MATH 210

AREA OF A TRIANGLE IN THE X-Y PLANE USING DETEMINANTS

Defn. 4.1

The area of a triangle with vertices A ( x1 , y1 ) ,B ( x2, y2 ) and C ( x3 , y3) is defined.

[ ]

Example 4.1

a) Calculate the area of the triangle whose vertices are A (1,0) , B(2,2) and C (4,3)

Solution

[ ]

[ ]

[ | | | | | |]

[ ] or 15 square units

b) Calculate the area of a triangle with vertices A (0,0) , B(1,1) and C (4,4).

Solution

[ ] ⇒ The points are collinear

c) By evaluating the relevant determinant, find the equation of the line passing
through the points A (1,8) and B (-3,1).
Solution

Let C(x, y) be an arbitrary point. The area of triangle ABC = 0

⇒ [ ]

[ | | | | | |]

(1-y)-8(-3.-x)+(-3y-x)=0
⇒ 7x - 4y+25 = 0 or y=

Assignment

1. Find the area of the following triangle

a) A(1,1) B(2,4) C(4,2)
b) A(-1,2) B(2,2) C(-2,4)

VECTOR SPACES

Vectors are physical quantities having both magnitude (size) and direction e.g.
force, displacement, velocity and acceleration.
Defn 4.2
If ṵ and ṽ are vectors in 2-3 space and 𝛳 is the angle between them, then the dot
products or the Euclidean Linear products is given as:-
ṵ v=||u|| ||v|| cos𝛳
Generally if ṵ (u1, u2, … un an v v1, v2, …vn)
Then ṵ v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 … unvn
Example 4.2
onsi er the vectors ṵ ,- ,7 an v ,-2,-2) . in ṵ v and the angle between
them.
Solution
ṵ v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3v3
 = 1(8)-3(-2) +7(-2)
=0
ṵ √ 7 √

v √ √7

cos
| | | | √ √7
⇒
Note
ṵ an v are two non-zero vectors and 𝛳 is the angle between them, then 𝛳= its
dot product is zero.

Defn 4.4
ṵ an v are vectors, then it is possible to write vectors ṵ as ṵ = w1+w2 where w1
is a scalar multiple o v and w2 is perpen icular to v. The vector w1 is called the
orthogonal projection o ṵ on v and the vector w2 is calle the component o vector
ṵ ortho onal to v.
The vectors w1 and w2 can be obtained as follows:
Since w1 is a scalar multiple o v
⇒ w1 k v or any scalar k
⇒ṵ w1 + w2 kv w2
ow ṵ v k v + w2 -v
= (kv)+0
= k ||v
⇒ Since w1 = kv ⇒

For u = w1 + w2 ⇒ w2 ṵ- w1 ⇒ w2 ṵ-

Example 4.3
iven ṵ =(1 , 0 , -2) and vɵ= (-3 , 5 , in the ortho onal projection o ṵ an v
an the component o vector ṵ ortho onal to v.
Solution
 u .v = 1(-3)+0(5)-2(1)
= -5
||v =

, , , ,

W 2 = u – w1
= (1, 0, -2) – ( , , )
= , ,

Assignment
iven ṵ = (5, 2, an v = (3, 4, 12) . Find the orthogonal projection of u and v and
the components of vector ṵ ortho onal to v and the angle 𝛳 etween ṵ an v.

CROSS PRODUCTS
Defn 4.5
If ṵ (u1, u2, u3) an v = (v1, v2, v3) are vectors in 3-space, then the cross product
ṵxv u2 v3 – u3 v2 , u1 v3 – u3 v1, u1 v2 – u2 v1 )

Example 4.5
Find the cross products of the vectors
ṵ = (1, 2,-3) an v = (3, 0, 1)
Solution
ṵ x v = [2(1)-(-3)(0), 1(1)(-3)(3), 1(0)-2(3)]
= (2, 10, -6)
Note
While the dot product is a scalar, the cross product is another vector.
LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE
Defn 5.5
Let V be a vector space and S = { , …
} be a set of vectors in V. S is called linearly
independent. If the vector equation
has trivial solutions
If this condition is not met, then we say that the set of
vectors { , ,… is linear dependent.
Example 5.8
Let V= and S = {(-4, -3, 4), (1, -2, 3), (6, 0, 0)}. Is S Linear independent?
Solution
= (-4, -3, 4) + 1, -2, 3) + (6, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0)
-4 + +6 =01
-3 - 2 1

