the
equiprobably satisfies x Ú (y Ù z) = (x Ú y) Ù (x Ú z). Then following is true?
[2015, Set 1, 2 Marks] (a) " X Î U (|X| = |X'|)
(a) pr = 0 (b) pr = 1 (b) $ X Î U $ Y Î U (|X| = 2, |Y| = 5 and X Ç Y = 0)
(c) " X Î U " Y Î U (|X| = 2, |Y| = 3 and X / Y = 0)
1 1
(c) 0 < pr £ (d) < pr < 1 (d) " X Î U " Y Î U (X/Y = Y'/X')
5 5
23. The CORRECT formula for the sentence, “not all rainy days
16. For a set A, the power set of A is denoted by 2A. If A = {5, {6},
are cold” is [2014, Set-3, 2 Marks]
{7}}, which of the following options are TRUE?
(a) " d (Rainy(d) Ù ~ Cold(d))
I. fÎ 2A II. f Î 2A
(b) " d (~Rainy(d) ® Cold(d))
III. {5, {6}} Î 2A IV. {5{6}} Í 2A
(c) $ d (~Rainy(d) ® Cold(d))
[2015, Set 1, 1 Mark]
(d) $ d (Rainy(d) Ù ~ Cold(d))
(a) I and III only (b) II and III only
24. Which one of the following propositional logic formulas is
(c) I, II and III only (d) I, II and IV only TRUE when exactly two of p, q, and r are TRUE?
17. Let a n represent the number of bit strings of length n [2014, Set-1, 2 Marks]
containing two consecutive 1s. What is the recurrence
(a) ((p « q) Ù r) Ú (p Ù q Ù ~ r)
relation for an? [2015, Set 1, 2 Marks]
(a) an–2 + an–1 +2n–2 (b) an–2 +2a n–1 +2n–2 (b) (~(p « q) Ù r) Ú (p Ù q Ù ~ r)
(c) 2a n–2 +a n–1 +2n–2 (d) 2a n–2+2an–1 +2n–2 (c) ((p « q) Ù r) Ú (p Ù q Ù ~ r)
18. The cardinality of the power set of {0, 1, 2,…, 10} (d) (~(p « q) Ù r) Ù (p Ù q Ù ~ r)
is _______. 25. Consider the statement
19. If p, q, r, s are distinct integers such that:[2015, Set 2, 1 “Not all that glitters is gold”
Mark] Predicate glitters (x) is true if x glitters and predicate gold
f(p, q, r, s) = max(p, q, r, s) (x) is true if x is gold. Which one of the following logical
g(p, q, r, s) = min(p, q, r, s) formulae represents the above statement?
h(p, q, r, s) = remainder of (p×q)/(r×s) if [2014, Set-1, 1 Mark]
(p × q)> (r × s) or remainder of (r×s)/(p×q) if (r×s) > (p×q) (a) "x : glitters( x ) Þ Øgold ( x )
Also a function fgh(p, q, r, s) = f(p, q, r, s) × g(p, q, r, s) × h(p,
q, r, s) (b) "x : gold ( x ) Þ glitters( x )
Also the same operations are valid with two variable (c) $x : gold ( x ) Ù Øglitters( x )
functions of the form f(p, q).
(d) $x : glitters( x ) Ù Øgold ( x )
13
26. Consider the following statements: 32. The following is the incomplete operation table of a 4-
P: Good mobile phones are not cheap element group
Q: Cheap mobile phones are not good
* e a b c
L: P implies Q
M: Q implies P e e a b c
N: P is equivalent to Q a a b c e
Which one of the following about L, M, and N is b
CORRECT? [2014, Set-3, 1 Mark] c
(a) Only L is TRUE.
The last row of the table is [2004, 2 Marks]
(b) Only M is TRUE.
(a) c a e b (b) c b a e
(c) Only N is TRUE.
(c) c b e a (d) c e a b
(d) L, M and N are TRUE.
33. How many graphs on n labelled vertices exist which have
27. Which one of the following Boolean expressions is NOT a at least (n2 – 3n)/2 edges? [2004, 2 Marks]
tautology? [2014, Set-2, 2 Marks]
(a) ((a ® b) Ù (b ® c) )® (a ® c) (n 2 - 3n) / 2
(n 2 - n) / 2
(b) (a « c) ® ( ~ b ® (a Ù c)) (a) C
(n 2 -3n) / 2
(b) å (n 2 - n)C k
k= 0
(c) (a Ù b Ù c) ® ( c Ú a)
(d) a ® (b ® a) n
(n 2 - n)
Proportional and First Order Logic
(c) (n 2 - n) / 2
Cn (d) å 2
Ck
k= 0
34. Which of the following is a valid first order formula?
¥
(Here a and b are first order formulae with x as their only
28. Let G(x) = 1/ (1 – x)2 = å g(i)x , where |x| < 1. What is
i
free variable) [2003, 2 Marks]
i=0
g(i)? [2005, 2 Marks] (a) ("x) [a] Þ ("x) [b] Þ ("x) [a Þ b]
(b) ("x) [a] Þ [$x] [a Ù b]
(a) i (b) i + 1
(c) ("x) [a Ú b] Þ [$x] [a] ("x) [a]
(c) 2i (d) 2i
(d) ("x) [a Þ b] Þ (("x) [a] Þ ("x) [b])
29. Identify the correct translation into logical notation of the
following assertion. Some boys in the class are taller than 35. Consider the following logic program P :
all the girls. A(x) ¬ B(x, y), C(y)
¬ B(x, x)
Note Taller (x, y) is true, if x is taller than y.
Which of the following first order sentences is equivalent
[2004, 1 Mark] to P? [2003, 2 Marks]
(a) ($x) (boy (x) ® ("y) (girl (y) Ù taller (x, y))) (a) ("x) [$y] [B(x, y) Ù C(y)] Þ A(x)] Ù Ø ($x) [B(xx)]
(b) ($x) (boy (x) Ù ("y) (girl (y) Ù taller (x, y))) (b) ("x) ["y] [B(x, y) Ù C(y)] Þ A(x)] Ù Ø ($x) [B(xx)]
(c) ($x) (boy (x) ® ("y) (girl (y) ® taller (x, y))) (c) ("x) [$y] [B(x, y) Ù C(y)] Þ A(x)] Ú Ø ($x) [B(xx)]
(d) ($x) (boy (x) Ù ("y) (girl (y) ® taller (x, y))) (d) ("x) ["y] [B(x, y) Ù C(y)] Þ A(x) Ù Ø ($x) [B(xx)]
30. The following propositional statement is 36. Consider the following formula a and its two
interpretations l1 and l2
(P ® (Q Ú R)) ® ((P Ù Q) ® R) [2004, 2 Marks]
a : ("x) [Px Û ("y)[Qxy Û Ø Qxy]] Û ("x) [ØPx]
(a) satisfiable but not vaild
l1 : domain : the set of natural numbers
(b) valid Px º x is a prime number
(c) a contradiction Qxy º y divides x
(d) None of these l2 : same as l1 except that Px = x is a composite number
31. The inclusion of which of the following sets into Which of the following statements is true?
S = {{1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}, {1, 3, 5}, {1, 2, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}} is [2003, 2 Mark]
necessary and sufficient to make S a complete lattice (a) l1 satisfies a, l2 does not
under the partial order defined by set containment? (b) l2 satisfies a, l1 does not
[2004, 2 Marks] (c) Neither l1 nor l2 satisfies a
(a) {1} (d) Both l1 and l2 satisfy a
(b) {1}, {2, 3} 37. The following resolution rule is used in logic programming
(c) {1}, {1, 3} Derive clause (P Ú Q) from clauses (P Ú R), (Q Ú Ø R)
Which of the following statements related to this rule is
(d) {1}, {1, 3}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 5}
false? [2003, 2 Marks]
14
(a) (P Ú R) Ù (Q Ú Ø R) Þ (P Ú Q) is logically valid 42. Consider the set of all functions f : {0, 1, ..., 2014} ® {0, 1, ...,
(b) (P Ú Q) Þ (P Ú Q) Ù (Q Ú Ø R) is logically valid 2014} such that f (f (i)) = i, for all 0 £ i £ 2014. Consider the
(c) (P Ú Q) is satisfiable if and only if (P Ú R) Ù (Q ÚØ R) following statements:
(d) (P Ú R) Þ False if and only if both P and Q are P. For each such function it must be the case that for
unsatisfiable every i, f (i) = i.
38. Let å = {a, b, c, d, e} be an alphabet. We define an Q. For each such function it must be the case that for
encoding scheme as follows g(a) = 3, g(b) = 5, g(c) = 7, some i, f (i) = i.
g(d)= 9, g(e) = 11. Let Pi denotes the i th prime number R. Each such function must be onto.
(pi = 2)
Which one of the following is CORRECT?
For a non-empty string s = a1....an, where each a1Îå,
[2014, Set-3, 2 Marks]
define f(s) = Õin= 1 pig(ai) . (a) P, Q and R are true
For a non-empty sequence <s1 ...sn> of strings from å*. (b) Only Q and R are true
(c) Only P and Q are true
define h(<s1....sn >) = Õin=1 pif (si .)
(d) Only R is true
Which of the following numbers is the encoding h of a 43. Let S denote the set of all functions f: {0, 1}4 ® {0,1}.
non-empty sequence of strings? [2003, 2 Marks] Denote by N the number of functions from S to the set
7 7 7 8 8 8
(a) 2 3 5 (b) 2 3 5 {0,1}. The value of log2 log2 N is ________ .
(c) 29 39 59 (d) 210 510 710 [2014, Set-1, 2 Marks]
39. Consider the set å* of all strings over the alphabet 44. A pennant is a sequence of numbers, each number being 1
å = {0 , 1} å* with the concatenation operator for strings or 2. An n-pennant is a sequence of numbers with sum
[2003, 1 Mark] equal to n. For example, (1, 1, 2) is a 4-pennant. The set of all
(a) does not form a group possible 1-pennants is {(1)}, the set of all possible
(b) forms a non-commutative group 2-pennants is {(2), (1,1)}and the set of all 3-pennants is
(c) does not have a right identify element {(2,1), (1,1,1), (1,2)}. Note that the pennant (1,2) is not the
(d) forms a group, if the empty string is removed fromå* same as the pennant (2,1). The number of 10-pennants is
______________. [2014, Set-1, 2 Marks]
Sets & Relations,Functions, Partial orders, 45. If V1 and V2 are 4-dimensional subspaces of a 6-dimensional
Latices & Groups vector space V, then the smallest possible dimension of
40. Consider the following relation on subsets of the set S of V1 Ç V2 is ______. [2014, Set-3, 1 Mark]
integers between 1 and 2014. For two distinct subsets U
Graphs
and V of S we say U < V if the minimum element in the
symmetric difference of the two sets is in U. 46. The maximum number of edges in a bipartite graph on 12
Consider the following two statements: vertices is _________________. [2014, Set-2, 1 Mark]
S1: There is a subset of S that is larger than every other 47. The number of distinct minimum spanning trees for the
subset. weighted graph below is _____ [2014, Set-2, 2 Marks]
S2: There is a subset of S that is smaller than every other 2
subset.
Which one of the following is CORRECT? 2 1 2 1

