LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page No.

1 TEST ON EMISSIVITY APPARATUS 2

2 FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS 7

3 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE WALLS 15

4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER 21

5 LAGGED PIPE 27

6 NATURAL CONVECTION 33

7 TEST ON PIN - FIN APPARATUS 39

8 STEFAN - BOLTZMANN APPARATUS 50

9 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD 54

10 TEST ON HEAT EXCHANGERS 59

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 EMISSIVITY APPARATUS:

CHAMBER

T4

T1 T5

T2 T3 T6 T7

TEST PLATE BLACK PLATE

DIAMETER – 150 mm DIAMETER – 150 mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 TEST ON EMISSIVITY APPARATUS

Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To determine the emissivity of the test plate surface using emissivity apparatus.
THEORY:
An ideally black surface is one which absorbs the radiation falling on it. Its reflectivity and
transmissivity is zero. The radiation emitted per unit time per unit area from the surface of the body is
called emissive power.
The ratio of emissive power of a body to the emissive power of black body at the same temperature is
known as emissivity of that body. For a black body absorptive is 1 and by Kirchhoff’s law its emissivity
is also equal to1. Emissivity depends on the surface temperature and the nature of the surface.
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of two circular aluminum plates identical in size are provided with
heating coils at the bottom. The plates are mounted on thick asbestos sheet and kept in an enclosure so as
to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings. The heat input to the heaters is varied by a
regulator and is measured by an ammeter and voltmeter. Since the heaters are electrically connected in
parallel the same power input is given to both heaters any time.
The temperature of the plates is measured by Ir/Con thermocouples. Each plate is having three
thermocouples. Hence an average temperature may be taken.One thermocouple is kept in the enclosure to
read the chamber temperature. One plate is blackened by a layer of enamel black paint to form the
idealized black surface whereas the other plate is the test plate. The heat dissipation by conduction is
same in both cases.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 TABULATION:

Black body temperature Polished body temperature

Chamber
Voltage Current Average Average Temperature
S No. V A T5 T6 T7 Temperature T1 T2 T3 Temperature T4
Volts Amps o
C o
C o
C Tb o
C o
C o
C Tp o
C
o o
C C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the three-pin plug to the 230V, 50 Hz, 15 Amps main supply and switch on the unit.
2) Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3) Adjust the regulator to provide the required power input to both heaters.
4) Allow the unit to stabilize by keeping apparatus in operation about 15 to 20 mins.
5) Turn the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step and note down the temperatures
indicated by the temperature indicator from channel 1 to 7.
6) Tabulate the readings and calculate.
7) For various power inputs repeat the experiment.
CALCULATIONS:
Absolute temperature of body in absolute unit Tba  Tb  273 =

Absolute temperature of the polished body in absolute unit T pa  T p  273 =

Absolute temperature of the Chamber in absolute unit Tca  Tc  273 =

Since power input is same for both heater and areas of radiating surface (A) knowing  b =1.
Power input Q =  pA(T p  Ta ) =  bA(Tb4  Ta4 )
4 4

Where,  b is emissivity of Black body = 1

 p is emissivity of test plate

(Tba4  Tca4 )
Emissivity of polished surface,  p   b  =
(T pa4  Tca4 )

RESULT:

Emissivity of the test plate surface was determined i.e.  p =__________________

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
i) To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for a horizontal pipe through which air flows under
forced convection.
ii) To find the theoretical heat transfer for the above condition and to compare with the experimental value.
THEORY:
Convection heat transfer takes place by the movement of fluid particles. If the motion of fluid particles is
included by means of external source such as pump or blower then process of heat transfer is called forced
convection.
Inertia force
Reynolds’s Number, Re=
Viscous force
Re is used as a criterion to determine the change from laminar to turbulent flow.For smaller values of Re
the flow is laminar and the flow is turbulent for larger values of Re, the inertia forces become dominant
and flow tends to change to turbulent flow.
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of a tube through which air is sent in by a blower. The test section consists
of a long electrical surface heater on the tube, which serves as a constant heat flux source on the flowing
medium. The inlet and outlet temperatures of the flowing air are measured by thermocouples and also the
temperatures at several locations along the surface heater from which an average temperature can be
obtained. An orifice meter in the tube is used to measure the airflow rate with a ‘U’ tube water manometer.
An ammeter and a voltmeter are provided to measure the power input to the heater. A power regulator is
provided to vary the power input to heater. A multi point digital temperature indicator is provided to
measure the above thermocouples input. A regulator is provided to vary the speed of the blower to regulate
the flow rate of air.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Inside diameter of tube (d1) = 40 mm
Orifice diameter (d2) = 20 mm
Coefficient of discharge of orifice (Cd) = 0.62
Test section length (L) = 300 mm
Length of the tube (l) = 500 mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
FORCED CONVECTION

Orifice meter = Ø 20 mm

Heater = 500 mm

BLOWER

Pipe = Ø 40 mm

T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1

TABULATION:
Inlet outlet Temperature Along
Voltage Current Manometer Reading
Temperature Temperature the duct
S.no V A
of air of air T2 T3 T4 T5 h1 h2 h1~h2
volts amps
T1˚C T6˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C cm cm cm