4C1 + 3C2 = 01
The determinant of the coefficient matrix is

= | | = -4 | | -1 | | + 6| | =-6 0

Hence the system above has the trivial solution only i.e C1=C2=C3=0
= S is linearly independent.

Example 5.10
Let S = {(1, 3, 1), (0, 1, 2), (1, 0, -5)}. Is S a linearly independent set of vectors in R3
Solution
C1 (1 ,3, 1) + C2(0, 1, 2) + C3(1, 0, 5) =( 0, 0, 0)
C1+C3= 0
3C1+C2=0
C1 + 2C2- 5C3 = 0
The coefficient matrix is

= | | = 1| | + 1| | = -5 + 5 = 0
The system has infinitely many solutions
⇒ S is linearly epen ent’

Defn 6.5 [Rank of a matrix ]

The rank of a matrix A is the number of non-zero rows that occur in the row-
echelon form of the given matrix A.
Example 6.10

Find the rank of matrix A = [ ]

7

Solution

[ ]→ [ ]→ [ ]→ [ ]
7 7

[ ] Rank A = 2

Assignment

7
Find the rank of B = [ ]

NULLITY OF A MATRIX
Defn 6.6
The null space o a matrix is the solution set o x o
Nullity is the number of parameters needed in the solution to the equation Ax=
Dim (null space of A) = nullity of A.
Let A be a matrix with n columns, then
Rank (A) + Nullity (A) = n
Example 6.11
a) Find the Rank and nullity of A given

A =[ ]

Solution
Let A x = . Reducing A to R.R.E.F we get

A= [ ]

Rank (A) = 3
Nullity of A = 5 – 3 = 2
b) Let A be a 5 x 7 matrix and rank A = 4. Find the dimension of the solution space
of the homogeneous system A x =
Solution
n=7,r=4
Nullify (A) = 7 – 4 = 3
dim (solution space of A x = 0) = 3

COMPLETENESS
Defn 6.7
Completeness or the closure relation means that we can write the identity in terms
of outer products of a set of basis vectors.
An Outer product is a matrix multiplication operation between a column vector and
a row vector.
Example 6.12
a) Find the outer product of (1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 6)
Solution

( ) (4 5 6) = [ ] [ ]
INNER PRODUCT SPACES
Defn 7.1
Let V= (V1,V2,… ,Vn) eIRn , then ‖ ‖= √v , v is called the len th o v.
If ‖ ‖ , then v is called a unit vector.
ṵ=‖ ‖
is the unit vector in the direction of v.

The process of finding the unit vector in the direction if v is called normalizing.
d(u,v) =||u – v || is called the distance between vector ṵ and v in Rn

Cauchy - Schwartz inequality.

If ṵ, v eIRn , then | u.v | ≤ ||u|| ||v||
If ṵ, v eRn, then the angle between ṵ and v is given by
Cos =‖ ‖‖ ‖

Example 7.1
a) Let ṵ = (-3, 4, 1) and (2, 1, 1) be vectors in R3 . Find the norm of each vector.
Solution
|| u|| = √
=√ =
||v|| = √
=√6 =
b) Suppose that u = (-1, 3, 2) and V = (2, 0, 1) are vectors in R3. Find the angle
between these two vectors.

Solution

Cos =‖ ‖‖ ‖

ṵ v = -1(2) +3(0) +2(1) = 0

cos = ⇒ = or 900
Defn 7.2

Let V be a vector space and u, vev and ceR. An inner product of V is a function that
associates a real number (u,v) with each pair of vectors u and v such that:

i. (u, v) =(v, u) - symmetry

ii. (u, v + w) = (u, v) + (u, w)
iii. C(u, v) = (cu, v)
iv. (v, v) 0
v. (v, v) =0

v = 0 - positive definite vector

A vector space with an inner product is called an inner product space.