[2014, Set-2, 2 Marks]

(a) Both S1 and S2 are true 2 2
(b) S1 is true and S2 is false 2 1
1 1
(c) S2 is true and S1 is false
(d) Neither S1 nor S2 is true 2 2
41. Let X and Y be finite sets and f : X ® Y be a function.
48. A cycle on n vertices is isomorphic to its complement. The
Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
value of n is _____. [2014, Set-2, 2 Marks]
[2014, Set-3, 1 Mark] 49. Let G be a group with 15 elements. Let L be a subgroup of G.
(a) For any subsets A and B of X, |f (A È B)| = |f (A)| + |f (B)| It is known that L ¹ G and that the size of L is at least 4.
(b) For any subsets A and B of X, f (A Ç B) = f (A) Ç f (B) The size of L is __________. [2014, Set-3, 1 Mark]
(c) For any subsets A and B of X, |f (A Ç B)| = min {|f (A)|, 50. A binary operation Å on a set of integers is defined as
|f (B)|} x Å y = x2 + y2. Which one of the following statements
(d) For any subsets S and T of Y, f –1 (S Ç T) = f –1 (S) Ç f –1 (T) is true about Å ? [2013, 1 Mark]
15
(a) Commutative but not associative 56. Let G be a simple undirected planar graph on 10 vertices
(b) Both commutative and associative with 15 edges. If G is a connnected graph, then the number
(c) Associative but not commutative of bounded faces in any embedding of G on the plane is
equal to [2012, 1 Mark]
(d) Neither commutative nor associative
(a) 3 (b) 4
51. Which of the following statements is/are true for
undirected graphs? (c) 5 (d) 6
P: Number of odd degree vertices is even. 57. K4 and Q3 are graphs with the following structure
Q: Sum of degrees of all vertices is even.
[2013, 1 Mark]
(a) P only (b) Q only
(c) Both P and Q (d) Neither P nor Q
52. What is the correct translation of the following statement k4
into mathematical logic? [2012, 1 Mark] Q3
“Some real numbers are rational”? Which one of the following statements is true in relation to
(a) $ x (real) (x) v rational (x)) these graphs? [2011, 1 Mark]
(b) " x (real) (x) ® rational (x)) (a) K4 is planar while Q3 is not
(c) $x (real) (x) Ù rational (x)) (b) Both K4 and Q3 are planar
(d) $ x (rational (x) ® real (x)) (c) Q3 is planar while K4 is not
53. Consider the following logical inferences : (d) Neither K4 nor Q3 is planar
I1: If it rains, then the cricket match will not be played. 58. What is the possible number of reflexive relations on a set
The cricket match was played. [2012, 1 Mark] of 5 elements? [2010, 1 Mark]
Inference There was no rain. (a) 210 (b) 215
I2 : If it rains, then the cricket match will not be played.
(c) 220 (d) 225
It did not rain.
59. Consider the set S = {1, w, w2}, where w and w2 are cube
Inference The cricket match was played.
roots of unity. If * denotes the multiplication operation, the
Which of the following is true? structure {S, *} forms [2010, 1 Mark]
(a) Both I1 and I2 are correct inferences
(a) a group (b) a ring
(b) I1 is correct but I2 is not a correct inferences
(c) an integral domain (d) a field
(c) I1 is not correct but I2 is a correct inference
(d) Both I1 and I2 are not correct inferences 60. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Define x (G) = å id ´ d, where id
54. Which of the following graphs is isomorphic to given d
graph? is the number of vertices of degree d in G. If S and T are two
[2012, 2 marks] different trees with x(S) = x(T), then [2010, 1 Mark]
(a) |S| = 2|T| (b) |S| = |T| –1
(c) |S| = |T| (d) |S| = |T| +1
61. Let X, Y, Z be sets of sizes x, y and z respectively. Let
W = X × Y and E be the set of all subsets of W. The number
of functions from Z to E is [2006, 1Mark]
xy
(a) z (b) z × 2
(a) (b) (c) z 2
(d) 2xyz
62. Let G be a simple connected planar graph with 13 vertices
and 19 edges. Then, the number of faces in the planar
embedding of the graph is [2006, 1 Mark]
(c) (d) (a) 0 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 13
55. Let G be a complete undirected graph on 6 vertices. If 63. Let G be a simple connected planar graph with 13 vertices
vertices of G are labeled, then the number of distinct cycles and 19 edges. Then, the number of faces in the planar
of length 4 in G is equal to [2012, 2 Marks] embedding of the graph is [2006, 1 Mark]
(a) 15 (b) 30 (a) 0 (b) 8
(c) 90 (d) 360
(c) 9 (d) 13
16
64. Which of the following graphs is not planar? 71. Which one of the following is the most appropriate logical
[2005, 1 Mark] formula to represent the statement [2009, 1 Mark]
‘Gold and silver ornaments are precious’?
The following notations are used
G(x) : x is a gold ornament
(a) G1 : (b) G2 : S(x) : x is a silver ornament
P(x) : x is precious
(a) " x (P(x)) ® (G(x) Ù S(x))
(b) " x (G(x)) Ù S(x) ® P(x))
(c) $ x ((G(x) Ù S(x)) ® P(x))
(d) " x (G(x) ® S(x)) ® P(x)
72. The binary operation is defined as follows
(c) G3 : (d)
P Q PQ
True True True
True False True
65. Let G be a simple connected planar graph with 13 vertices
and 19 edges. Then, the number of faces in the planar False True False
embedding of the graph is [2005, 1 Mark] False False True
(a) 0 (b) 8 Which one of the following is equivalent to P Ú Q?
(c) 9 (d) 13 [2009, 1 Mark]
66. The minimum number of colours require to colour the (a) Ø Q Ú Ø P (b) P Ú Ø Q
following graph, such that no two adjacent vertices are (c) Ø P Ú Q (d) Ø P Ø Q
assigned the same colour, is [2004, 2 Marks] 73. Which one of the following is not necessarily a property of
a group? [2009, 1 Mark]
(a) Commutativity
(b) Associativity
(c) Existence of inverse for every element
(a) 2 (b) 3 (d) Existence of identity
(c) 4 (d) 5 74. Consider the binary relation R = {(x, y), (x, z), (z, x), (z, y)} on
67. Let G be an arbitary graph with n nodes and k the set {x, y, z} which one of the following is true?
components. If a vetex is remvoed form G, the nubmer of (a) R is symmetric but not anti-symmetric[2009, 1Mark]
components in the resultant graph must necessarily lie (b) R is not symmetric but anti-symmetric
between [2003, 1 Mark] (c) R is both symmetric and anti-symmetric
(a) k and n (b) k – 1 and k + 1 (d) R is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric
(c) k – 1 and n – 1 (d) k + 1 and n – k 75. Which one of the following is true for any simple connected
68. A graph G = (V, E) satisfies |E| £ 3 |V| –6. The min-degree undirected graph with more than 2 vertices?
[2009, 2 Marks]
of G is defined as min
v ÎV
{degree (v)}. Therefore, min-
(a) No two vertices have the same degree
degree of G cannot be [2003, 2 Marks] (b) Atleast two vertices have the same degree
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) Atleast three vertices have the same degree
(c) 5 (d) 6 (d) All vertices have the same degree
69. How many perfect matchings are there in a complete 76. What is the chromatic number of an n-vertex simple
graph of 6 vertices? [2003, 2 Marks] connected graph which does not contain any odd length
(a) 15 (b) 24 cycle? Assume n ³ 2 [2009, 2 Marks]
(c) 30 (d) 60 (a) 2 (b) 3
Combinatorics (c) n – 1 (d) n
77. Let graph (x) be a predicate which denoted that x is a graph.
70. In a binary tree with n nodes, every node has an odd number Let graph (x) is connected. Which of the following first
of descendants. Every node is considered to be its own order logic sentences does not represent the statement ‘Not
descendent. What is the number of nodes in the tree that every graph is connected’? [2008, 1 Mark]
have exactly one child? [2010, 2 Marks] (a) Ø " x (graph (x) Þ connected (x))
(a) 0 (b) 1 (b) $ x (graph (x) Ù Ø connected (x))
n–2 (c) Ø " (Ø graph (x)) Ú (connected (x))
(c) (d) n –1
2 (d) " x (graph (x)) Þ Ø connected (x))
17
78. Let fsa and pda be two predicates such that fsa(x) means x 84. Consider the set S = {a, b, c, d}. Consider the following 4
is a finite state automation and pda(y), means y is a push partitions p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 on S : p1 = {abcd } ,
down automation. Let equivalent be another predicate such
that equivalent (a, b) means a and b are equivalents. Which p2 = {ab, cd}, p3 = {abc, d}, p4 = {a, b, c, d }
of the following first order logic statements represents the Let < be partial.
following: [2008, 1 Mark]
Order on the set of partitions S¢ = (p1, p2, p3, p4) defined as