PROCEDURE:
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
1) Switch on the mains.
2) Switch on the blower.
3) Adjust the regulator to any desired power input to heater.
4) Adjust the blower speed regulator to any desired flow rate of air.
5) Wait till steady state temperature is reached.
6) Note manometer reading h1 and h2.
7) Note temperatures along the tube. Note air inlet and outlet temperatures.
8) Note voltmeter and ammeter reading.
9) Vary the flow rate of air and repeat the experiment.
10) For various air flow rates and for various power inputs the readings may be taken to repeat the
experiments.
Model Calculations:

The heat input Q = hth  A  LMTD  mc p  ( Avg .temp. of tube  Avg .temp. of air ) -------- (Eq)

Where, m = mass of air; cp = specific heat of air;

hth= heat transfer co-efficient; A = area of heat transfer = dl

T2  T3  T4  T5
Avg. Temp of heater (TH) = ˚C =
4

T1  T6
Avg. Temp of air (TA) = ˚C =
2

Area subjected to heat transfer(A) = dl

 1 2
LMTD 
  =
ln 1 
2 
Where, LMTD=Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference in K
θ1 = Avg. temp. of tube - outlet air temp;
θ2 = Avg. temp. of tube - inlet air temp.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 LMTD =

From the above (Eq), the heat transfer coefficient ‘hth’ can be calculated

 hth =

Calculate the velocity of air in the tube using orifice meter, water manometer
a1 a 2 2 gho
The volume of air flowing through the tube Q  C d  m3/sec
a12  a 22
Where Cd = 0.6

 2
a1 = d1 =
4

a2 = d 22 =
4
w
ho= head of air causing the flow = (h2  h1 ) meters
a
=

Where, h1 and h2 are manometer reading;

a1 = area of the tube in m2; a2 = area of the orifice
Density of water  w = 1000 kg/m3; Density of air  a = 1.16 kg/m3;
Q
Velocity of the air V  m/sec =
a1

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
Heat transfer rate and flow rates are expressed in dimensionless form of Nusselt Number as a function of
Prandtl number and Reynolds Number. The heat transfer coefficient can also be calculated from Dittus –
Boelter correlation.
hD
Nu  0.023(Re) 0.8 (Pr) 0.4 ------- I Nu  -------II
k
C p DV
Pr  = Re  =
k 

Where D = diameter of the pipe in m; V = velocity of air in m/sec;

k = thermal conductivity of air at avg. temperature of air (TA) in W/mK

hD
By equating I & II = 0.023(Re) 0.8 (Pr) 0.4
k

 hexp =

Therefore Heat transfer coefficient hexp= W/m2K

RESULT:
The convection heat transfer coefficient for a horizontal pipe through which the air flow under forced
convection has been determined, i.e hexp=_____________ and compared.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH COMPOSITE WALLS

Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivities of three different composite walls and to determine the total
thermal resistance.
THEORY:
When heat conduction takes place through two or more solid materials of different thermal conductivities,
the temperature drop across each material depends on the resistance offered to heat conduction path and the
thermal conductivity of each material. This experiment demonstrates to the student in a practical manner
this phenomenon.
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set-up consists of test specimens made of different materials aligned together on both
sides of the heater unit. The first test disc is next to a controlled heater. The temperatures at the interface
between the heater and the disc is measured by a thermocouple, similarly temperatures at the interface
between discs are measured. Similar arrangement is made to measure temperatures on the other side of the
heater. The whole set-up is kept in a convection free environment. The temperatures are measured using
thermocouples (Fe/ko) with multi point digital temperature indicator. A channel frame with a screw rod
arrangement is provided for proper aligning of the plates

The apparatus uses known insulating materials of large area of heat transfer compared to its thickness to
enable unidirectional heat flow. The apparatus is used mainly to study the resistance offered by different
slab materials and to establish the heat flow is similar to that of current flow in an electrical circuit.
However due certain limitations of the experimental set up of this nature, such as air gap between the plates
and heat flow through the sides of the plates it is difficult to get theoretical results.

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 Diagram of Composite wall arrangement

NOTE:
Thickness of Mild Steel Plate (L1) = 10 mm
Thickness of Asbestos (L2) = 6 mm
Thickness of Wood (L3) = 10 mm
Diameter of the plate = 300 mm
Thermal conductivity of the Mild steel = 45W/m0K
Thermal conductivity of asbestos sheet = 0.17W/m0K
Thermal conductivity of the Wood = 0.052W/m0K
Diameter of the plates = 300 mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PROCEDURE:
1) Turn the screw rod handle clockwise to tighten the plates.
2) Switch on the unit and turn the regulator clockwise to provide any desired heat input.
3) Note the ammeter and volt meter readings.
4) Wait till steady state temperatures are reached.
5) The steady state condition is defined, as the temperature gradient across the plates does not change with
time.
6) When steady state is reached, note temperatures and find the temperature gradient across each slab.
7) Since heat flow is from the bottom and top of the heater the heat input is taken as Q/2 and the average
temperature gradient between top and bottom slabs from the heater to be taken for calculations.

