IJCSIS Vol. 9 No.

7, July 2011
ISSN 1947-5500

International Journal of
Computer Science
& Information Security

© IJCSIS PUBLICATION 2011

 Editorial
Message from Managing Editor
Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS ISSN 1947-5500) is an open
access, international, peer-reviewed, scholarly journal with a focused aim of promoting and
publishing original high quality research dealing with theoretical and scientific aspects in all
disciplines of Computing and Information Security. The journal is published monthly, and articles
are accepted for review on a continual basis. Papers that can provide both theoretical analysis,
along with carefully designed computational experiments, are particularly welcome.

IJCSIS editorial board consists of several internationally recognized experts and guest editors.
Wide circulation is assured because libraries and individuals, worldwide, subscribe and reference
to IJCSIS. The Journal has grown rapidly to its currently level of over 1,100 articles published and
indexed; with distribution to librarians, universities, research centers, researchers in computing,
and computer scientists.

Other field coverage includes: security infrastructures, network security: Internet security, content
protection, cryptography, steganography and formal methods in information security; multimedia
systems, software, information systems, intelligent systems, web services, data mining, wireless
communication, networking and technologies, innovation technology and management. (See
monthly Call for Papers)

Since 2009, IJCSIS is published using an open access publication model, meaning that all
interested readers will be able to freely access the journal online without the need for a
subscription. We wish to make IJCSIS a first-tier journal in Computer science field, with strong
impact factor.

On behalf of the Editorial Board and the IJCSIS members, we would like to express our gratitude
to all authors and reviewers for their sustained support. The acceptance rate for this issue is 32%.
I am confident that the readers of this journal will explore new avenues of research and academic
excellence.

Available at http://sites.google.com/site/ijcsis/
IJCSIS Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011 Edition
ISSN 1947-5500 © IJCSIS, USA.

Journal Indexed by (among others):

 IJCSIS EDITORIAL BOARD

Dr. M. Emre Celebi,

Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science, Louisiana State University
in Shreveport, USA

Dr. Yong Li
School of Electronic and Information Engineering, Beijing Jiaotong University,
P. R. China

Prof. Hamid Reza Naji

Department of Computer Enigneering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Dr. Sanjay Jasola

Professor and Dean, School of Information and Communication Technology,
Gautam Buddha University

Dr Riktesh Srivastava
Assistant Professor, Information Systems, Skyline University College, University
City of Sharjah, Sharjah, PO 1797, UAE

Dr. Siddhivinayak Kulkarni

University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia

Professor (Dr) Mokhtar Beldjehem

Sainte-Anne University, Halifax, NS, Canada

Dr. Alex Pappachen James, (Research Fellow)

Queensland Micro-nanotechnology center, Griffith University, Australia

Dr. T.C. Manjunath,

ATRIA Institute of Tech, India.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Paper 29061119: Recovery function of Components of Additive Model of Biometric System Reliability in
UML (pp. 1-4)
Zoran Ćosić, Director, Statheros d.o.o., Kaštel Stari, Croatia
Jasmin Ćosić , IT Section of Police Administration, Ministry of Interior of Una-sana canton, Bihać, Bosnia and
Hercegovina
Miroslav Bača , professor Faculty of Organisational and Informational science, Varaždin, Croatia

2. Paper 26061114: Contour Based Algorithm for Object Tracking (pp. 5-10)
A. M. Sallam, O. M. Elmouafy, R. A. Elbardany, A. M. Fahmy
Egyptian Armed Forces, Egypt

3. Paper 26061111: Human Iris Recognition in Unconstrained Environments (pp. 11-14)

Mohammad Ali Azimi Kashani, Department of Computer Science & Research Branch, Islamic Azad University
Branch Shoushtar, Shoushtar, Iran
Mohammad Reza Ramezanpoor Fini, Department of Computer Science & Research Branch, Islamic Azad
University Branch Shoushtar, Shoushtar, Iran
Mahdi Mollaei Arani, Department of Computer Science & Research Branch, Payame Noor University, Ardestan,
Iran

4. Paper 30041181: A Combined Method for Finger Vein Authentication System (pp. 15-19)
Azadeh Noori Hoshyar, Department of Computer Science, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ir.Riza Sulaiman, Department of Industrial Computing, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi,
Malaysia
Afsaneh Noori Hoshyar, Department of Industrial Computing, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

5. Paper 26061112: Colorization of Gray Level Images by Using Optimization (pp. 20-25)
Hossein Ghayoumi Zadeh, Hojat Jafari, Alireza malvandi, Javad haddadnia
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem University, Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi, Iran