(a) (" x fsa (x)) Þ ($ y pda(y) Ù equivalent (x, y)) follows : pi < pj if and only if pi refines pj. The poset diagram
(b) ~ " y ($ x fsa (x) Þ ($ y pda(y) Ù equivalent (x, y)) for (S¢, <) is [2007, 1 Mark]
(c) "x $ y (fsa(x) Ù pda (y) Ù equivalent (x, y)) a1
(d) "x $ y (fsa(x) Ù pda (x) Ù equivalent (x, y)) p1
79. P and Q two propositions. Which of the following logical a2
expressions are equivalent? [2008, 1 Mark] (a) (b) p3 p4
1. P Ú ~ Q a3
2. ~ (~ P Ù Q)
3. (P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù ~ Q) Ú (~ P Ù ~ Q) a4 p3
4. (P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù ~ Q) Ú (~ P Ù Q) p1 p1 p2 p3
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) All of 1, 2, 3 and 4
(c) p2 p4 (d)
80. If P, Q, R are subsets of the universal set U, then
(P Ç Q Ç R) È (Pc Ç Q Ç R) È Qc È Rc is [2008, 1 Mark]
(a) Qc È Rc p3 p4
(b) P È Qc È Rc 85. Consider the following propositional statements
(c) Pc È Qc È Rc [2006, 1 Mark]
(d) U P1 : ((A Ù B) ® C) º ((A ® C) Ù (B ® C))
81. Which one of the first order predicate calculus statements P2 : ((A Ú B) ® C) º ((A ® C) Ú (B ® C))
given below, correctly expresses the following english Which one of the following is true?
statement? [2007, 1 Mark] (a) P1 is a tautology, but not P2
Tiger or lions attack, if they are hungry or threatened. (b) P2 is a tautology, but not P1
(a) " × [(tiger (×) Ù lion (×)) ® {(hungry (×) Ú threatened (c) P1 and P2 are both tautologies
(×)) ® attacks (×)}] (d) Both P1 and P2 are not tautologies
(b) " × [(tiger (×) Ú lion (×)) ® {(hungry (×) Ú threatened 86. A relation R is defined an ordered pair of integers as follows
(×)) ® attacks (×)}] (x, y) R (u, v), if x < u and y < v. The, R is [2006, 1 Mark]
(c) " × [(tiger (×) Ú lion (×)) ® {(attacks (×) Ú hungry (×)) (a) neither a Partial Order nor an Equivalence Relation
Ú threatened (×))}] (b) a Partial Order but not a Total Order
(d) " × [(tiger (×) Ú lion (×)) ® {(hungry (×) Ú threatened (c) a Total Order
(×)) ® attacks (×)}]
(d) an equivalence Relation
82. Let S be a set of n elements. The number of ordered pairs in 87. Let S = {1, 2, 3, ...., m}, m > 3. Lt X1,..., Xn be subsets of S
the largest and the smallest equivalence relations on S are each of size 3. Define a function f from S to the set of natural
[[2007, 1 Mark] numbers as, f (i) is the number of sets Xj that contain the
(a) n and n (b) n2 and n m
(c) n and 0 (d) n and 1 element i. i.e., f(i) = {j|i ÎXi}, then å f (i) is
83. Consider the DAG with V = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, shown below: i =1
[2007, 1 Mark] [2006, 1 Mark]
(a) 3m (b) 3n
2 5 (c) 2m + 1 (d) 2n + 1
88. Let E, F and G be finite sets. Let X = (E Ç F) – (F Ç G) and Y
= (E – (E Ç G) – E – F). Which one of the following is true?
1 4 [2006, 2 Marks]
(a) X Ì Y (b) X É Y
(c) X = Y (d) X – Y ¹ f and Y – X ¹ f
89. The set {1, 2, 4, 7, 8 ,11, 13, 14} is a group under multiplication
3 6 modulo 15. The inverse of 4 and 7. are respectively
Which of the following is not a topological ordering? [2006, 2 Marks]
(a) 1 2 3 4 5 6 (b) 1 3 2 4 5 6 (a) 3 and 13 (b) 2 and 11
(c) 1 3 2 4 6 5 (d) 3 2 4 1 6 5 (c) 4 and 13 (d) 8 and 14
18
Lattice 95. What is the first order predicate calculus statement
equivalent to the following? [2005, 1 Mark]
90. The following is the Hasse diagram of the poset [{a, b, c, d, Every teacher is liked by some student.
e} £ 1]. The poset is [2006, 2 Marks]
(a) " (x) [teacher (x) ® $ (y) {student (y) ® likes (y, x)}]
a (b) " (x) [teacher (x) ® $ (y) {student (y) Ù likes (y, x)}]
(c) $ (y), " (x) [teacher (x) ® {student (y) Ù likes (y, x)}]
(d) " (x) [teacher (x) ® $ (y) {student (y) ® likes (y, x)}]
96. Let P, Q, R be three atomic propositional assertions. Let X
b e d denotes (P Ú Q) ® R and Y denotes (P ® R) Ú (Q ® R).
Which one of the following is tautology? [2005, 2 Marks]
(a) X º Y (b) X ®Y
[{a, b, c, d, e}£ 1] (c) Y ® X (d) ØY ® X
c 97. Let f : B ® C and g : A ® B be two functions and let
h = fog. Given that h is an onto function. Which one of
(a) not a lattice
the following is true? [2005, 2 Marks]
(b) a lattice but not a distributive lattice
(c) a distributive lattice but not a Boolean algebra (a) f and g should both be onto functions
(d) a Boolean algebra (b) f should be onto but g needs not be onto
91. The following is the hasse diagram of the poset [{a, b, c, (c) g should be onto but not be onto
d, e}, £]. [2005, 1 Mark] (d) both f and g need not be onto
a 98. Let R and S be any two equivalence relations on a non-
empy set A. Which one of the following statements is
true? [2005, 2 Marks]
b c d (a) R Ç S, R È S are both equivalence relations
(b) R È S is an equivalence relation
(c) R Ç S is an equivalence relation
e (d) Neither R È S nor R Ç S is an equivalence relation
The poset is 99. What is the minimum number of ordered pairs of non-
(a) not a lattice negative numbers that should be chosen to ensure that
(b) a lattice but not a distributive lattice ther are two paris (a, b) and (c, d) in the chosen set such
(c) a distributive lattice but not a Boolean algebra that a º c and mod 3 and b º d mod 5? [2005, 2 Marks]
(d) A Boolean algebra (a) 4 (b) 6
Set & Relations (c) 16 (d) 24
100. The set {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} is a group under multiplication
92. Let A, B and C be non-empty set and let X= (A – B) – C and modulo 15. The inverses of 4 and 7 are respectively
Y = (A – C) – (B – C). Which one of the following is true? [2005, 1 Mark]
(a) X = Y (b) X Ì Y [2006, 2 Marks] (a) 3 and 13 (b) 2 and 11
(c) Y Ì X (d) None of these (c) 4 and 13 (d) 8 and 14
93. The set {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9} under multiplication modulo 10 is 101. Let A, B and C be non-empty sets and let X = (A – B) – C
not a group. Given below are four possible reasons. Which and Y = (A – C) – (B – C) [2005, 1 Mark]
one of them is false? [2006, 1 Mark] Which one of the following is true?
(a) It is not closed (a) X = Y (b) X Ì Y
(b) 2 does not have an inverse (c) Y Ì X (d) None of these
(c) 3 does not have an inverse 102. Consider the binary relation :
(d) 8 does not have an inverse S = {(x, y) | y = x + 1 and x, y Î {0, 1, 2,...}}
94. Let P, Q and R be three atomic propositional assertions. Let The reflexive transitive closure of S is [2004, 1 Mark]
X denotes (P Ú Q) ® R and Y denotes (P ® R) Ú (Q ® R). (a) {(x, y) | y > x and x, y Î {0, 1, 2,...}}
Which one of he following is a tautology? [2005, 1 Mark]
(b) {(x, y) | y ³ x and x, y Î {0, 1, 2,...}}
(a) X º Y (b) X ® Y
(c) {(x, y) | y < x and x, y Î {0, 1, 2,...}}
(c) Y ® l (d) Ø Y ® X
(d) {(x, y) | y ³ x and x, y Î {0, 1, 2,...}}
19
103. Let (S, £) be a partial order with two minimal elemetns a For example, a + c = c, c + a = a, c ´ b = c and b ´ c = a.
and b, and a maximum element c. Let P : S ® {True, Given the following set of equations
False} be a predicate defined on S. Suppose that P(a) = (a ´ x) + (a ´ y) = c
True, P(b) = False and P(x) Þ P(y) for all x, y Î S (b ´ x) + (c ´ y) = c
satisfying x £ y, where Þ stands for logical implication. The number of solutions [i.e., pair (s) (x, y) that satisfies
Which of the following statements cannot be true? the equations] is [2003, 2 Marks]
[2003, 2 Marks] (a) 0 (b) 1
(a) P(x) = True for all x Î S such that x Î such that x ¹ b (c) 2 (d) 3
(b) P(x) = False for all x Î S such that x ¹ a and x ¹ c 106. Consider the following reccurrence relation:
(c) P(x) = False for all x Î S such that b £ x such that T(1) = 1
x¹c
(d) P(x) = False for all x Î S such that a £ x and b £ c T(n + 1) = T(n) + êë n + 1 úû for all n ³ 1
104. Let f : A ® B be an injective (one-to-one) function. Define
g : 2A ®2B as :g(C) = {f(x) x Î C), for all subsets C of A. The value of T(m2) for m ³ 1 is [2003, 2 Marks]
Define h : 2B ® 2A as : h(D) = {x | x Î A, f(x) ÎD}, for m
(a) (21m - 39) + 4
all subsects D of B. 6
Which of the following stattements is always true? m
(b) (4m 2 - 3m + 5)
[2003, 2 Marks] 6
(a) g(h(D)) Í D (b) g(h(D)) Ê D m
(c) (3m 2.5 - 11m + 20) - 5
(c) g(h(D)) Ç D = f (d) g(h(D)) Ç (B – D) ¹ f 2
105. Consider the set {a, b, c} with binary operators + and m 5
(d) (5m3 - 34m 2 + 137m - 104) +
´ defined as follows : 6 6