Example 7.2

Suppose V is a real vector space and that (u, v) =-2, (u, w) = 5. Calculate (3v - 6w, u)

Solution from property (ii) above

(3v-6w, u)= 3(v, u)- 6(w, u)

=3(u, v)- 6(u, w)

=3(-2) -6 (5)

=-6 – 30

= -36

ASSIGNMENT

Show that (u, v) = u1v1 + 2u2v2 where ṵ = (u1, u2), v = (v1, v2) defines an inner
product on 2.
OTHORGONAL PROJECTIONS

Defn 7.4

et V e a vector space , u , v eV such that v o The orthor onal projection o ṵ on v

is given by

,
Proj vṵ v
,

Note

V is a unit vector, the projvṵ u,v v since v,v v 2 =1

Example 7,7

Consider R3 with the ucli ean inner pro uct in the projection o ṵ , ,
onto v 7, , -2)

Solution
,
Projv ṵ v
,

u.v =18 , ||v||2= 54

projvṵ (7,1,-2)

=( , ,

EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS

Defn 9.3

Let A be an n x n matrix λϵR is called an eigen value of A if J a vector x

x λx

The vector x is called an Eigen vector o correspon in to λ

Defn 9.4

et e an m x n matrix with an ei en value λ The set o all ei en vectors o λ

to ether with o is calle the ei en space o λ
Theorem 9.2

et e an n x n matrix n ei en value o is the scalar λ λӀ-A| = 0 where I is

the n x n i entity matrix The ei en vector o correspon in to λ are the non-zero
solution of

λӀ-A)x = 0

λӀ-A| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A.

The polynomial λӀ- λn + cn-1λn-1 … c1λ c0 is called the characteristic

polynomial of A. Hence the eigen value of A correspond to the roots of the
characteristic polynomial of A.

From the characteristic polynomial, it is clear that we can have atmost n distinct
eigen values of an n x n matrix A.

Example 9.3

Find the eigen values and corresponding eigen vectors of A=[ ]

Solution

The characteristic equation of A is

λӀ-A| =| | =0

λ- λ

Solvin we et λ1=- an λ2= -2 are the eigen values of A.

To in the ei en vector we solve the homo eneous system λӀ- x or λ λ1= -

an λ λ2=-2.

or λ1 =-1, we have:-

(-1) I-A =[ ]

=[ ]→ [ ]→ [ ]
 x1 , -4x2 = 0 x2= t , x1= 4t.

⇒x=[ ] [ ] [ ]

or λ2= -2 , we have:-

(-2)I –A =[ ] → [ ] → [ ]

X, -3x2 = 0 Let x2 = t

X , = 3t

⇒ x=[ ] =t[ ]

The eigen vectors are x1 =[ ]

CAYLE – H M TO ’S TH OR M

It states that every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristics equation OR
Every square matrix A is a zero of its characteristics polynomial.

Example 9.8

a) Verify the Cayley – Hamilton’s theorem or he matrix [ ]

Solution
λӀ-A| = | | λ- λ-5) + 6

λ λ2 - λ

C(A) = A2 -6A + 11

=[ ][ ] - 6[ ] + 11[ ]

=[ ] - [ ] + [ ]

=[ ]
ASSIGNMENT.
a) Verify Cayley Hamilton theorem for the matrix A=[ ]
Solution .
λӀ-A| = | | λ2 - λ -1

λ λ2 - λ -1

C(A)= A2 – 4A – 1

=[ ][ ] - 4[ ] - [ ]

=[ ]

b) Show that the matrix A=[ ] satis ies the ayley Hamilton’s theorem
Solution
The characteristic equation for this matrix is
λ2 - 7λ – 8I = 0
The ayley Hamilton’s Theorem tells us that
A2 - 7A – 8I =0
A2=[ ] , 7A = [ ] , 8I =[ ]

A2 – 7A – 8I =[ ]

=[ ]