6. Paper 30061154: Performance Comparison of Image Classifier Using DCT, Walsh, Haar and Kekre’s
Transform (pp. 26-33)
H. B. Kekre, Senior Professor, Computer Engineering, MP’STME, SVKM’S NMIMS University, Mumbai, India
Tanuja K. Sarode, Asst. Professor, Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai, India
Meena S. Ugale, Asst. Professor, Xavier Institute of Engineering, Mumbai, India

7. Paper 30061156: Decreasing Control Overhead of ODMRP by Using Passive Data Acknowledgement (pp.
34-39)
Robabeh Ghafouri, Department of computer, Shahr-e-Qods branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

8. Paper 25061107: Mitigating App-DDoS Attacks on Web Servers (pp. 40-45)

Ms. Manisha M. Patil, Dr .D. Y. Patil College of Engineering, Kolhapur, (Maharashtra) India.
Prof. U. L. Kulkarni, Konkan Gyanpeeth’s College of Engineering, Karjat, Dist.-Raigad, (Maharashtra) India
9. Paper 26061113: A Framework for Measuring External Quality of Web-sites (pp. 46-51)
Ritu Shrivastava, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sagar Institute of Research Technology &
Science, Bhopal 462041, India
Dr. R. K. Pandey, Director, University Institute of Technology, Barkatullah University, Bhopal 462041, India
Dr. M. Kumar, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sagar Institute of Research Technology, Bhopal
462041, India

10. Paper 26061115: A New Image Compression framework: DWT Optimization using LS-SVM regression
under IWP-QPSO based hyper parameter optimization (pp. 52-60)
S. Nagaraja Rao, Professor of ECE, G.Pullaiah College of Engineering & Technology, Kurnool, A.P., India
Dr.M.N.Giri Prasad, Principal, J.N.T.U.College of Engineering, Pulivendula, A.P., India

11. Paper 28061118: Analysis of Mobile Traffic based on Fixed Line Tele-Traffic Models (pp. 61-67)
Abhishek Gupta, ME Student, Communication System, Engineering, Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India
Bhavana Jharia, Associate Professor, Department of EC, Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India
Gopal Chandra Manna, Sr. General Manager, BSNL, Jabalpur, M.P, India

12. Paper 29061122: An Analysis of GSM Handover based On Real Data (pp. 68-74)
Isha Thakur, Communication System Engineering Branch, Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India
Bhavana Jharia, Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India
Gopal Chandra Manna, BSNL, Jabalpur, BSNL, Jabalpur

13. Paper 30061155: 2D Image Morphing With Wrapping Using Vector Quantization Based Colour
Transition (pp. 75-82)
H. B. Kekre, Senior Professor, Computer Engineering, MP’STME, SVKM’S NMIMS University, Mumbai, India
Tanuja K. Sarode, Asst. Professor, Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai, India
Suchitra M. Patil, Lecturer, K.J.Somiaya College of Engineering, Mumbai, India

14. Paper 30061176: Enhanced Fast and Secure Hybrid Encryption Algorithm for Message Communication
(pp.83-88)
Shaik Rasool, Md Ateeq ur Rahman, G. Sridhar, K. Hemanth Kunar
Dept. of Computer Science & Engg, S.C.E.T., Hyderabad, India

15. Paper 17051104: Effective Classification Algorithms to Predict the Accuracy of Tuberculosis - A Machine
Learning Approach (pp. 89-94)
Asha. T, Dept. of Info.Science & Engg., Bangalore Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
S. Natarajan, Dept. of Info. Science & Engg., P.E.S. Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
K.N.B. Murthy, Dept. of Info. Science & Engg., P.E.S. Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India

16. Paper 25061102: Comparison study on AAMRP and IODMRP in MANETS (pp. 95-103)
Tanvir Kahlon & Sukesha Sharma, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India

17. Paper 25061103: An Improvement Study Report of Face Detection Techniques using Adaboost and SVM
(pp.104-108)
Rajeev Kumar Singh, LNCT Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India
Prof. Alka Gulati, LNCT Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India
Anubhav Sharma, RITS Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India
Harsh Vazirani, Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management Gwalior, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh-
474010, India

18. Paper 29061121: Clustering of Concept Drift Categorical Data using POur-NIR Method (pp.109-115)
N. Sudhakar Reddy, SVCE, Tirupati, India
K.V.N. Sunitha, GNITS, Hyderabad, India

19. Paper 29061126: ERP-Communication Framework: Aerospace Smart factory & Smart R&D Campus
(pp. 116-123)
M. Asif Rashid, Dept of Engineering Management National University of Science & Technology (NUST) Pakistan
Erol Sayin, Karabuk University, Turkey
Hammad Qureshi , SEECS, (NUST) Pakistan
Muiz-ud-Din Shami, CAE, National University of Science & Technology (NUST) Pakistan
Nawar Khan, Dept of Engineering Management (NUST) Pakistan
Ibrahim H. Seyrek, Gaziantep University

20. Paper 30061127: Analysis of Educational Web Pattern Using Adaptive Markov Chain For Next Page
Access Prediction (pp. 124-128)
Harish Kumar, PhD scholar, Mewar University, Meerut
Dr. Anil Kumar Solanki, Director, MIET Meerut.