+ a b c × a b c
a b a c a a b c
b a b c b b c a
c a c b c c c b
20

Propostional and First Order Logic 3. (a) As given statements are :-

p : "It is raining"
1. (d) By the rule of contrapositive.
q : "It is cold"
The given statement (Øp) Þ (Øq) is logically equivalent to
r : "It is pleasant".
q Þ p, and (Øq) Ú p, because
Then, the statement is:-
\ ( Ø p ) Þ (Ø q ) Û q Þ p
"It is not raining and it is pleasant" Þ (Ø p Ù r)
\ q Þ p Û (Øq) Ú p And "It is not pleasant only if it is raining and it is cold"
By taking Þ Ø r ® ( p Ù q)
L.H.S. :-
(Ø p Ù r ) Ù (Ø r ® ( p Ù q))
q Þ p Û (q '+ p)
Hence, option (a) is correct
Now, R.H.S.:-
4. The given sequence is
(Øq) Ú p Û (q + p)
1+ z
So, q Þ p Û (Øq) Ú p {an }¥n = 0 = ,
(1 - z )3
Hence, clearly the given statement is same as (ii) and
(iii), only. So option (d) is correct. 1+ z
Consider, = (1 + z )(1 - z ) -3
2. (b) The given statement F : " x ($y R( x, y)) (1 - z )3

1. " x ($ y R ( x, y )) ¾¾
® $y ($x R( x, y)) is correct.
(1 - z ) -3 = (1 + z )*(1 + 3C1 z + 4C2 z 2 + 5C3 z 3 + ......¥)
Since $y ($x R( x, y)) º $x ($y R( x, y)) a0 is first term in the expansion of above series and a3
is the fourth term or coefficient of z3.
º "x ($ y R( x, y))
Then, we find the value of a0 and a3, so
a0 (coefficient of z0) = 1
2. " x ($y R ( x, y )) ¾¾
®$y (" x R( x, y)) is incorrect,
a3 (coefficient of z3) = 5C3 + 4C2
because $y (it is stronger when it is outside).
= 10 + 6 = 16
3. " x ($y R ( x, y )) ¾¾
®" y $x R ( x, y ) is incorrect, Then, a3 – a0 = 16 – 1 = 15.
Hence 15 is correct answer.
because R(x, y) may not be symmetric in x and y.

4. " x ($ y R( x, y )) ¾¾
®(Ø $ x " y Ø R( x, y)) is correct 5. (p Þ q) will result {8, 9, 10, 12}
because Ø r will result {8,10, 11, 12}
Ø s will result {8, 9, 10, 12}
Ø ($x " y Ø R( x, y)) º (Ø $x )(Ø" y )(Ø (Ø R( x, y))) ( Ø r Ú Ø s) will result {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
(p Þ q) Ù ( Ø r Ú Ø s) will result {8, 9, 10, 12}
(Ø ($x )(" y )Ø (Ø R( x, y))) º " x ($ y R( x, y))
Ø ((p Þ q) Ù ( Ør Ú Ø s)) will result 11.
\Ø ($= 6. Case I ® First bit is ‘0’
x ) "x , Ø ("=
y ) $y , ØØ R( x, =
y) R( x, y)
So, it will be reduced to
0_ _ a_n _–1_ _ _
" x ($ y R( x, y)) ¾¾
®" x $ y R( x, y) Case II ® First bit is ‘1’
which is trivially correct. 0_ _an_–2_ _ _ 10 ® (It must be zero)
So correct answer is I and IV only.
Hence option (b) is correct. \ an = an –1 + an – 2
21
7. (x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + ....)3
= x9 (1 + x + x2 + .......)3
(ii) ( $xp ( x ) Ú $xq ( x ) ) Þ $x ( p ( x ) Ú q ( x ) )
= x9 ((1 – x)–1)3 If Ps or Qs is not empty, then Ps U Qs is not empty..
= x9 (1 – x)–3
It can be easily showed that this holds for any model.
¥
( n + 1)( n + 2 ) x n
=x
9
å 2
(iii) $x ( p ( x ) Ù q ( x ) ) Þ ( $xp ( x ) Ù $xq ( x ) )
n=0
To find the coefficient of x12, put n = 3 If Ps I Qs is non-empty then Ps is non-empty and Qs
4´5 is non-empty. Anything can model this.
= = 10
2 (iv) "x ( p(x) Ú q ( x ) ) Þ x" ( p(x) Ú "xq(x) )
8. In the given properties, we can observe that f(1) = f(2)
= f(3) = f(4) = f(6) = f(7) and f(5) = f(10) = f(15) = .... If Ps U Qs = W, then P s = W or Qs = W. This is
Obviously, the range of f(x) will contain two distinct obviously not true for any choice of Ps and Qs. Actually
elements only. the only times it will be true is:
9. Given expression is : (a) When Ps = W, meaning P(x) = True, or
= P Ù (P Þ Q) (b) When Qs = W, meaning Q(x) = True, or
= P Ù (P¢Ú Q) When Ps I Qs ¹ W , i.e., when there is a value
(c)
= (P Ù P¢) Ú (P Ù Q) of x where both P(x) and Q(x) do not hold.
= F Ù (P Ù Q) In any other case the choice of P() and Q() will
= (P Ù Q) not satisfy (iv).
1. (P Ù Q) Þ F = (P Ù Q)¢ Ú F = (P¢ Ú Q¢) Ú F = (P¢ Ú Q¢) 12. (b) The given problem can be solved by taking an
= Contingency but not Tautology undirected graph with 23 vertices and 9 of these with
degree 3.
2. (P Ù Q) Þ Q = (P Ù Q)¢ Ú Q = (P¢ Ú Q¢) Ú Q = P¢ Ú (Q¢ Ú
Suppose that if two compounds react with each other,
Q) = P¢ Ú T = T
then there exists an edge between the vertices.
= Tautology According to Theorem of Degree, atleast one of the
3. (P Ù Q) Þ T = (P Ù Q)¢ Ú T = T = Tautology remaining vertices must have odd degree (since
4. (P Ù Q) Þ P Ú Q = (P Ù Q)¢ Ú P Ú Q = (P¢ Ú Q¢) Ú P Ú Q number of vertices of odd degree is always even).
= (P¢ Ú P) Ú (Q Ú Q¢) 13. We have 13 * 13 * 13 * ... * 13 (total 99 terms)
= T Ú T = T = Tautology By Remainder theorem, Þ (-4) * (-4) * ... * (-4) (total 99
terms) Þ 16 * 16 * ... * 16 * (-4) (total 50 terms, 49
5. (P Ù Q) Þ Q¢ Ú P = (P Ù Q)¢ Ú Q¢ Ú P = (P¢ Ú Q¢) Ú Q¢ Ú
terms for 16 and one term for -4). Reapplying
P = (P¢ Ú P) Ú (Q¢ Ú Q¢) Remainder theorem, Þ (-1) * (-1) * ... * (-1) * (-4) (total
= T Ú Q¢ = T = Tautology 50 terms, 49 terms for -1 and one term for -4) Þ (-1) * (-
Therefore, statements (2), (3) (4) and (5) satisfies. 4) Þ 4
10. (b) R is reflexive as every ordered pair is related to itself. 14. (a) g(x) = 1 – x ...(1)
(a, b) R (a, b) since a £ a or b £ b x
It is not transitive as (2, 4) R (3, 2) and (3, 2) R(1, 3) but h (x) = ...(2)
x -1
(2, 4) R (1, 3). Replace x by h (x) in ...(1)
11. (d) P and Q are unary relations. Therefore one can model Replace x by g (x) in ...(2)
each of them as setsPs and Qs, where P(x) iff x Î Ps and g(h(x) ) =1– h (x)
Q(x) iff x Î Qs. Let W be every object in the universe.
Now we can convert each statement into sets: x -1
= 1- =
x -1 x -1
(i) ("xp ( x ) Þ "xq ( x ) ) Þ ( $xØp ( x ) Ú "xq ( x ) )
g (x)
Converting the Ú to Þ, we get h ( g ( x )) = =
1- x
g (x) -1 -x
( "xp ( x ) Þ "xq ( x ) ) Þ ( Ø$xØp ( x ) Þ "xq ( x ) )
g ( h ( x )) x
( "xp ( x ) Þ "xq ( x ) ) Þ ( "xp ( x ) Þ "xq ( x ) ) h ( g ( x ))
=
( x - 1)(1 - x )
Hence, the formula is valid if, for any model where
x
( "xp ( x ) ) Þ "xq ( x ) ) h o l d s , g ( h ( x ))
= -1
x
that ( "xq ( x ) Þ "xq(x ) ) also holds. h ( g ( x )) 1- x
22
= q® ~ p (contrapositive rule)
g ( h ( x )) h (x)
= and s2 : r ® q
h ( g ( x )) g (x) Þ r ® ~p (transitive rule)
15. (d) Number of elements in L3 = Number of ways in which i.e., If a person is kind, he is not known to be corrupt
we can choose 3 elements from 5 with repetition \ Option is (c).
= 5 × 5 × 5 = 125 Now, when we take x = t, then also the 21. (d) R is not reflexive as each element can’t be related to
given condition is satisfied for any y and z. Here, y itself.
and z can be taken in 5 × 5 = 25 ways. R is symmetric
Take x = r, y = p, z = p, these, also the given condition
Let a = 3, b = 6 and c = 10 then 3 and 6 have a common
25 1 division other than 1
is satisfied. So, pr > > .
125 5
6 and 10 have a common division other than 1
For x = p, y = r, z = t , the given condition is not
satisfied. but 3 &10 have no common division other than 1
So, Pr ¹ 1. 3R6 and 6R10 but 3 R 10
So, (d) corret option. R is not transitive.
16. (c) 2A ® Power set of A i.e., set of all subsets of A. Since
22. (d) Counter example :
empty set is a subset of every set
(a) Let X = {1} Þ X¢ = S – X {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Þ |X| ¹ |X¢|
\ φ Í 2A and φ Î 2 A (b) Since |S| = 6 and |X| = 5 = |Y|
Since {5, 6 } Í and 5 Ï 2A \ Atleast 4 elements common in X and Y
Þ X Ç Y = f is false
\ {5, 6 } Î 2 A and {5, 6 }Í 2 A
(c) Counter example : Let X = {1, 2} and Y = {2, 3, 4}
then X/Y = {1} ¹ f
\ I, II and III are TRUE
17. (a) Y¢
(d) X/ Y = X – Y= X Ç Y¢ and = Y¢ - X¢ = Y¢ Ç (X¢)
18. Cardinality of the power set of {0, 1, 2, … , 10} is 2 11 X¢
= Y¢ Ç X = X Ç Y¢
i.e.., 2048
7´3 X Y¢
®1 \ = , V X, Y Î U
19. h (2, 5, 7, 3) = Remainder of Y X¢
2´5
fg (h (2, 5, 7, 3), 4, 6, 8) = fg (1, 4, 6, 8) 23. (d)
= f (1, 4, 6, 8) × g (1, 4, 6, 8)
24. (b) (~ (p « q) Ù r) Ú (p Ù qÙ ~ r)
=8× 1=8
20. (c) Let p: candidate known to be corrupt We prove the truth table as follows:–
q: candidate will be elected As the 2nd term in each given option is common we
r: candidate is kind
have included this term only once in the truth table:
then S1 = p ® ~q