CALCULATIONS:

L1
R1= Resistance of Mild Steel = =
Ak1
L2
R2= Resistance of Mil Asbestos = =
Ak 2

L3
R3= Resistance of Mil Wood = =
Ak 3

 2
Area of the plates(A) = d =
4

Where , A = Area of the plate in m2;

k = Thermal Conductivity in W/mK;
L = Thickness of the plate in meters

Total Resistance offered by the plates R= R1 + R2 + R3 =

T4  T5 T1  T8

Total Heat flow through Plates Q = 2 2
R

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION

The temperatures are measured from bottom most plate to top plate in the order of T1 to T8 as per diagram

Wood Asbestos Mild Steel Heater Temp. Mild Steel Asbestos Wood
Voltage Current
Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp. Temp.
S. No V A T4 T5
T1 T2 T3 T6 T7 T8
Volts Amps o o o o
C o
C o o o
C C C C C C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 T4  T5 T3  T6

Heat flow through MS Plate Q1 = 2 2
R1

T3  T6 T2  T7

Heat flow through Asbestos Plate Q2 = 2 2
R2
=

T2  T7 T1  T8

Heat flow through Wood Plate Q3 = 2 2
R3

As per Electrical Analogy Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3

Knowing the value of Q the thermal conductivity of individual plates may also be calculated

It is observed from the result that, when Mild steel is used the heat flow is NOT unidirectional as this
material is a good conductor.
T 1
Q  UAT  U
 L1 L L  =>  L1 L L 
  2  3    2  3 
 Ak1 Ak 2 Ak3   Ak1 Ak 2 Ak 3 

 U=

RESULT:
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) for the composite wall and total thermal resistance of the
composite wall arrangement is determined.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To find the thermal conductivity of insulating powder by conduction.
THEORY:
I. Fourier law of heat conduction: This law states that rate of heat flow through a surface is directly
proportional to the area normal to the surface and the temperature gradient across the surface.
dT
QαA
dx

dT
Q =  kA
dx

II. Thermal Conductivity: This can be defines ad the amount of heat that can flow per unit time
across the unit cross sectional area when the temperature gradient is unity. The unity of thermal
conductivity are called Conductors, while those having lower thermal conductivity those are
called Insulators.

Examples for good conductors include as metals while Asbestos, Glass, Wood etc.,will have
lower thermal conductivity than metals.

III. The Radial Heat Conduction for Single Hallow Sphere transferring heat from inside to out side is
given by

4 (T2  T1 )kr2 r1
Q=
r2  r1

Where Q= rate of heat transfer in watts; k = Thermal conductivity W/m-k

R1 = radius of inner sphere –m; R2 = radius of outer sphere –m
T1 = Temperature of the inner sphere; T2 = Temperature of the outer sphere

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
INSULATING POWDER APPARATUS

The radius of the inner sphere (r1) =________ mm

The radius of the outer sphere (r2) =________ mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consisting of concentric spheres made of copper. The inner sphere is a heater, and in
between the spheres insulating powder is (Magnesium oxide) filled and sealed. There are two
thermocouples fixed to the heater T1 & T2 and two thermocouples fixed on the inner wall of the outer
sphere T3 & T4. A multiunit digital temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature at
different locations.

The whole unit mounted on a laminated work bench with panel. An ammeter voltmeter is provided to
measure the input power and a dimmerstat is provided to vary the input power.

PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the three-pin plug to the 230V, 50 Hz, 15 Amps main supply and switch on the unit.
2) Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3) Adjust the regulator to provide the required power input to heater.
4) Allow the unit to stabilize by keeping apparatus in operation about 15 to 20 mins.
5) Turn the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step.
6) Note down the temperatures indicated by the temperature indicator from channel 1 to 4.
7) Tabulate the readings and calculate.
8) For various power inputs repeat the experiment.
CALCULATION:
4 (TI  TH ) kr2 r1
The power input Q = V  A =
r2  r1

Where, k is the Thermal conductivity of the insulating powder.

TH and TI are the average temperatures of the inner sphere, and the outer sphere respectively.