21. Paper 30061131: Advanced Routing Technology For Fast Internet Protocol Network Recovery (pp. 129-
133)
1
S. Rajan, 2 Althaf Hussain H.B., 3 K. Jagannath, 4 G. Surendar Reddy, 5 K.N.Dharanidhar
1
Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kuppam Engg. College., Kuppam, Chittoor(Dt.), A.P.
2
Associate Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
3
Associate Professor, Dept .of IT, Kuppam Engg. College., Kuppam Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
4
Assistant Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
5
Assistant Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.

22. Paper 30061146: Design and Implementation of Internet Protocol Security Filtering Rules in a Network
Environment (pp. 134-143)
Alese B.K., Adetunmbi O.A., Gabriel A.J.
Computer Science Department, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure, Nigeria

23. Paper 30061147: Design of a Secure Information Sharing System for E-policing in Nigeria (pp. 144-151)
Alese B.K, Iyare O.M, Falaki S.O
Computer Science Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

24. Paper 30061165: A Security Generated Approach towards Mass Elections using Voting Software (pp. 152-
160)
Aradhana Goutam, Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering, Bandstand, Bandra(W), Mumbai
400050,Mahtraahara, India
Ankit Kandi, Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering, Bandstand, Bandra(W), Mumbai 400050,
Mahtraahara, India
Manish Wagh, Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering, Bandstand, Bandra(W), Mumbai 400050,
Mahtraahara, India
Kashyap Shah, Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering, Bandstand, Bandra(W), Mumbai 400050,
Mahtraahara, India
Prathamesh Tarkar, Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engineering, Bandstand, Bandra(W), Mumbai 400050,
Mahtraahara, India

25. Paper 31051198: Even Harmonious Graphs with Applications (pp. 161-163)
P.B. Sarasija, Department of Mathematics, Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education, Kumaracoil, TamilNadu,
India.
R. Binthiya, Department of Mathematics, Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education, Kumaracoil, TamilNadu,
India.

26. Paper 26051130: Development of enhanced token using picture password and public key infrastructure
mechanism for digital signature (pp. 164-170)
Oghenerukevwe E. Oyinloye /Achievers University Owo
Department of Computer and Information Systems, Achievers University, Owo
Achievers University, Owo, AUO, Ondo, Nigeria.
Ayodeji .I. Fasiku, Boniface K.Alese (PhD), Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Technology,
Akure, FUTA, Nigeria.
Akinbohun Folake/ Rufus Giwa Polytechnic,Owo
Department of Computer Science, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo
Rufus Giwa Polythenic, Owo, Ondo, Nigeria.
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Recovery function of Components of Additive Model

of Biometric System Reliability in UML
Bihać, Bosnia and Hercegovina
Zoran Ćosić(Author) [email protected]
director
Statheros d.o.o.
Kaštel Stari, Croatia Miroslav Bača (Author)
[email protected] professor
Faculty of Organisational and Informational science
Varaždin, Croatia
Jasmin Ćosić (Author) [email protected]
IT Section of Police Administration
Ministry of Interior of Una-sana canton
number of successful tasks and the total number of tasks in the
time specified for the operation of the system:
Abstract- Approaches The development of biometric systems is
undoubtedly on the rise in the number and the application areas. n1 (t )
Modelling of system reliability and system data analysis after R(t ) 
failure and the time of re-establishing the operating regime is of n (t ) (1)
crucial importance for users of the system and also for producers
of certain components. This paper gives an overview of the
mathematical model of biometric system function recovery and its
where :R(t ) - assessment of reliability,
application through the UML model.
n1 (t ) - number of successful assignments in time t,
Keywords- Additive model, Biometric system, reliability, recovery n (t ) - total number of tasks performed in time t,
function, UML, component,
t - time specified for the operation of the
system.
I. INTRODUCTION