Option (A) (B) (C) (D) 2nd Final truth value

p q r ~r p « q ~(p« q) p® q
1st term Ist Ist Ist Common
term Option (A) (B) (C) (D)
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

Also as given exactly two of p, q and r are to be true, so we So, the statement is saying that “Not all the shiny
need to consider only three combinations as above. surface is Gold.” From the statement it can be deduced
We see that only option (B) (~ (p « q) Ù r) Ú (p Ù qÙ ~ r) that there is “Some glitters that is “definitely” not
gold”. However, nothing can be deduced that whether
is true in all three cases when exactly two of p, q and r are
“some glitters is Gold” or “No glitters is Gold.”
true.
(A) For all x : glitters (x) Þ gold (x)
25. (d) The Given statement is:
It says that if something is glitters then it must not be
“Not all that glitters is Gold”
Gold, which may not be true according to the above
Here “Glitters” means the “Golden shiny surface” that discussion.
looks like gold.
23
(B) For all x : gold (x) Þ glitters (x) 31. (a) The hasse diagram of the given poset is
It says that if something is Gold then it must be Glitters,
which can’t be deduced from given statement. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(C) $ x : gold (x) ^ glitters (x)
It says that if something x is available which is not
glitters and is Gold. However this also can’t be {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 4}
deduced from given statement. {1, 3, 5}

(D) $ x : glitters (x) ^ gold (x)

It says that some x exists which is glitters and is not {1, 2}
Gold. We note that from the given statement we
deduced this only as discussed above. In a complete lattice L, every non-empty subset of
26. (d) g : mobile in good L, has both LUB and GLB.
c : mobile in cheap. Now add {1}. The hasse diagram now becomes
P : Good mobile phones are not cheap {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
» g ® Øc » (Øg Ú Øc)
Q : cheap mobile phones are not good
» c ® Øg » (Øc Ú Øg) {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 4}
\ Both P and Q are equivalant {1, 3, 5}
\ L, M and N are correct
27. (b) (a « c) ® (~ b ® (a Ù c))
{1, 2}
Proportional and First order logic
{1}
1 Now the above hasse diagram represents a complete
28. (b) = (1 –x)–2 lattice, since every non-empty subset has both LUB
(1 - x) 2
and GLB.
= 1 + 2 C1x + 3 C 2 x 2 + ........ | x |< 1 32. (d) From given table,
2
= g(0) + g(1)x + g(2) x + ....... e* a = a, e* b = b, e* c = c
\ g(0) = 1 Þ e is the identity element,
\ a* e = a, b * e = b, c * e = c
2
g(1) = C1 = 2 Again from given column, we have
3 a*c=e
g(2) = C2 = 3 C1 = 3 \ c*a=e
… … … (If a is the inverse of c then c is the inverse of a)
g(i) = i + 1Ci = i + 1C1 = i + 1 \ First two elements of the last row will be ce.
29. (d) The statement some boys in the class are taller than 33. (d) Number of edges available in n labelled vertices is
all the girls.
n n(n - 1)
So, the logical notation is = C2 =
($x) (boy (x) Ù ("y) (girl (y) ® taller (x, y))) 2
2
n -n
30. (a) P ® (Q Ú R) º P ® Q Ú R = edges.
2
= P¢ + Q + R n 2 - 3n
From this, we need to choose edges or more
2
(P Ù Q) ® R º PQ ® R
º (PQ)¢ + R n2 - n
upto maximum .
º P¢ + Q¢ + R 2
\ P ® (Q Ú R) ® (P Ù Q) ® R n2 - n
Taking =m
2
º (P¢ + Q + R) ® P¢ + Q¢ + R
º (P¢ + Q + R)¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R n 2 - 3n
and =p
º PQ¢ R¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R (By absorption rule) 2
º P¢ + Q¢ + R Þ m – n = p, m – p = n
24
\ Total number of such graphs
= p1g(a1 ) = p1g(a ) = 23 = 8
= mCp + mCp + 1 + mCp + 2 + …+ mCp + n
= mCn + mCn – 1 + mCn – 2 + …+ mC0 3
= mC0 + mC1 + mC2 + …+ mCn h(s1, s2 s3) = Õ pif (si )
i =1
n
= å = 2f (s1 ).3f (s2 ).5f (s3 )
k=0 = 28 38 58
n 2
n -n 39. (a) å = {0, 1}
= å 2
Ck å* = {0, 1} *
k=0
34. (d) ("x) [a Þ b] Þ (("x) [a] Þ " (x) [b]) is a logical = {Î, 0, 1, 01, 10, 11, 000, ...}
35. (c) pÞqº~pÚq So, (å*, •) is an algebraic system, where •
(B(x, x) ® [B(x, y), C(y) ® A(x)] (concatenation) is a binary operation.
º Ø B(x, x) Ú [B(x, y) Ù C(y) ® A(x)] So (å*, •) is a group, if and only if the following
36. (d) Qyy º "y" divides y is always true. conditions are satisfied.
\ Qxy Û Ø Qyy is same as Qxy Û False. 1. • (Concatenation) is a closed operation.
Now a becomes 2. • is an associative operation.
("x) [P(x) Û ("y) (Qxy Û False)] 3. There is an identity.
Þ ("x) [Ø P(x)] 4. Every element of å* has a left inverse.
Now consider l1 : P(x) º "x is a prime number". Condition 1 * is a closed operation because for any
a becomes "x (x is a prime number if and only if "y w1 Î å* and w2 Î å*, w1 . w2 Î å*
(y does not divide x) is always false (since x divides Condition 2 For any string x, y, z Î å*, x. (y . z)
x always). a now becomes = (x . y) . z
"x (x is a prime number Û false) Û "x (x is not a So, it is associative for example, Let
prime). x = 01, y = 11, z = 00 then
which is true. LHS = x . (y . z)
Now consider l2 : P(x) º "x is a composite number". = 01. (11.00) = 01.(1100) = 011100
Now a becomes RHS = (x. y) . z
"x (x is a composite number if and only if = (01.11) .00 = (0111).00 = 011100
"y (y does not divide x)) "x (x is not a composite Condition 3 The identity is Î or empty string
number) because for any string w Î å*,
By same reasoning used above, a now becomes Îw=wÎ=w
"x (x is a composite number Û false) "x (x is not Now, since Î belongs to å*, identity exists.
composite) is also true.
Condition 4 There is no inverse exist for å* because
Since, if no number divides x, x cannot be a
any string w Î å, there is no string w–1 such that
composite number, is true.
w. w–1 = Î.
\ Both l1 and l2 satisfy a.
So, å* with the concatenation operator for strings
37. (b) Derive caluse P Ú Q from clauses P Ú R, Q Ú Ø R
doesn’t form a group but it does form a monoid.
means that
(P Ú R) Ù (Q Ú Ø R) Þ P Ú Q Sets & Relations,Functions, Partial orders,
\ (a) is true
Latices & Groups
Since, x Þ y does not imply that y Þ x
\ P Ú Q Þ (P Ú R) Ù (Q Ú Ø R) 40. (a) Nullset is larger than any other set.
\ may or may not be true. Hence, (b) is not true. Universal set is smaller than any other set.
38. (b) If S = {a, b, c, d, e} 41. (d) f : X ® Y defined as f (a) = 1, f(b) = 1, f(c) = 2
g(a) = 3 where, X = {a, b, c}
Y = {1, 2}
g(b) = 5
Let A = {a, c}, B = {b, c} be subsets of X
g(c) = 7
(A) | f (A È B) |= 2
g(d) = 9
g(e) = 11 | f (A) |= 2 :| f (B) |= 2
Now, consider the string aaa, where s1 =a, s2 = a and \ (A) is false
s3 = a (B) f (A Ç B) = {i}
1 f(A) = {1, 2) ; f{B} = {1, 2}
f(s1) = f(s2) = f(s3) = Õ pig(a i ) f(A) Ç f (B) = {1, 2}
\ (B) is false.
i =1
25