T1  T2 o
Avg. temp of heater TH = C=
2

T3  T4  T5  T6 o
Avg. temp of insulating powder TI = C=
4

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION:

Voltage Current Heater temperature Insulating powder

S.no V A
T1 T2 Avg. temp T4 T5 T6 Avg. temp
Volts Amps 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C C C C C C C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 4 (TI  TH )kr2 r1
The heat flow from the heater to outer surface of sphere Q= V  A =
r2  r1

V  A(r2  r1 )
 k
4 (TI  TH ) r2 r1
=

Result:

Thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs was determined.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 LAGGED PIPE
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To plot the radial temperature distribution in composite cylinder and to determine the thermal
conductivity of pipe insulation.
THEORY:
The insulation is defined as a material, which retards the heat flow with reasonable effectiveness. Heat is
transferred through insulation by conduction, convection and radiation or by the combination of these
three. There is no insulation which is 100% effective to prevent the flow of heat under temperature
gradient. Let r1 be the radius of the heater, r2 be the radius of the heater with asbestos lagging and r3 be the
inner radius of the outer MS pipe.
Now the heat flow through cylindrical sections is given by
k1 2Lt k 2 2Lt
Q Q
r or r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
r1 r2

Where, t is the temperature across the lagging.

k1 is the thermal conductivity of asbestos lagging material in W/mK and
k2 is the thermal conductivity of saw dust W/mK.
L is the length of the cylinder in meters.
Knowing the thermal conductivity of one lagging material the thermal conductivity of the other insulating
material can be found.

DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up in which the heat is transferred through insulation by conduction is under study
in the given apparatus. The apparatus consisting of a rod heater with asbestos lagging. The assembly is
inside an MS pipe. Between the asbestos lagging and MS pipe saw dust is filled. The set up is as shown
in the figure.
The apparatus consist of a metal pipe with two layers of insulation. An electric heating coil wound on a
silica rod is placed at the centre. Ends are thickly insulated to prevalent heat loss so that heat flows only
in a radial direction. Three thermo couples each are placed at different radii to measure the temperature
distribution with in the cylinder.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
CUT SECTIONAL VIEW ALONG THE LENGTH OF LAGGED PIPE

d1 - heater diameter = 20 mm

d2 - heater with asbestos diameter = 40 mm

d3 - asbestos & saw dust diameter = 80 mm

Length = 500mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TECHNICAL DATA:
Location of thermocouples 1, 2, 3 radius = _________ mm
Location of thermocouples 4, 5, 6 radius = _________ mm
Location of thermocouples 7, 8 radius = __________mm
PROCEDURE:
1) Switch on the unit and check if all channels of temperature indicator showing proper temperature.
2) Switch on the heater using the regulator and keep the power input at some particular value.
3) Allow the unit to stabilize for about 20 to 30 minutes.
4) Now note down the ammeter, voltmeter reading which gives the heat input. Temperatures 1, 2 and
3 are the temperatures of heater rod, 4, 5 and 6 are the temperatures on the asbestos layer. 7 and 8
are temperatures on the saw dust lagging. The average temperature of each cylinder is taken for
calculation.
5) The temperatures are measured by thermocouple (Fe/Ko) with multipoint digital temperature
indicator.
6) The experiment may be repeated for different heat inputs.
CALCULATIONS:
T1  T2  T3 o
Average Temperature of heater = C=
3

T4  T5  T6 o
Average Temperature of Asbestos lagging = C=
3
T  T8 o
Average Temperature of Sawdust lagging = 7 C=
2

2k1lt
The heat flow from the heater to outer surface of asbestos lagging Q1-2 = r
ln( 2 )
r1
Where k1=Thermal Conductivity of Asbestos lagging from Data Book at ___°C =

r1 = Radius of the heater = _____ mm

r2 = Radius of the asbestos lagging = _____ mm
r3 =Radius of sawdust = _____ mm
l = Length of the heater = _____ mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION:

Heater Temperature Asbestos Temp. Sawdust Temp.

Voltage Current
S.No V A Avg. Avg. Avg
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
Volts Amps temp. temp. Temp.
°C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
°C °C °C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
  Q1-2 =

2k 2 lt
Substituting this value of Q1-2 to find the thermal conductivity of saw dust Q2-3 = r
ln( 3 )
r2
 k2 =

RESULT:
Thus the thermal conductivity of a pipe is determined by various heat inputs and radial temperature
distribution for that graph is plotted.
k pipe insulation = W/mK

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 NATURAL CONVECTION
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
i) To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for heated vertical cylinder losing heat to the
ambient by free or natural convection.
ii) To find the theoretical convective heat transfer coefficient and to compare it with the experimental
convective heat transfer coefficient.
THEORY:
Convection heat transfer occurs by the movement of fluid particles. If the motion of fluid particles
occurs by the variations in densities of the fluid due to temperature difference.such a heat transfer
process is called free or natural convection.
The rate of heat transfer in convection is given by the Newton’s law of cooling i.e.
Q  hAT

Where, h is convective or film heat transfer coefficient and it depends on the fluid properties, type of
flow and geometry of the surface.
Dimensionless numbers:
l
 
hl  k  conductive resistance heat transfer by convection
a) Nusselt number : Nu =  = = heat transfer by conduction
k  1  convective resistance
 
h
A large value of Nu implies enhanced heat transfer by convection
 c p 
 
c p  c p 
 v momentum diffusivity
b) Prandtl Number: Pr = = = = thermal diffusivity
k  k  
 
 c p 
 
This number represents the relative importance of momentum of energy transfer by diffusion process

L3 gT (intertia force) (buoyant force)

c) Grashoff number: Gr = =
2 ( viscous force) 2
Grashoff number has an important role in free convection problem.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
NATURAL CONVECTION

T6

T5

T4

Length of the heater L = 500 mm

Heater diameter d = 40 mm
T3

T2

T1

AIR FLOW

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
From dimensional analysis, as per the Buckingham π theorem, a general relationship between the
above dimensionless number has developed as given below.
Nu  C (Gr  Pr) m Where m & C are constant
DESCRIPTION:
Convection is a mode of heat transfer where by a moving fluid transfers heat from a surface. When the
fluid movement is caused by density differences in the fluid due to temperature variations, it is called
Free or Natural Convection.