The value
R(t )
represents the estimated reliability due to the
Many models of reliability of biometric systems are applicable
only to specific parts or components of that same system. For fact that the number of tasks n(t) is final. Therefore, the actual
more complex considerations must be taken into account reliability R(t) is obtained when the number of tasks n(t) tends
models based on Markov processes that consider the reliability to infinity.
of the system as a whole, which includes components of the
system. In this paper the approach to restoring the functions of R(t )  lim R  t 
a biometric system that had failure at some of its components is n ( t )
(2)
elaborated. The basic model is an additive model which R(t) =1–F(t)=P(T>t) (3)
assumes a serial dependence between the components [1] (Xie
& Wohlin). Where the R ( t ) 1indicates the reliability function. Thus F ( t )
UML is also becoming standard in the process of system can be called non reliability function. Approximate form of the
design so the manufacture of component systems greatly function F ( t ), is shown in Figure 1. It is a continuous and
benefits from the UML view. The authors introduce the monotonically increasing function:
concept of UML modelling in the process of restoring function
analysis of biometric systems. The paper defines the conceptual F(0)=0
class diagram in UML, which provides a framework for F ( t ) →1, when t → ∞
analyzing the function recovery of biometric systems.
Density failure function is marked with F( t ), and from
II. ADDITIVE RELIABILITY MODEL probability theory we know that:

Reliability [2] as the probability [2] (number between 0 and 1

or 0% and 100%) can be represented as a ratio between the
1
R ( t ) is function of reliability

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 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011
dF (t ) G (t )  P (  > t) = 1  F1 (t ) (10)
f (t ) 
dt (4)
where F(t) is probability distribution function.
Failure intensity [3], [4], λ ( t ) represents the density of F1 (t ) is the probability density function of
conditional probability of failure at time t provided that until Refresh frequency
that moment there was no failure. random variable :
f (t ) dF1 (t ) dG (t )
 (t )  f1 (t )   (11)
R (t ) (5) dt dt
Or according to the model of Xie and Wohlin: From here it follows that:
d (t )
 (t )  ,t  0 t
dt (6) F1 (t )   f1 (t ) dt (12)
where µ(t) is mean value of the expected system failure. 0

It is also assumed that the intensity of the failure of the entire t

system is the sum of the intensity of failures of its components:
G (t )  1   f1 (t ) dt (13)
(7)
0

So it follows that the expectations of failure of the system are

(6): B. Intensity of recovery function

(8)  (t ) is the conditional probability density function2 of completion

of recovery of components (repair) within time t, provided that
recovery is not completed until the moment t.
III. BIOMETRIC SYSTEM RECOVERY FUNCTION Intensity recovery function is conditional probability density
Term recovery consider biometric system as a system that is function of the end of the recovery in time t, provided that recovery
maintained after a long period of use or recovered after failure of
is not complete until that moment t, we have:
particular components. Biometric system components, after the
failure, are maintained or exchanged and then continue to be part of
the system. When considering the reliability problems of generic G(t ) F1 (t ) f1 (t )
biometric system along with a random event that includes the
 (t )     (14)
G (t ) G (t ) G (t )
appearance of failure within the system, it is necessary to consider
other random event and that is recovery the system after failure.
To this event corresponds a new random variable  that indicates
t t
dG (t )
   (t )dt    G (t )
(15)
the time of recovery. As a characteristic of random variable 0 0
indicators similar to those being considered for the analysis of time t
without failure are used. ln G (t ) t0     (t )dt (16)
0
t
A. Distribution recovery function, refresh frequency    ( t ) dt
0
G (t )  e (17)
 is a random variable [3], [4] which marks the time of recovery
t

of the components in failure, then the probability of recovery is as a   ( t ) dt

function of time: F1 (t)= 1- e 0 (18)

P (  < t )  F1 (t ) (9)

F 1 (t) probability distribution function of random variable .

The probability of non-recovery G(t) is defined as:

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ISSN 1947-5500
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011
Condition 1 represents a functional system and condition 2
represents a system that has been repaired after a failure.
C. Time recovery function The transition of system from condition 1 to 2 is represented
a. Mean recovery time with failure intensity function λ, the transition from condition 2
to condition 1 is defined with recovery intensity function µ.

Mean time of recovery M (  ) is the mathematical expectation of IV. RECOVERY FUNCTION OF BIOMETRIC SYSTEM IN UML

random variable  whose probability density function is

f1 (t ) , A. Generalized biometric system
i.e.
 Generalized biometric system model[7], [8], [9] is a schematic view
M (  )   tf1 (t ) dt (19) of Wyman biometric system model that depicts serial dependence
0
of a system components and can be summarized, in this exploitation

period of time, as shown on Figure 2.
M (  )   G (t )dt (20)
0

b. Recovery time variance

Recovery time variance

 02 is characterized by deviation of Figure 2

duration of recovery  from his mean recovery time. The system shown in Figure 2 works in time t0 without failure.

After the failure the system is recovered in time t1, after recovery
  2 occurs time period of re-operation t2.
 