(C) | f (A Ç B) |= 1 Graphs
\ (C) is false. 46. (1) 1, 11 Þ 1 × 11 = 11 edges
(D) is true (2) 2, 10 Þ 2 × 10 = 20 edges
42. (b) Consider a function as : (3) 3, 9 Þ 3 × 9 = 27 edges
f (0) = 1, f (1) = 0, f (2) = 3, f (3) = 2, ...., f (2012) = 2013, (4) 4, 8 Þ 4 × 8 = 32 edges
f (2013) = 2012 and f (2014) = 2014 (5) 5, 7 Þ 5 × 7 = 35 edges
Clearly f (f (i)) = i for 0 < i < 2014 (6) 6, 6 Þ 6 × 6 = 36 edges (maximum)
Here f (i) ¹ i for every i and f (i) = i for some i
Also f is onto 47. a 2
Hence, only Q and R are true
43. The value of log2 log2 N is 16. 2 1 2 1
We know that the total no. of functions f : A ® B b
c
= (Cardinality of B) (Cardinality of A) = |B||A|
Now for the given questions: 2 2
{0, 1}4 represents all 4-tubles on the set {0, 1},
1 1 2 1
e.g. (1, 0, 1, 0,), (1, 1, 1, 0) etc.
d e
Total no. of 4-tubles on {0, 1} = 24 = 16
(Since each element of four tuble has 2 choice) 2
2
Total no. of functions f : {0, 1}4 ® {0, 1} = 216 (|B||A|)
A B Edges picked to make MST is given the double line.
In the right side of MST, we could either pick ‘d’ or ‘e’
Set S contains all these functions, so cardinality (S) = 216
In the left side we could either pick ‘a’, ‘b’ or ‘c’ in MST.
Now, N denotes the no. of func. g: S ® {0, 1}.
There are two options for one edge to be picked and three
Þ N = |{0, 1}||s| = 22
16
option for other edge to be picked.
16
\ Total possible MSTs = 2 × 3 = 6
Þ N = 22 1
a G a G b a b
b
Þ log2log2 2 ( ) = 16
216
48.
c
44. A 10 percent will be a sequence of any no. of 1s and 2s such cd c
that sum is 10. c
d c
p.g. (1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 2) is a 10 pennant.
I. When sequence contains all 1s: b
d
no. of such pennants = 1 (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)
II. When sequence contains Eight 1s and one ‘2’ : (8 × 1, 1 G and G1 are complement and isometric to each other when
× 2) there are 5 vertices.
49. As per Lagrange’s theorem, order of subgroup divides
9! order of group
no. of such pennants = 9C1 = =9
1!8! \ 3, 5 and 15 can be order of subgroup.
III. When sequence contains six 1s and Two 2s : Given, L ¹ G \ it is not 15
6 × 1, 2 × 2 (e.g. 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2,)
and L is atleast 4 \ it is not 3
18! \ size of L is 5
no. of pennants = 18C2 = = 28
2!6! 50. (a) A binary operation Å on a set of integers is defined
IV. When sequence contains 4 1s and 3 2s:- as x Å y = x2 + y2
4 × 1, 3 × 2 (e.g. (1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2))
x Å y = x2 + y2
7! y Å x = y2 + x2
no. of pennants = 7C3 = = 35
3!4! = x2 + y2 (Q Addition is commutative)
V. When sequence contains 2 1s and 4 2s : \ Å is commutative.
2 × 1, 4 × 2 (e.g. (1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2,)) (x Å y) Å z = (x2 + y2) Å z = (x2 + y2)2 + z2
6! x Å (y Å z) = x Å (y2 + z2) = x2 + (y2 + z2)2
no. of pennants = 6C4 = = 15
4!2! Clearly, (x Å y) Å z ¹ x Å (y Å z)
VI. When sequence contains 5 2s and no. 1s: \ Å is not associative.
no. of pennants = 1 (i.e. (2, 2, 2, 2, 2)) Hence, Å is commutative but not associative.
Total no. of 10 pennants 51. (c) P : Number of odd degree vertices is even.
= 1 + 9 + 28 + 35 + 15 + 1 = 89. Q : Sum of degrees of all vertices is even
45. Let the vector space, V be {a, b, c, d, e, f} Q is true
For smallest possible dimension of V1 Ç V2 , Explanation Calculating the sum of degrees of all
V1 = {a, b, c, d} and V2 = {c, d, e, f} vertices.
\ V1 Ç V2 = {c,d} Considering an edge, it is joining two vertices (not
necessarily distinct), hence 2 is the sum of degrees.
\ Smallest possible dimension = 2
26
Hence, for ‘e’ edges, the sum of degrees of all
vertices is 2e (i.e., even) P Q P®Q
This is valid even in the case of self loops. F F T
P is true F T T
Explanation Let us assume, number of odd degree
T F F
vertices is odd. So, the contribution of odd degree
vertices in total sum is odd. T T T
Now, the contribution of even degree vertices is also
even (whether the number is even or odd). i.e., if there was not rain [i.e., P is F in logic table] then
Including vertex of degree zero in even degree match may or may not be played because in both case
vertices. P ® Q is true.
So, total sum becomes odd, which is not possible. So, the correct inference is—the cricket match might
Hence, P is true. be played.
\ Both P and Q statements are ture for undirected 54. (b) The given graph is with degree of each node.
graphs. Hence answer is (c).
1 2
52. (c) The given statement or sentence is— 2
'Some real number are rational.' We can also write this 1
sentence as follows:
4
'There exists real number that are rational' therefore we 2
have to use $ (Existential) quantifier consider number 2 2
as random variable x. Then, Consider option (a) :
$x (real) (x)) Þ This, indicates 'There exists number In this graph, one vertex has degree of 3 but in the
that are real.' original graph, there is no vertex of degree 3. So, this
$ x (rational (x)) Þ This indicates 'There exists number graph is not isomorphic.
that are rational.' 2
Hence, $x (real (x) Ù rational (x) Þ 1
1 3
This indicates 'There exists real number that are rational.
53. (b) I1 : If it rains, then then the cricket match will not be 4
played. 1
2 2
The cricket match was played.
Inference : There was no rain. Consider option (c) :
Here, the same explanation as above given. This graph
Hence, I1 is correct. is also not isomorphic.
Proof
Suppose P : It rains 1 2
1 3
Q : The cricket match will not be played.
It is given P ® Q 3
2
We know that P ® Q º ~ Q ® ~ P 2 2
\ ~ Q : The circket match will be played. Consider option (d) :
In this graph, there is a 4 length but in the original
~ P : It is not rain.
graph, there is no cycle of length 4. So this graph is
\ If the cricket match was played, then there was not isomorphic.
no rain [P ® Q = ~ PQ ® ~ P] 2
2 1
\ I1 is correct.
I2 : If it rains, then the cricket match will not be played. 2
It did not rain. 4
1
Inference : The cricket match was played. 2 2
I2 is not correct. 55. (c) Here, given graph is a complete graph and we can
choose any 4 vertices from given 6 vertices to make
Proof cycle of length 4.
According to logic table P ® Q i.e., We can arrange 4 vertices in (4 – 1)! ways or 3! ways
because there is a cycle.
27
Hence, number of cycles of length (ii) × is an associative operation.
6! 6´5 (iii) 1 Î S is the identity element.
4 = 6 × 6C4 = 6 ´ = 6´ = 90 cycle (iv) 1–1 = 1, w–1 = (w2) –1 = w
4! 2! 2
56. (d) In any graph, bounded faces or bounded region and \ Inverse axiom is satisfied on given set.
unbounded regions are present. \ (S, *) is a group
For example 60. (c) Given, S and T are two different trees with
x(S) = x(T)
2 Þ 2|ES| = 2|ET|
1 (By handshaking theorem x(G) = 2|EG|)
Þ |ES| = |ET|
In the above graph, there are 2 regions, 1 st is bounded Þ |S| – 1 = |T| – 1
region or bounded face graph and 2nd is unbounded. Þ |S| = |T|
So, we have to calculate the regions of the graph. (In a tree |ES| = |S| – 1 and |ET| = |T| – 1, where |S| and |T|
In the question, G is a simple undirected graph on 10 are numbers of vertices of trees S and T respectively)
vertices and 15 edges and G is connected garph, so
61. (d) Let n (X) denotes the number of elements of set X.
there are total number of regions (r).
r = e – v + 2, r = 15 – 10 + 2 Given, n (X) = x
r =7 n (Y) = y
\ Total number of regions in the given graph are 7 but n (Z) = z
one extra region is unbounded and 6 are bounded. n (E) = Number of all subsets of W
Hence, answer is 6. = Number of all subsets of X × Y
= 2n(X).n(Y)=2xy
Therefore, the number of functions from Z to E
= [n (E)]n(Z)
57. (b) Þ = (2xy)z = 2xyz
62. (b) Given, V = 13, E = 19
K4 is planar
Let R be the number of regions.
Applying Euler’s formula, (Here faces and regions
mean one and the same).
R= E – V + 2
Þ or R = 19 – 13 + 2 = 8
63. (b) Given, V = 13, E = 19
Q3 is planar Let, R be the number of regions
Applying Euler's formula (Here faces and regions mean
Both K4 and Q3 is planar
one and the same)
58. (c) Let the set 64. (a) From figure (a)
S = {a, b, c, d, e}
Relation is subset of S × S
There are totally 52 = 25 ordered pairs in S × S including
five ordered pairs (a, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d) and (e, e) that
must be included in order to find reflexive
\ Total number of reflexive relation on S
S = 225–5 = 220
Touch each other.
59. (a) Here, we have onlyh one operation given. So, not planar.
Therefore, given options viz; ring, integral domain
and field are ruled out. From figure (b)
As it requires two binary operations.
Alternative Method
(i) For all a, b, Î S
a×bÎS
a*bÎS
i.e.,
\ Closure property hold son set S.
28
From figure (c) 68. (d) Given, |E| £ 3 |V| –6
\ 2 |E| £ 6|V| – 12 ...(i)
Now å degrees = 2|E|
If minimum degree = k, then å degrees ³ k|V|
i.e., 2|E| ³ k |V| ...(ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can say that
k |V| £ 6 |V| – 12
Now substituting k = 3, 4 , 5 , 6 in order
From figure (d) k=3Þ 3 |V| £ 6 |V| – 12
Þ |V| ³ 4 which is possible
k=4Þ 4 |V| £ 6 |V| – 12
Þ |V| ³ 6 which is possible
k=5Þ 5 |V| £ 6 |V| – 12
Þ |V| ³ 12 which is possible
k=6Þ 6 |V| £ 6 |V| – 12
which is not possible.
65. (b) Given, V = 13, E = 19
\ Minimum degree cannot be 6.
Let R be the number of regions.
Applying Euler’s formula, (Here faces and regions 69. (a) The number of perfect matchings in a complete
mean one and the same). graph of n vertices, where n is even, reduces of the
R=E–V+2 problem of finding unordered partitions of the vertex
or R = 19 – 13 + 2 = 8 set of the type p(2n; 2, 2, 2, ....n times)
66. (c) An assignment of the colors 1, 2, 3 and 4 to the
(2n)!
vertices of the graph is shown below such that the
graph is shown below such that the graph is (2!)n n!
properly colored. For n =3, 2n = 6, i.e., complete garph K6, we have
3 6!
Number of perfect matchings =
2 1 (2!) n n!
4 4 6 ´ 5 ´ 4 ´ 3´ 2 ´1
3 2 = = 15
2´2´2´6
1 Combinatorics
So, 4 colors are required. 70. (a) A tree with 1 node is not possible, since it is given that
67. (c) Maximum components will result after removal of a
every node has exactly 1 child.
node, if graph G is a star graph as shown below
a