This apparatus provides students with a sound introduction to the features of free convection heat
transfer from a heated vertical rod. A vertical duct is fitted with a heated vertically placed cylinder.
Around this cylinder air gets heated and becomes less dense, causing it to rise. This in turn gives rise
to continuous flow of air upward in the duct. The instrumentation provided gives the heat input and the
temperature at different points on the heated cylinder.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the three-pin plug to the 230V, 50 Hz, 15 Amps main supply and switch on the unit.
2) Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3) Adjust the regulator to provide the required power input.
4) Allow the unit to stabilize by keeping apparatus in operation about 15 to 20 mins.
5) Turn the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step and note down the temperatures
indicated by the temperature indicator from initial channel to final.
6) Note the temperature of inlet air, outlet air and temperatures along the heater rod.
7) Note ammeter and voltmeter readings.
8) For different power inputs the experiments may be repeated.
CALCULATIONS:
Heat input = Qexp  hexp A(Ts  T )  V  I
Where, Ts = Absolute surface temperature
Tα=Absolute ambient temperature
Surface area of the pipe in m2 A  dl
=
Qexp
Therefore experimental heat transfer coefficient hexp  (Ts  T )
A
V I
 (Ts  T ) W/m2K
A

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION
Voltage(V) Current (I) Temperature along the heated cylinder
S. No
volts amp T1 °C T2 °C T3 °C T4 °C T5 °C T6 °C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
Theoretical value of hth =

Ts  T
Tf = film mean temperature =
2
Properties of air (from tables) at Tf = ___________ oC is

1 1
= =
film mean temperature  273 T f
=

 Gr  Pr  L g2T Pr =
3

Where, Pr is from data hand book at film mean temperature Tf.

Using free convection correlations for vertical cylinders consider suitable correlation from data hand
book,

 Nusselt number is given by Nu =

Nu  k =
 hth 
L
Where k is the thermal conductivity of air at film mean temperature

 Overall heat transfer coefficient in hth = W/m2 K

Result:
The convection heat transfer coefficient for heated vertical cylinder losing heat to the ambient by free
or natural convection was determined and theoretical convective heat transfer coefficient is compared
with the experiment convective heat transfer coefficient.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 TEST ON PIN - FIN APPARATUS
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To determine the temperature distribution on the pin - fin for forced convection and to find the
efficiency of the fin.
THEORY:
Consider a pin - fin having the shape of rod whose base is attached to a wall at a surface temperature
Ts, the fin is cooled along the axis by a fluid at temperature T amb. The fin has a uniform cross sectional
area Ao is made of material having a uniform thermal conductivity k and the average heat transfer
coefficient (h)between the surfaces to the fluid. We shall assume that transverse temperature gradients
are so small so that the temperature at any cross section of the fin is uniform.

DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a pin-fin placed inside an open duct, (one side open) the other end of the duct
is connected to the suction side of a blower, the delivery side of a blower is taken up through an orifice
meter to the atmosphere. The airflow rate can be varied by the blower speed regulator and can be
measured on the U tube manometer connected to the orifice meter. A heater is connected to one end of
the pin-fin and seven thermocouples are connected by equal distance all along the length of the pin and
the eighth thermocouple is left in the duct.
The panel of the apparatus consists of voltmeter, ammeter and digital temperature indicator. Regulator
is to control the power input to the heater. U-tube manometer with connecting hoses.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Duct width b = 150 mm Duct height w = 100 mm
Pipe diameter d1 = 40 mm Orifice Diameter d2 = 24mm
Orifice coefficient Cd = 0.6 Fin length L = 14.5 cm
Fin diameter Df = 12 mm
(Characteristic length)

PIN-FIN APPARATUS
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 Orifice meter

Duct

Pin fin
BLOWER

Heater Pipe

CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF DUCT

T7 T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1

Heater

Brass Pin Fin

T8

ORIFICE DIAMETER = 20 mm LENGTH = 145 mm

PIPE DIAMETER = 40 mm DIAMETER = 12 mm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the three pin plug to a 230V, 50Hz, 15A power and switch on the unit.
2) Keep the thermocouple selector switch in first position.
3) Turn the regulator knob to clockwise and set the power to the heater to any desired value by
looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4) Allow the unit to stabilize.
5) Switch on the blower, and regulate the speed for any desired flow rate of air.
6) Set the airflow rate to any desired value looking at the difference in U tube manometer limb levels.
7) Note down the temperatures indicated by temperature indicator.
8) Repeat the experiment by varying the airflow rate and keeping the power input to the heater
constant.
9) Varying the power input to the heater and keeping the airflow rate constant.
10) Tabulate the readings and calculate for different conditions.
11) After all the experiment is over, put off the blower switch, turn the energy
12) Regulator knob anti clockwise, put OFF the main switch and disconnect the power supply.