 02  V    E   E ( )  2 tG (t ) dt    G (t )dt 
2 Parameter which defines the conditions created by failure is
0 0  intensity of failure of particular component .
(21)
The intensity of the component failure can be expressed as:

c. Availability of system after recovery time

1
 1
Probability [5], that the system after time t will be available for EL    (23)
functioning is the expression (10). n n
Where is:
Where intensity recovery function µ can be defined as:
n- number of correct parts of the confidence interval (1   )  0, 75
(22)  - lower limit of confidence for the mean time between failures.

Recovery time of the system is the function of the recovery

MTTR –mean time to repair
intensity as described by the expression (22).
The process of transition from the state of failure to the state of
availability can be represented as in Figure 1: B. The conceptual class-diagram model of system
recovery

During the study [8] of the problem of reliability of generic

biometric system, object-relational approach of description of the
problem provides easier and clearer description of the sequence
analysis of events within the system during the verification of
Figure 1 failure.
Figure 3 shows the diagram of classes of the recovery of biometric
system model:

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ISSN 1947-5500
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011
REFERENCES

[1] An additive reliability model for the modular software failure data –
M.Xie, C.Wohlin - 2007
[2] Teorija pouzdanosti tehničkih sistema, Vojnoizdavački novinski centar,
Beograd 2005,
[3] Pouzdanost brodskih sustava – Ante Bukša, Ivica Šegulja – Pomorstvo -
2008
[4] Pouzdanost tehničkog sustava brodskog kompresora – Zoran Ćosić –
magistarski rad - 2007
[5] Eksploatacija i razvitak telekomunikacijskog sustava, Mr.sc Juraj Buzolić
, Split 2006
[6] Zasnivanje otvorene ontologije odabranih segmenata biometrijske
znanosti - Markus Schatten– Magistarski rad – FOI 2007
Figure 3 [7] Early reliability assessment of UML based software models – Vittorio
Cortellessa, Harshinder Singh, Bojan Cukic – WOSP’02 , July 24-26,
2002 Rome Italy
Class Biometric system is a set of components of that system [8] Modelling biometric systems in UML – Miroslav Bača, Markus
and is in relation to class Failure which contains data on the Schatten, Bernardo Golenja, JIOS 2007 FOI Varaždin
Component in failure, time of occurrence of failure and failure [9] Reliability, Availability and Maintainability in Biometric Applications–
intensity. © 2003-2007 Optimum Biometric Labs A WHITE PAPER Version r1.0,
Class Recovery is in relation to class Biometrical system Date of release: January 2, 2008, SWEDEN
because it contains information about the component, the time
AUTHORS PROFILE
of recovery of component and calculated recovery intensity of
component. Class Recovery is in relation to the class Zoran Ćosić, CEO at Statheros ltd, and business consultant in business process
standardization field. He received BEng degree at Faculty of nautical
Availability, which is a function of data on failure intensity and science , Split (HR) in 1990, MSc degree at Faculty of nautical science ,
the recovery intensity, with the class Mean time which contains Split (HR) in 2007 , actually he is a PhD candidate at Faculty of
data of recovery start time, duration and results of recovery, informational and Organisational science Varaždin Croatia. He is
a member of various professional societies and program
with the class Recovery intensity. Furthermore it is possible, at committee members. He is author or co-
the level of class diagrams to present and other factors of author more than 20 scientific and professional papers. His main
reliability and facilitate access to their prediction based on fields of interest are: Informational security, biometrics and privacy,
historical data (logs) of the system functioning. business process reingeenering,
Jasmin Ćosić has received his BE (Economics) degree from University of
V. CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH Bihać, B&H in 1997. He completed his study in Information Technology
field (dipl.ing.Information Technlogy) in Mostar, University of Džemal
Information about the system failure must be considered in the Bijedić, B&H. Currently he is PhD candidate in Faculty of Organization
context of the whole biometric system and its performance in and Informatics in Varaždin, University of Zagreb, Croatia. He is
working in Ministry of the Interior of Una-sana canton, B&H. He is a
time. ICT Expert Witness, and is a member of Association of Informatics of
In accordance with the above information on the exploitation B&H, Member of IEEE and ACM. His areas of interests are Digital
of biometric systems must be part of a comprehensive analysis Forensic, Computer Crime, Information Security and DBM Systems. He
of the functioning and also information on recovery of the has presented and published over 20 conference proceedings and journal
articles in his research area
system and its functionality at any given time. The time to put
Miroslav Bača is currently an Associate professor, University of Zagreb,
the system into operation condition is often placed in clearly Faculty of Organization and Informatics. He is
defined time frames that are stipulated in contracts or SLA a member of various professional societies and program
addenda to the contract. The parameters monitoring processes committee members, and he is reviewer of several international
journals and conferences. He is also the head of the Biometrics centre in
associated with the reliability of the system are often Varaždin, Croatia. He is author or co-
complicated and laborious so UML approach to description of author more than 70 scientific and professional papers and two books.
problem simplifies the same. UML also imposes as general or His main research fields are computer forensics, biometrics and privacy
universal standard for descriptions of appearance. professor at Faculty of informational and Organisational science
Varaždin Croatia
Further work of the authors will be directed toward
specialization of model taking into consideration the other
models of reliability dependence and different system failure
probability distributions.

