Approaches to Foreign Language Syllabus

Design.

THE PLACE OF THE SYLLABUS

A language teaching syllabus involves the integration of subject matter
(what to talk about) and linguistic matter (how to talk about it); that is, the
actual matter that makes up teaching. Choices of syllabi can range from the
more or less purely linguistic, where the content of instruction is the
grammatical and lexical forms of the language, to the purely semantic or
informational, where the content of instruction is some skill or information
and only incidentally the form of the language. To design a syllabus is to
decide what gets taught and in what order. For this reason, the theory of
language explicitly or implicitly underlying the language teaching method
will play a major role in determining what syllabus is adopted. Theory of
learning also plays an important part in determining the kind of syllabus
used. For example, a syllabus based on the theory of learning espoused by
cognitive code teaching would emphasize language forms and whatever
explicit descriptive knowledge about those forms was presently available. A
syllabus based on an acquisition theory of learning, however, would
emphasize unanalyzed, though possibly carefully selected experiences of
the new language in an appropriate variety of discourse types.
The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it
should be made as consciously and with as much information as possible.
There has been much confusion over the years as to what different types of
content are possible in language teaching syllabi and as to whether the
differences are in syllabus or method. Several distinct types of language
teaching syllabi exist, and these different types may be implemented in
various teaching situations.
SIX TYPES OF SYLLABI
Although six different types of language teaching syllabi are treated here as
though each occurred "purely," in practice, these types rarely occur
independently of each other. Almost all actual language teaching syllabi are
combinations of two or more of the types defined here. For a given course,
one type of syllabus usually dominates, while other types of content may be
combined with it. Furthermore, the six types of syllabi are not entirely
distinct from each other. For example, the distinction between skill-based
and task-based syllabi may be minimal. In such cases, the distinguishing
factor is often the way in which the instructional content is used in the
actual teaching procedure. The characteristics, differences, strengths, and
weaknesses of individual syllabi are defined as follows:
1. "A structural (formal) syllabus." The content of language teaching is a
collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language
being taught. Examples include nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements,
questions, subordinate clauses, and so on.
2. "A notional/functional syllabus." The content of the language teaching is a
collection of the functions that are performed when language is used, or of
the notions that language is used to express. Examples of functions include:
informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting; examples of notions include
size, age, color, comparison, time, and so on.
3. "A situational syllabus." The content of language teaching is a collection
of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. A
situation usually involves several participants who are engaged in some
activity in a specific setting. The language occurring in the situation
involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible segment of
discourse. The primary purpose of a situational language teaching syllabus
is to teach the language that occurs in the situations. Examples of situations
include: seeing the dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying a book at
the book store, meeting a new student, and so on.
4. "A skill-based syllabus." The content of the language teaching is a
collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language. Skills
are things that people must be able to do to be competent in a language,
relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language
use can occur. While situational syllabi group functions together into
specific settings of language use, skill-based syllabi group linguistic
competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse)
together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken
language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective
oral presentations, and so on. The primary purpose of skill-based instruction
is to learn the specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is to
develop more general competence in the language, learning only
incidentally any information that may be available while applying the
language skills.
5. "A task-based syllabus." The content of the teaching is a series of complex
and purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the
language they are learning. The tasks are defined as activities with a
purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based syllabus,
the performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to
develop second language ability. Language learning is subordinate to task
performance, and language teaching occurs only as the need arises during
the performance of a given task. Tasks integrate language (and other) skills
in specific settings of language use. Task-based teaching differs from
situation-based teaching in that while situational teaching has the goal of
teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation (a
predefined product), task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students
to draw on resources to complete some piece of work (a process). The
students draw on a variety of language forms, functions, and skills, often in
an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the tasks. Tasks that can
be used for language learning are, generally, tasks that the learners
actually have to perform in any case. Examples include: applying for a job,
talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the
telephone, and so on.
6. "A content-based-syllabus." The primary purpose of instruction is to teach
some content or information using the language that the students are also
learning. The students are simultaneously language students and students
of whatever content is being taught. The subject matter is primary, and
language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content
teaching is not organized around the language teaching, but vice-versa.
Content-based language teaching is concerned with information, while task-
based language teaching is concerned with communicative and cognitive
processes. An example of content-based language teaching is a science
class taught in the language the students need or want to learn, possibly
with linguistic adjustment to make the science more comprehensible.
In general, the six types of syllabi or instructional content are presented
beginning with the one based most on structure, and ending with the one
based most on language use. Language is a relationship between form and
meaning, and most instruction emphasizes one or the other side of this
relationship.
CHOOSING AND INTEGRATING SYLLABI
Although the six types of syllabus content are defined here in isolated
contexts, it is rare for one type of syllabus or content to be used exclusively
in actual teaching settings. Syllabi or content types are usually combined in
more or less integrated ways, with one type as the organizing basis around
which the others are arranged and related. In discussing syllabus choice
and design, it should be kept in mind that the issue is not which type to
choose but which types, and how to relate them to each other.
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES TO SYLLABUS CHOICE AND
DESIGN
It is clear that no single type of content is appropriate for all teaching
settings, and the needs and conditions of each setting are so idiosyncratic
that specific recommendations for combination are not possible. In addition,
the process of designing and implementing an actual syllabus warrants a
separate volume. Several books are available that address the process of
syllabus design and implementation both practically and theoretically (see
For Further Reading section; the full-length monograph includes a 13-item
annotated bibliography of basic works on syllabus design and a 67-item
reference list). These books can help language course designers make
decisions for their own programs. However, a set of guidelines for the
process is provided below.
Ten steps in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus:
1. Determine, to the extent possible, what outcomes are desired for the
students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and realistically as
possible, define what the students should be able to do as a result of the
instruction.
2. Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of leading to
the outcomes desired. Several rankings may be necessary if outcomes are
complex.
3. Evaluate available resources in expertise (for teaching, needs analysis,
materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and in training for
teachers.
4. Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine what
syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given available resources.
5. Compare the lists made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few adjustments
to the earlier list as possible, produce a new ranking based on the
resources' constraints.
6. Repeat the process, taking into account the constraints contributed by
teacher and student factors described earlier.
7. Determine a final ranking, taking into account all the information
produced by the earlier steps.
8. Designate one or two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as
secondary.
9. Review the question of combination or integration of syllabus types and
determine how combinations will be achieved and in what proportion.
10. Translate decisions into actual teaching units.
In making practical decisions about syllabus design, one must take into
consideration all the possible factors that might affect the teachability of a
particular syllabus. By starting with an examination of each syllabus type,
tailoring the choice and integration of the different types according to local
needs, one may find a principled and practical solution to the problem of
appropriateness and effectiveness in syllabus design.
FOR FURTHER READING
Alexander, L.G. (1976). Where do we go from here: A reconsideration of
some basic assumptions affecting course design. "English Language
Teaching," 30(2), 89-103.
Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). "Course design: Developing programs and
materials for language learning." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gattegno, C. (1972). "Teaching foreign languages in schools: The silent way
(2nd ed.)." New York: Educational Solutions. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 157 403)
Krahnke, K.J. (1981). "Incorporating communicative instruction into
academic preparation ESL curricula." (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 210 915)
Mohan, B. (1979). Relating language teaching and content teaching.
"TESOL Quarterly," 13(2), 171-82.
Steiner, F. (1975). "Performing with objectives." Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
ABOUT THE MONOGRAPH
"Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching," by Karl
Krahnke, includes chapters on the place of the syllabus in language
teaching, six types of language teaching syllabi, and choosing and
integrating syllabi, as well