CALCULATIONS:
Natural convection (blower off):
T1  T2  T3  T4  T5  T6  T7  T8
Mean temperature Ts = ˚C =
8

Ts  T
film mean temperature Tf = =
2

Properties of air (from tables) at Tf = ___________ oC is

1 1
= film mean temperature  273
= T
= _____ K-1
f

Grashoff number of air flow:

 Gr  L g2T
3
=
V

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION:

Volts Current Pin-fin surface Temperature Amb. Temp Manometer Reading

S.No V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 h1 h2
amps amps ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C cm cm

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
Prandtl number of air flow: From data hand book at film mean temperature of air
 Pr =
Nusselt number of air flow:
From dimensional analysis, as per the Buckingham π theorem, a general relationship between the
above dimensionless number has developed as given below.
Nu  C (Gr  Pr) m Where m & C are constants
Using free convection correlations for vertical cylinders consider suitable correlation from data hand
book

 Nusselt number is given by Nu =

Nu  k =
 hth 
L

Forced convection (blower on):

a1 a 2 2 gho
Discharge of air flowing through the pipe in m3 /sec Q  C d 
a12  a 22
Where, Cd = 0.6

 2  2
a1= d1 = a2 = d2 =
4 4

w
 ho= head of air causing the flow = a
(h2  h1 ) =

Where, h1 and h2 are manometer reading;

a1 = area of the pipe; a2 = area of the orifice
Density of water  w = 1000 kg/m3; Density of air  a = 1.16 kg/m3;

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 44
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 Q=

We know that discharge through the pipe is same as discharge through the duct.
Q
Velocity of air in the duct Va=
wb
Where w = Width of the duct; b = Breadth of the duct

 Velocity of air in the duct in m/sec Va =

Reynold’s number of air flow:

 a d1Va
Reynold’s Number Re 
a
Where, Va = Velocity of air in the duct; a = Density of air in the duct; a = Viscosity of air at T8 oC

 Re=

Prandtl number of air flow:

c pa
Prandltl Number =
ka
Where c pa = Specific heat of air; a = Viscosity of air; ka = Thermal conductivity of air

 Pr =

Heat transfer rate and flow rates are expressed in dimensionless form of Nusselt Number as a function
of Prandtl number and Reynolds Number. The heat transfer coefficient can also be calculated from
Dittus – Boelter correlation.
Using forced convection correlations for horizontal cylinders consider suitable correlation from data
hand book.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 46
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 hD
Nu  C (Re Pr) m ------- I Nu  -------II
k
hth D
By equating I & II = C (Re Pr) m
k
Where, k is the thermal conductivity of air at film mean temperature in W/mK
Pr is prandtl number from data hand book at film mean temperature of air
T1  T2  T3  T4  T5  T6  T7  T8
Mean temperature Ts = ˚C =
8

Ts  T
Film mean temperature Tf = =
2
Nu  k =
 hth 
L

 Overall heat transfer coefficient hth = W/m2K

Efficiency of the pin – fin:
Actual heat transfer Tanh ( ML)
Efficiency of the Pin- Fin  f = =
Theoritical heat transfer ML

hth  P
Where, M 
kb  A
h = heat transfer coefficient
L = Length of the fin
P = Perimeter of the fin
A = cross sectional area of the fin
kb = Thermal conductivity of brass rod at mean temperature.
Perimeter of the fin P = D f =

Cross sectional area of the fin A = D 2f
4
T1  T2  T3  T4  T5  T6  T7  T8
Mean temperature = ˚C =
8

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 = fin

 Cosh  M  L  x   
Temperature distribution = Tx   (To  Ta )  Ta
 Cosh ( ML) 
x = distance from the base wall (heater end) to a point where the temperature estimation is needed on
pin fin.
The maximum distance from the base wall (heater end) to end point of pin fin = 145 mm
Distance between thermocouples = 20mm
Temperature Distribution
 Cosh M  L  x   
T1   (To  Ta )  Ta at x=20 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T2   (T1  Ta )  Ta at x=40 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T3   (T2  Ta )  Ta at x=60 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T4   (T3  Ta )  Ta at x=80 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T5   (T4  Ta )  Ta at x=100 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T6   (T5  Ta )  Ta at x=120 mm
 Cosh( ML) 
 Cosh M  L  x   
T7   (T6  Ta )  Ta at x=140 mm
 Cosh( ML) 

Temperature Distribution

T1= ˚C
T2= ˚C
T3= ˚C
T4= ˚C
T5= ˚C
T6= ˚C
T7= ˚C

Result:

The temperature distribution of the pin - fin for forced convection and the efficiency of the fin are
determined.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
STEFAN-BOLTZMAN APPARATUS