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Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Contour Based Algorithm for Object Tracking

A. M. Sallam, O. M. Elmouafy, R. A. Elbardany, A. M. Fahmy

Egyptian Armed Forces
Egypt
[email protected]

Abstract— Video tracking system raises a wide possibility in Object tracking is a very specific field of study within the
today’s society. These systems are be used in various applications general scope of image processing and analysis. Human can
such as military, security, monitoring, robotic, and nowadays in recognize and track any object perfectly, instantaneously, and
day-to-day applications. However the video tracking systems still effortlessly even the presence of high clutter, occlusion, and
have many open problems and various research activities in a non-linear variations in background, target shape, orientation
video tracking system are explores. This paper presents an and size. However, it can be an overwhelming task for a
algorithm for video tracking of any moving target with the use of machine! There are partial solutions, but the work is still
edge detection technique within a window filter. The proposed progressing toward a complete solution for this complex
system is suitable for indoor and out door applications. Our
problem [8].
approach has the advantage of extending the applicability of
tracking system and also, as presented here it improves the The remains of this paper, we will explain our literature
performance of the tracker making feasible to be more accurate review in Section 2. Then, in Section 3, we describe the
in detection and tracking objects. The goal of the tracking system Desirable system features and algorithms necessary for
is to analyze the video frames and estimate the position of a part successful system. In section 4 we describe the system
of the input video frame (usually a moving object), our approach architecture (implementation environment of the system), and
can detect and track any moving object and calculate its position. the proposed algorithm that will be used in our method. In
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to construct a motion tracking
Section 5, the experimental results and comparison between the
system for moving object. Where, at the end of this paper, the
proposed algorithm with feature extraction based algorithm [9]
detail outcome and results are discussed using experimental
results of the proposed technique.
and the temporal filtration algorithm. Finally, in Section 6 we
will discuss and Analysis of the obtained results from section 5.
Keywords- Contour-based video tracking , Tracking system,
image tracking, edge detection techniques, Video Tracking, window II. TRACKING SYSTEM A LITERATURE REVIEW
filter tracking.
In the recent times the vast number of algorithms has been
proposed in the field of object tracking. An even greater
I. INTRODUCTION number of solutions have been constructed from these
The problem of object tracking can be considered an algorithms, many solving parts of the puzzle that makes
interesting branch in the scientific community and it is still an computer vision so complex.
open and active field of research [1], [2]. This is a very useful
skill that can be used in many fields including visual serving,
surveillance, gesture based human machine interfaces, video One technique proposed to use the small chromatic-space
editing, compression, augmented reality, visual effects, motion of human skin along with facial such as eyes, mouth and shape
capture, medical and meteorological imaging, etc… [3], [4]. to locate faces in complex color images. Yang and Ahuja [10]
investigated such an object localization techniques, where
In the most approaches, an initial representation of the to- experimental results concluded, “human faces in color image
be-tracked object or its background is given to the tracker that can be detected regardless of size, orientation or viewpoint.” In
can measure and predict the motion of the moving object the above paper it was illustrated that the major difference in
representation overtime. skin color across different appearances was due to intensity
The most of the existing algorithms depends upon the rather than color itself. McKinnon [11] also used in similar skin
thresholing technique or feature that extracted from the object filtration based theory to implement a multiple object tracking
to be tracked or combined it with the thresholding to try to system. McKinnon stated that his solution was often limited by
separate the object from the background [5], [6], [7]. In this the quality of the skin sample supplied initially. Further to this,
paper our proposed algorithm try to solve the tracking problem in real-time environment the lack of or excessive level of light
using contour-based video object tracking (i.e. we extracting could cause the performance to suffer. The drawback of skin
the contour of the target and detect it among the whole color systems is that they can only track objects containing
sequence of frames using a mean of edge detection technique areas of skin-color-like areas in the background may be
to resolve the problem of getting the contour of the target that confused with real regions of interest. As such they are not
been tracked with good result that will be seen later). suitable for use in all applications and hence are often limited
in their use [12]. The most two popular methods for image
segmentation used in the object tracking field are temporal