v
b
or a null graph of n vertices as shown below
Now, consider a tree with 2 nodes (0 is the root)
Now, a has exactly one child, number of descendants
v of a = 2 but this contradicts the given fact that every
node has an odd number of descendants.
Now, consider a tree with 3 nodes. Since, every node
In either case, if node v is removed, the number of
components will be n – 1, where n is the total has exactly one child, it must be of the form.
number of nodes in the star graph. a
\ n – 1 is the maximum number of components
possible. Minimum components will result, if the
node being removed is a lone vertex in which case, b
the nubmer of components will be K – 1.
\ The number of components must necessarily lie c
between K – 1 nad n – 1.
29
Here, a has 3 descendants, b has 2 descendants and c 73. (a) Group properties are closure, associativity, existence of
has one. Again we have contradiction in that b does identity and existence of inverse for every element.
not have odd number of descendants. Similarly, we Commutativity is not required for a mathematical
can show that for tree with 4, 5, 6, ... nodes, it is not structure to become a group.
possible to have all nodes with odd number of 74. (d) Given, R = {x, y}, (x, z), (z, x), (z, y)} on set {x, y, z}
descendants. So, correct answer is the trees has 0 Now, since (x, y) ÎR and (y, x) Ï R, R is not symmetric.
nodes. Also since (x, z) Î R and (z, x) Î R, R is not anti-symmetric
71. (c) The correct translation of gold and silver ornaments either.
are precious is choice (d). \ R is neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric.
" x ((G(x) Ù S(x)) ® P(x)) 75. (b) In a simple connected undirected graph (with more
which reads as “if an ornament is gold or silver, then it than two vertices) atleast two vertices must have same
is precious”. Since, a given ornament cannot be both degree, since, if this is not true then all vertices would
gold and silver at the same time. have different degree. A graph with all vertices would
72. (b) The given table can be converted into Boolean have different degree. A graph with all vertices having
function by adding minterms corresponding to true- different degrees is not possible to construct. Notice
row. that it is possible to construct graph satisfying choices
(a), (c) and (d).
Translates P Ú Q = PQ + PQ' + P'Q'
76. (c) If an n-vertex simple contex simple connected graph
Using this we can check the choices one by one to see
contains no cycles of odd length, then its chromatic
which is equivalent to P + Q
number is two, since the vertices cna be alternately
Choice (a) Ø Q Ú Ø P º Q' Ú P' coloured with first colour, then the second colour, then
º Q' P' + Q' (P')' + (Q')' (P')' the first colour and then the second colour and so on.
º Q' P' + Q' P + QP Alternatively, since a simple connected graph with no
º Q' P' + P(Q + Q') cycles of odd length must be bipartite and since, the
º Q' P' + P (Q by complement law) chromatic number of a bipartite graph is always 2 (in a
bipartite graph each partition requires one colour (there
º (Q' + P) × (P' + P) (Q by distribution law)
are no edge within a partition of a bipartite graph) and
º Q' + P
there are only two partitions).
Choice (b) P Ú Ø Q = P Ú Q' 77. (b) The statement ‘Not every graph is connected’ is same
= PQ' + P (Q')' + P' (Q')' as ‘There exists some graph which is not connected'
º PQ' + PQ + P'Q which is same as $ x {graph (x) Ù Ø connected (x)}.
º P (Q' + Q) + P'Q 78. (a) For x, the predicate fsa there exists y and the
º P + P'Q (Q by complement law) corresponding predicate pda which is equivalent to x.
º (P + P') (P + Q) (Q by distribution law) \ (A x fsa (x))
= P+Q Þ ($ y pda (y) ^ (equivalent (x, y))
Choice (c) Ø P Ú Q = P' Ú Q 79. (b) (i) P Ù ~ Q º P + Q'
º P'Q + P'Q' + (P')' Q' (ii) ~ (~ P Ù Q) (P' + Q)' º P + Q'
º P'Q + P'Q' + PQ' (iii) (P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù ~ Q) Ú (~ P Ù ~ Q)
º P' (Q + Q') + PQ' = (PQ) + (PQ' ) + (P'Q')
= P' + PQ' (Q by complement law) = P(Q + Q') + P'Q'
= (P' + P) (P' + Q') º P' + Q' (Q by distribution law)
= P + P'Q'
Choice (d) Ø P Ø Q º P' Q'
= (P + P') (P + Q')
º P'Q' + P' (Q')' + (P')' (Q')'
= P + Q'
º P'Q' + P'Q + PQ
(iv) (P Ù Q) Ú (P Ù ~ Q) Ú (~ P Ù Q)
º P'(Q' + Q) + PQ
= (PQ) + (PQ' ) + (P'Q)
º P' + PQ (Q by complement law)
= P(Q + Q') + P'Q
º (P' + P) (P' + Q) (Q by distribution law)
= P' + Q = P + P'Q

We can clearly see only choice (b) P Ú Ø Q is equivalent = (P + P') (P + Q) = P + Q

to P + Q. Clearly, (i), (ii), (iii) are equivalent. Correct choice is (b).
30
80. (d) Q Qc È Rc = (Q Ç R)c = A' + B' + C
and (P Ç Q Ç R) È (Pc Ç Q Ç R) = Q Ç R Þ LHS ¹ RHS
Therefore, (P Ç Q Ç R) È (Pc Ç Q Ç R) È Qc È Rc Þ P2 is also not tautology.
= (Q Ç R) È (Q Ç R)c
86. (a) (x, y) R (u, v) if x < u and y > v (x, x) R, (x, x)
= U (Universal set)
sincex </ x adn x >/ x.
81. (d) The given statement should be read as ‘If an animal is
So. R is not reflexive.
a tiger or a lion, then (if the animal is hungry or
\ is neither a partial order, nor an equivalence relation.
threatened) it will attack.’ 87. (b) Here, n = mC3
Therefore, correct option is (d). and f (1) = f (2)... = f (m) = m–1C2
82. (b) Let S = {1, 2, 3,..., n} be a set of n elements number of m
ordered pairs in the smallest equivalent relation on S is Þ å f (i) = mm –1C 2
i =1
n, it must contain all the reflexive elements viz.,
= 3 × m C3 = 3 × n = 3n
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ...., (n, n)}
88. (c) X = (E Ç F) – (F Ç G)
and the largest equivalence relation on S has n × n = n2
= (E Ç F) Ç (F Ç G)¢
ordered pairs.
= (E Ç F) Ç (F¢Ç G¢)
83. (d) In topological sorting, the partial ordering of the DAG,
= (E Ç F Ç F¢) È (E Ç F Ç G¢)
must be preserved i.e., if a £ b in the DAG, then in the
= E Ç F Ç G¢
topological order, b must come after a, not before.
Y = (E – (E Ç G)) – (E – F)
Consider the ordering 3 2 4 1 6 5. 1 £ 4 in the given
= (E Ç (E Ç G¢)) – (E Ç F¢)
DAG but 4 is coming before 1 in 3 2 4 1 6 5 order which
= (E Ç (E¢ È G¢) Ç (E Ç F¢)¢
means that 3 2 4 1 6 5 is not a topological order of the
given DAG. = (E Ç E¢) È (E Ç G¢) Ç (E È F)
84. (c) A partition P1 is called a refinement of the partitions P2 = (E Ç G¢) Ç (E¢È F)
is every set in P1 is a subset of one of the sets in P2. = (E Ç G ¢ Ç E¢) È (E Ç G¢Ç F)
p4 is a refinement of p2, p3 and p1. = E Ç F Ç G¢
p2 and p3 are refinements of p1. Þ X= Y
p2 and p3 are not comparable since, neither is a 89. (c) The set S = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} is a group under
refinement of the other. multiplication modulo 15.
So, the poset diagram for (S¢, <) would be The identity element for this group is e = 1
Since, " x ÏS, 1. x and 15 = x
p1 Now, let the inverse of 4 be 4–1.
Now, (4. 4–1) mod 15 = e = 1
p2 p3 Now, (4. 4) mod 15 = 1
Since, (4. 4) mod 15 = 1
\ 4–1 = 4 (This inverse is unique)
p4 Similarly, let the inverse of 7 by 7–1
(7. 7–1) mod 15 = 1
85. (d) P1 : ((A Ù B) ® C) º ((A ® C) Ù (B ® C))
Putting each element of set as 7–1 by trial and error, we get
LHS (A Ù B ) ® C º AB ® C (7.13) mod 15 = 91 mod 15 = 1
= (AB)' + C 7–1 = 13
= A' + B' + C So, 4–1 and 7–1 are respectively 4 and 13.
RHS (A ® C) Ù (B ® C) º (A' + C) (B' + C) Lattics
= A' B' + C
Þ RHS ¹ LHS 90. (b) a
\ P1 is not tautology.
P2 : ((A Ù B) ® C º ((A ® C) Ú (B ® C)
LHS (A Ú B) ® C º A + B ® C b e d
º (A + B)' + C
= A'B' + C
RHS (A ® C) Ú (B ® C)
c
º (A' + C) + (B' + C)
31
The poset [{a, b, d, e}, £ 1] is a lattice (since, every pair · 1 2 3 5 7 8 9
of element has LUB and GLB) but it is not a distributive 1 1 2 3 5 7 8 9
lattice. Because distributive lattice satisfying the
2 2 4 6 0 4 6 8
following conditions. For any x, y, z
3 3 6 9 5 1 4 7
x Ù (y Ú z) = (x Ù y) Ú (x Ùz)
5 5 0 5 5 5 0 5
x Ú (y Ù z) = (x Ú y) Ù (x Úz)
where, Ù and Ú are meet and join operations but for 7 7 4 1 5 9 6 3
given poset [{a, b, c, d, e}, £ 1] 8 8 6 4 0 6 4 2
b Ù (c Ú d) = b Ù a = b 9 9 8 7 5 3 2 1
(b Ù c) Ú (b Ù d) = e Ú e = e We know that 0 ÏA. So, it is not closed. Therefore,
So, it is not distributive. (Also, element b has 2 option (a) is true.
complements c and d, which is not possible in the The identity element = 1
distributive lattice, since in a distributive lattice, \ (2. 2–1) mod 10 = 1
complement if it exist, is always unique). From the table we see that 2–1 does not exist
a Since, (3.7) mod 10 = 1
91. (b) \ 7 is the inverse of 3 and 7 Î A.