Disc Diameter = 20 mm
Disc Material = Copper
Disc Weight = 0.008 kg

Graph: Temperature gradient Vs Time

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 STEFAN - BOLTZMAN APPARATUS
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
(i) To determine the Stefan Boltzmann constant value experimentally and to compare the same with
theoretical value.
(ii) To plot a graph on temperature Vs time.
THEORY:
The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant energy emitted by the surface in
all directions over the entire wave length range per unit surface area per unit time.
The base rate equation for radiation heat transfer is based on stefan-Boltzman law which states that
the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit area of black surface is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Eb   bT 4

Where,  b is radiation coefficient of a black body.

 b =5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
DESCRIPTION:
Stefan – Boltzman law which establishes the dependence of integral hemispherical radiation on
temperature may be verified in this unit. The experimental set up consisting of concentric hemispheres
with provision for the hot water to pass through the annulus. A hot water source is provided. The
water flow may be varied using the control valve provided, there by to control the hot water
temperature. A small disk is placed at the bottom of the hemisphere which receives the heat radiation
and can be removed (or) refitted while conducting the experiment. A multipoint digital temperature
indicator and thermocouples (Fe/Ko) are provided to measure temperature at various points on the
radiating surface of the hemisphere and on the discharge.
PROCEDURE:
1) Allow water to flow through the hemisphere. Remove the disc from the bottom of the hemisphere.
2) Switch on the heater and allow the hemisphere to reach a steady temperature.
3) Note down the temperatures T1, T2 and T3. The average of these temperatures is the hemisphere
temperature (Th).
4) Refit the disc at the bottom of the hemisphere and start the stop clock. The raise in temperature T 4
with respect to time is noted.
5) Also note down the disc temperature at T4 when steady state is reached (Td). ‘A’ is the area of the
disc receiving the heat radiation.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
TABULATION:

Hemisphere Temp. Avg Temp. of the Steady Temp

Time
Sl Hemisphere T4 of the Disc
in
No. T1 T2 T3 Th °C Td
s
°C °C °C °C °C
41.2 41.3 40.7 41.06666667 28.4 15 29.9
28.6 30
28.8 45
SAMPLE READING

29.1 75
29.2 90
29.3 105
29.4 120
29.5 135
29.6 150
29.7 165
29.8 180
29.9 195
29.9 210

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 53
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
CALCULATIONS:
Q
Stefan-Boltzmann constant  exp 
[  b (T  Td4 ) A ]
4
h

dT
Where Q  m  c p  watts,
dt
Temperature gradient can be calculated from the graph by selecting few ponts which are effective.
dT
( )=
dt
Q =

T1  T2  T3
Avg.Temperature of Hemisphere Th = °C
3
= _______ + 273 = K
Steady Temp. of disc Td = °C
= ________ + 273 = K

 2
Area of the disc A = D = m2
4

Hence Stefan Boltzmann Constant  exp 

Result:
The experimental value of Stefan Boltzmann Constant was found to be _______________W/ m2K4
and is compared with the theoritical value.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

Note: Consider Length of metal rod between T1 & T6 = 300 mm

The temperature gradient is obtained by plotting Temperature vs length as shown in fig.

Graph: Distance vs Temperatur

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD
Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of metal rod which is good conductor of heat when the heat is
transferred by conduction.

THEORY:
Thermal conductivity is a specific property of conducting material, which has been defined below for
homogenous solid, as the quantity of heat conducted across a unit area normal to the direction of heat
flow in unit temperature gradient along the flow path.

dT
Q  kA
dx

Where Q is the quantity of heat conducted kJ/hr

A is area of cross section normal to the direction of heat flow in m2

dT is temperature drop in K

k thermal conductivity of the material W/m2K

DESCRIPTION:
Experimental measurements of thermal conductivity are accomplished by the observation of the
temperature gradient across a given area of the material conducting heat at a known rate. For a
specimen which has relatively high conductivity, e.g. metals .k for moderate temperature levels can be
measured by an apparatus of the type shown in figure.

A known rate of heat is conducted through a specimen S of the material in the form of a rod of cross
sectional area placed between an electric source H1 generating heat in the amount q = V x I watts,
where V is the voltage and I is the source of current and a cooling fluid heat sink Ho. The entire
assemblies embedded in low conductivity insulation (e.g.: mineral wool, asbestos, etc.) in order to
minimize internal heat leakage from the exposed surface of the specimen and thus ensure a more
nearly constant temperature gradient through the length of the rod .After a sufficient time has elapsed
to establish steady conduction temperature, at a number of stations along the rod are recorded by
thermocouple and this gives the average linear temperature gradient dt/dx.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

Temperature along the Rod

Voltage Current
V A
Volts Amps T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
°C °C °C °C °C

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PROCEDURE:

1) Switch on the unit and turn the regulator clockwise to provide any desired heat input.
2) Note the ammeter and volt meter readings.
3) Wait till steady state temperatures are reached.
4) The steady state condition is defined, as the temperature gradient across the rod does not change
with time.
5) When steady state is reached, note temperatures and find the temperature gradient across the rod.

6) Repeat the Procedure for different values of Heat Inputs.

CALULATIONS:
Heat input through heater Q = V x I watts
dT
According to Fourier’s Law of Conduction Q  k  A 
dx

Where Diameter of Metal Rod d = 25 mm


Cross sectional area A  d2 =
4

Q
k 
Therefore dT = _______ W/ m K
[ A ]
dx
Result:
The thermal conductivity of metal rod was determined to be k = ___________ W/ m K

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
 TEST ON HEAT EXCHANGERS

Date: Experiment No:

AIM:
To find the LMTD and overall heat transfer co-efficient in parallel flow and counter flow heat
exchangers.
THEORY:
Heat exchangers are devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. Common examples
of the heat exchangers are the radiator of a car, condenser at the back of domestic refrigerator etc. Heat
exchangers are classified mainly into three categories: 1. Transfer type 2. Storage type 3. Direct
contact type. Transfer type of heat exchangers are most widely used. A transfer type of heat exchanger
is one in which both fluids pass simultaneously through the device and heat is transferred through
separating walls. Transfer type of exchangers are further classified as.
1) Parallel flow type in fluids flow in the same direction.
2) Counter flow types in fluid flow in the opposite direction.
3) Cross flow type in which fluids flow at any angle to each other.
A simple heat exchanger of transfer type can be in the form of a tube arrangement. One fluid flowing
through the inner tube and the other through the annulus surrounding it. The heat transfer takes place
across the walls of the inner tube.
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid i.e. hot water is obtained from
an electric geyser and flows through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any
one of the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow apparatus or a counter flow
apparatus. This can be done by operating the different valves provided. Temperatures of the fluids can
be measured using thermometers. Flow rate can be measured using stop clock and measuring flask.
The outer tube is provided with adequate asbestos rope insulation to minimize the heat loss to the
surroundings.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of the heat exchanger = 1800 mm
Inner copper tube ID = 12 mm
Outer copper tube OD = 15 mm
Outer GI tube ID = 40 m

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PARALLEL FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

TCi Cold Water

Thi Tho
Hot Water

TCo

Thi

Tho

Ө1 Ө2
TCo

Length of heat
TCi
exchanger

1 -  2
m 

log e ( 1 )
2

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect water supply at the back of the unit. The inlet water flows through Geyser and inner pipe of
the heat exchanger and flows out. Also the inlet water flows through the annuals gap of the heat
exchanger and flows out.
2) For Parallel flow open valve V2, V4 and V5.
For Counter flow open valve V3, V1 and V5
3) Control the hot water flow approximately 2 lit./min. and cold water flow approximately 5 lit./min.
4) Switch ON the geyser. Allow the temperature to reach steady state.
5) Note temperature T1 and T2 (hot water inlet and outlet temperature
respectively).
6) Under Parallel flow condition T3 is the cold eater inlet temperature and T 4 is the cold water outlet
temperature.
7) Note the temperature T3 and T4.
8) Under Counter flow condition T4 is the cold water inlet temperature T3 is the cold water outlet
temperature.
9) Note the temperatures T3 and T4.
10) Note the time for 1 litre flow of hot and cold water. Calculate mass flow rate kg/ s.
11) Change the water flow rates and repeat the experiment.
CALCULATIONS:
For Parallel Flow

1 -  2
m 

log e ( 1 )
2
Where
Thi, Tci are initial temperatures of the hot fluid, cold fluid respectively
Th0, Tc0 are final temperatures of the hot fluid, cold fluid respectively
 m = LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
1 = Temperature Difference at entry of the exchanger = Thi - Tci
 2 = Temperature Difference at exit of the exchanger = Tho - Tco
 LMTD =  m =

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 COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

TCo

Hot water
Thi Tho

TCi Cold water

Thi
Tho

Ө1
Ө2
TCo
TCi
Length of heat
exchanger

1 -  2
m 

log e ( 1 )
2

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
Q=V  I= ………. Eq (1)

1 -  2
Q  U A m  U A
 ……… Eq (2)
log e ( 1 )
2
Using equations (1) and (2)

U=

For Counter Flow

1 -  2
m 

log e ( 1 )
2
Where
Thi, Tci are initial temperatures of the hot fluid, cold fluid respectively
Th0, Tc0 are final temperatures of the hot fluid, cold fluid respectively
 m = LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
1 = Temperature Difference at entry of the exchanger = Thi - Tco
 2 = Temperature Difference at exit of the exchanger = Tho - Tci
 LMTD =  m =

Q=V  I= ………. Eq (1)

1 -  2
Q  U A m  U A
 ……… Eq (2)
log e ( 1 )
2

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 65
Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati
Using equations (1) and (2)

U=

Result:

The LMTD, overall heat transfer coefficients are found to be:

Parallel Flow: LMTD = U=

Counter Flow: LMTD = U=

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, AITS, Tirupati