(i) E¢ = E – V + 2 = 19 – 13 + 2 = 8
b c d
[{a, b, c, d, e},£] 94. (b) X : (P Ú Q) ® R
Y : (P ® R) Ú (Q ® R)
X : P + Q ® R º (P + Q)' + R º P'Q' + R
e
Y : (P' + R) + (Q' + R) º P' + Q' + R
The poset [{a, b, c, d, e}, £] is a lattice (since every Clearly, X ¹Y
pair of elements has LUB and GLB) but it is not a
distributive lattice. Because distributive latice Consider X ®Y
satisfies the following conditions. For any x, y, z º (P'Q' + R ) ® (P' + Q' + R)
x Ù (y Ú z) = (x Ù y) Ú (x Ù z) º (P'Q' + R)' + P' + Q' + R
x Ú (y Ù z) = (x Ú y) Ù (x Ú z)
º (P'Q')' R' + P' + Q' + R
where, Ù and Ú are meet and join operations but for
given poset [{a, b, c, d ,e} £] º (P + Q) R' + P' + Q' + R (Q by distribution law)
b Ù (c Ú d) = b Ù a = b º PR' + QR' + P' + Q' + R
(b Ù c) Ú (b Ù d) = e Ú e = e º (PR' + R) + (QR' + Q') + P'
So, it is not distributive. (Also element b has 2 º (P + R)(R' + R) + (Q + Q') × (R' + Q') + P'
complements c and d, which is not possible in the
º P + P' + R + R' + Q’ (by complente law)
distributive lattice, since, in a distributive lattice,
complement, if it exists, is always unique). º 1 + 1 + Q' = 1
\ X ® Y tautology.
Sets & Relations
95. (b) Every teacher is liked by some students, then the
92. (a) X = (A – B) – C logical expression is " (x) [teacher (x) ® $ (y)
= (A Ç B¢) Ç C¢ {student (y) Ù likes y(x)}]
= A Ç B¢ Ç C¢
where, likes (y, x) mean y likes x, such that y represents
Y = (A – C) – (B – C) the student and x represents the teacher.equivalence
= (A Ç C¢) – (B Ç C¢) and therefore, a valid first order formula.
= (A Ç C¢) Ç (B Ç C¢)¢ 96. (b) X : (P Ú Q) ® R
= (A Ç C ¢) Ç (B ¢È C) Y : (P ® R) Ú (Q ® R)
= (A Ç C¢ÇB¢) È (A Ç C¢Ç C) X : P + Q ® R º (P + Q)¢ + R = P¢ Q¢ + R
= A Ç B¢Ç C¢ Y : (P¢ + R) + (Q¢ + R) º P¢ + Q¢ + R
\ X= Y Clearly, X ¹Y
93. (a) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9} Consider X ® Y
Construct the table for any x, y Î A such that
º (PQ)¢ + R) ® (P¢ + Q¢ + R)
x * y = (x. y) mod 10
º (P¢Q¢ + R)¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R
32
º (P¢ Q¢)¢ R¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R R È S is not equivalence relations on A as it is not
º (P + Q) R¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R transitive because (1, 2) 6 R È S and (2, 3) Î R È
º PR¢ + QR¢ + P¢ + Q¢ + R S but (1, 3) Ï R È S.
º (PR¢ + R) + (QR¢ + Q¢) + P¢ 99. (c) The number of combinations of pairs (a mod 3, b mod
5) is
º (P + R) (R¢ + R) + (Q + Q¢) × (R¢ + Q¢) + P¢
3 ´ 5 = 15
º P + P¢ + R + R¢ + Q¢
(since, a mod 3 can be 0, 1 or 2) and b mod 5 can
= 1 + 1 + Q¢ º 1 be 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4
\ X ® Y is a tautology. \ If 16 different ordered pairs are chosen at least 2
97. (b) Clearly form the shown diagram, of them must have (a mod 3, b mod 5) as same (basic
pigeon hole principle).
A B C Let such two pairs be (a, b) and (c, d) then
a mod 3 º c mod 3 Þ a º c mod 3
a 1 x and b mod 5 º d mod 5 Þ b º d mod 5.
b 2 y 100. (c) The set S = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14} is a group under
3 multiplication modulo 15.
The identity element for this group is e = 1 since,
g is into "x ÎS,1× x mod 15 = x
f is onto
and h = g of is onto Now, let the inverse of 4 be 4–1.
Now, (4·4) mod 15 = 1
\ 4–1 = 4 (This inverse is unique)
98. (c) Given R and S be two equivalence relations on a
Similarly, let the inverse of 7 be 7–1.
non-empty set A. Then both are reflexive, symmatric
(7·7–1) mod 15 = 1
and transitive. –1
Putting each element of set as 7 by trial and error,
" x Î A, y Î A, z ÎA we get
(a) (x, x) Î R and (x, x) Î S
(7·13) mod 15 = 91 mod 15 = 1
Þ (x, x) Î R Ç S
\ 7–1 = 13
\ R Ç S is reflexive. –1 –1
So, 4 and 7 are respectively 4 and 13.
(a) (x, y) Î R Ç S
101. (a) X = (A – B) – C
Þ (x, y) Î R and (x, y) ÎS
= (A Ç B¢) Ç C ¢
Þ (y, x) ÎR and (y, x) Î S
(Q R, S are symmetric) = A Ç B¢ Ç C¢
Þ (y, x) Î R Ç S Y = (A – C) – (B – C)
Thus, R Ç S is symmetric = (A – C¢) – (B Ç C¢)
(c) (x, y) R Ç S and (y, z) Î R Ç S = (A Ç C¢) Ç (B Ç C¢)¢
Þ (x, y) Î R and (x, y) Î S = (A Ç C¢) Ç (B¢ È C)
and (y, z) Î R and (y, z) Î S = (A Ç C¢ Ç B¢) È (A Ç C¢ Ç C)
Þ [(x, y) Î R and (y, z) Î R] = A Ç B¢ Ç C¢
and [(x, y) Î S and (y, z) Î R] \ X= Y
Þ (x, z) Î R and (x, z) Î S 102. (b) S = {(x, y) | y = x + 1 and x, y Î{0, 1, 2,.....}}
(By transitivity of R and S)
= {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4),....}
Þ (x, y) Î R Ç S
Now let T1 be the reflexive closure of S.
Hence, R Ç S is transitive.
T = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)...}
Thus, R Ç S is an equivalence relation.
È {(0 ,1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)....}
But R È S is not necessarily an equivalence relation
on A which can be explained by an example. = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 3) (3, 3), (3,
Let A = {1, 2, 3} 4)....}
and R = {(1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3) (1, 2), (2, 1)} Let T2 be the transitive closure of S.
S = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3) (3, (0, 1), (1, 2) Î S Þ (0, 2) Î T2
2)} (0, 2), (2, 3) Î S Þ (0, 3) Î T2
Then, R È S = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1), (0, 3), (3, 4) Î S Þ (0, 4) Î T2
(2, 3), (3, 2)} and so on....
Cleanly, R and S are equivalence relations on A but Also, (1, 2), (2, 3) Î S Þ (1, 3) Î T2
33
(1, 3), (3, 4) Î S Þ (1, 4) Î T2 (b ´ x) + (c ´ y) = c ....(ii)
(1, 4), (4, 5) Î S Þ (1, 5) Î T2 Substitue first (x, y) = (a, a)
and so on.... LHS of Eq. (i) becomes
\ T2 = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3),....,(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4),...} (a ´ a) + (a ´ a) = a + a = b
Now, RHS of Eq. (i) = c.
Now the reflexive, transition closure of S will be
Therefore, LHS ¹ RHS. This means that (a, a) is not
T3 = T1 È T2 a solution pair. Similarly try each of the remaining
= {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2)...., (1, 1), (1, 2)}, seven possible solution pairs. It will be found that
(1, 3)...(2, 2) (2, 3), (2, 4)....} and so on only two pairs (b, c) and (c, b) will satisfy both Eqs.
103. (d) If a £ x, since p(x) Þ p(y) whenever x £ y (i) and (ii) simultaneously.
\ p(a) Þ p(x) 106. (b) T(1) = 1
Now since p(a) = True, p(x) = cannot be false.
T(2) = T(1) + êë 2 úû
\ (d) cannot be true.
104. (a) consider A, B and f as defined below (since f needs =1+1=2
not be onto) T(3) = T(2) + êë 3 úû
A B =2+1=3

1 f
a T(4) = T(3) + êë 4 úû
2 b =3+2=5
c T(5) = T(4) + êë 5 úû
=5+2=7
Consider a subset D of B such that T(6) = T(5) + êë 6 úû
D = {a, c}
=7+2=9
h(D) = {1}
T(7) = 9 + 2 = 11
g(h(D)) = {a}
T(8) = 11 + 2 = 13
g(h(D)) Í D is true
Notice, that if the function f were both one-to-one T(9) = 13 + 9 = 16 and so on till.
and onto then g(h(D)) = D. T(16) = 16 + 6 ´ 3 + 4 = 38
105. (c) The possible solution pairs are (a, a), (a, b), (a, c), \ T(1) = 1, T(4) = 5, T(9) = 16 and T(16) = 38.
(b, a), (b, b), (c, a), (c, b) and (c, c). Choice (a) does not satisfy T(16).
Substitute them one by one in both equations and Choice (c) does not satisfy T(4).
see which of them satisfies both the equations. Choice (d) does not satisfy T(1).
The given equations are \ Answer is choice (b) which satisfies T(1) upto
(a ´ x) + (a ´ y) = c ...(i) T(16).