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segmentation and background subtraction. Vass, Palaniappan 1- Ability for operate with complex scenes.
and Zhuang presented a paper [13] that outlined a method of
image segmentation based on a combination of temporal and 2- Adaptability to time-varying target and (slowly varying)
spatial segmentation. By using interframe differences [14] a background parameters.
binary image was obtained showing pixels that had undergone 3- Minimum probability of loss of target (LOT), according
change between frames. Temporal segmentation on its own to criterion:
fails for moving homogeneous regions, as such spatial
min{E[B  b ]}
segmentation was incorporated. Using a split and merge 2
techniques an image are split into homogenous regions. (2)
Finally, by merging spatial and temporal information,
segmentation of motion areas was achieved at a rate of Where: B is the actual target location,.
approximately five frames per second; however a small amount
of background was evident in the resulting segmented regions. b is the estimated target location get from the
Andrews [15] utilized background subtraction to create a tracking system.
system based on distance measures between object shapes for
real-time object tracking. By acquiring an initial image of the B. Algorithms Necessary for Successful System
operational environment free of moving objects, he was able to The minimum Algorithms necessary for a successful
cleanly segment areas of change in future (object filled) system may be Sub-divided into four parts:
frames. From this segmentation a model was created based on
edge sets. One of the most drawbacks of image difference 1- A target/background (T/B) separation or segmentation
technique in the detection of moving objects is that it can only algorithm, which can segments the frame by classifying
capture moving regions with large image frame difference. pixels (or groups of pixels) as members of either the
However, a region can have a small ImDiff even if it is the target or background sets.
projection of a moving object due to the aperture problem [16]. 2- A tracking filter, to minimize the effects of noisy data
ImDiff = ImN - ImN-1, (1) which produce an inexact T/B separation that will effect
on the estimated target location.
Where: ImN is the current frame, ImN-1 is the previous
frame, and ImDiff is the difference frame between the current 3- The used algorithm, which processes information from
frame and the previous Frame. the just-segmented frame as well as memory
information to generate raw estimates of the target
K. Chang and S. Lai [17] proposed an object contour centroid (target center).
tracking algorithm based on particle filter framework. It is only
need an initial contour at the first frame and then the object 4- An overall system control algorithm, to make the major
models and the prediction matrix are constructed online from system automatic decisions, and supervise algorithm
the previous contour tracking results automatically. This interaction.
proposed algorithm builds two online models for the tracked
object, the first gets the shape model and the other gets the IV. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND THE PROPOSED ALGORITHM
grayscale histogram model. The grayscale histogram simply
records the grayscale information inside the object contour A. System Description
region. Each of these two models is represented by a mean 1) Platform Description:
vector and several principle components, which are adaptively 1- Pc computer with capabilities:
computed with the incremental singular value decomposition (i) CPU: Intel Core2Due 1.7 GHz.
technique. E. Trucco, K. Plakas [18] introduce a concise
(ii) 2 Giga byte Ram.
introduction to video tracking in computer vision, including
design requirements and a review of techniques from simple 2- Web cam with resolution 640 x 480 pixels, and frame
window tracking to tracking complex, deformable object by rate 25 frame/sec.
learning models of shape and dynamics. Sallam et al [9] 3- Matlab 2007 that used in the implementing phase of
proposed feature extraction based video object tracking depend the proposed algorithm.
on computing the features (mean, variance, length ...) of the 4- Matlab 2007 that used in the testing phase of the
object in 8 directions and compare it within a window around proposed algorithm.
the object, but this system has a littlie drawback that the 2) Input Video Description:
measured position has an error between ±12 pixels from the We used for experimental results of the proposed
exact trajectory of the object. video tracking Algorithm a Real Sequence capture by
the web cam. For simplicity to trying our proposed
III. DESIRABLE SYSTEM FEATURES AND ALGORITHMS algorithm we get the Real sequence of a prototype
NECESSARY FOR SUCCESSFUL SYSTEM “airplane” with simple background. After this sequence
we use many sequence of moving target with more
A. Desirable System Features texture and real background such as the “car” and
“new_car” sequences that we use in our experiments.
The system should be designed with the following general
performance measures in minds:

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B. The Proposed Video Tracking Algorithm 10- If the number of frames that lost the target exceeds
Edge detection is one of the most commonly used more than 5 frames the algorithm use a predictor to try
operations in image analysis. The reason for this is that edges to predict the location of the target and return to the
form the outline of an object. Objects are subjects of interest in algorithm again as in figure 1.
image analysis and vision systems. An edge is the boundary
between an object and the background. This means that if the
edges in an image can be identified accurately, any object can
be located. Since computer vision involves the identification
and classification of objects in an image, edge detection is an
essential tool [19].
The proposed Video Tracking Algorithm that we applied
depends on extracting the contour of the target. The algorithm
description can subdivided into the following steps:
1- First, the algorithm starting by computing the total
gradient using “Sobel” operator to computing the edge
detection for each new frame.
2- Second, the algorithm starting the “Search Mode
Module” for the “Sobeled” frames using the frame
difference technique (between the Sobeled current frame
and the Sobeled past frame) with certain thresholding to
reduce the noise that produced from the “difference
frame”.
3- After that we apply the average filter on the produced
“difference Sobeled frame” to remove any residual noise
in that frame, trying to eliminate the false alarm error.
4- If the algorithm doesn’t sense any target (targets), the
algorithm goes into that loop until sensing any moving
targets.
5- After sensing target, the second step the algorithm starts
to separate the target from the background and tracking
it by the following steps
Figure 1. Proposed Contour based Target Tracking Algorithm
6- For the tracked target we compute the center and the
vertices that contains the target in between, we create a
search window that contains the target and bigger than V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND COMPARISON FOR THE
the target with twenty pixels in each of the four PROPOSED ALGORITHM, THE FEATURE EXTRACTION
directions (top, bottom, right, and left). ALGORITHM AND THE TEMPORAL FILTRATION ALGORITHM
7- We compute the total gradient of the current frame by We used many real video sequences for testing the
the “Sobel” operator for each target within the search proposed video tracking algorithm we discuss 3 video
window of each target, applying the thresholding and sequences and compared the proposed algorithm with two
the average filter within the search window of each others algorithms (feature extraction algorithm proposed by
target only (to reduce the computation time and the Sallam [9], and Temporal Filtration Algorithm). We use a
complexity of the process to make the algorithm fast as recorded video sequences to compare the measured target
possible). position with an exact target position to plot an error curves
8- After computing the “Sobeld edge search window” for and compute the MSE (Mean Square error) for the three video
the target, a search module used to search in that sequences by the algorithms to make the comparison between
window to get the current position of the target and algorithms
compute the current vertices of the target that containing We can measure the desired (we can’t name it exact
it and compute the center of it to get the whole trajectory because there is nothing in the earth can be named exact or
of the target in the whole sequence. ideal but can be named desired or optimal for that time) target
9- The algorithm getting the target data, if the target never position using mouse pointer with each frame in the sequence
lost, the algorithm still getting the data of that target, but and click in the center of the target to get the x-position and the
if the target lost during the tracking module more than 5 y-position of the target center. For each frame in the video
frames, the algorithm return to the search mode module sequence we measure the target position 5 times and get the
again. mean of the target position at this frame to be more accurate.

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We compute the error in the x-position & y-position: video sequence, the second raw is the error between the desired
and the measured trajectory by the feature extraction algorithm,
 x (Error in x-position) = Desired Target Position in (x) and the last raw is the error between the desired and the
measured trajectory by the temporal filtration.
– Measured Target Position in (x). (3)

 y (Error in y-position) = Desired Target Position in (y)

– Measured Target Position in (y). (4)

We can compute the Average Mean Square Error for the whole
sequence by equation 5.

MSE
AMSE  (5)
N
Where: AMSE is the Average Mean Square Error,
MSE is the Mean Square Error,
N is the number of the frames in the sequence.
N
MSE   Dn xc , yc   M n ( xc , yc ) 2 (6)
n 1
Where: Dn(xc, yc) the desired trajectory at the center of
the target for the frame n,
Mn(xc, yc) the measured trajectory st the center
of the target for the frame n.
Figure 2. The detection results of the “airplane1” video sequence
N the number of the frames at the whole video
sequence.
Figure 2 illustrates a sample of the detection results from
the “airplane1” video sequence, the first raw is the frame 9 and
frame 81 by the proposed algorithm, the second raw is the
same frames but by the feature extraction algorithm, and the
last raw is the same frames but by the temporal filtration.
Figure 3 illustrates a sample of the detection results from
the “car” video sequence, the first raw is the frame 20 and
frame 102 by the proposed algorithm, the second raw is the
same frames but by the feature extraction algorithm, and the
last raw is the same frames but by the temporal filtration.
Figure 4 illustrates a sample of the detection results from
the “new_car” video sequence, the first raw is the frame 4 and
frame 117 by the proposed algorithm, the second raw is the
same frames but by the feature extraction algorithm, and the
last raw is the same frames but by the temporal filtration.
Figure 5 illustrates in the first raw the error in the X-
Position, and the Y-Position between the desired and the
measured trajectory by the proposed algorithm for the
“airplane1” video sequence, the second raw is the error
between the desired and the measured trajectory by the feature
extraction algorithm, and the last raw is the error between the
desired and the measured trajectory by the temporal filtration.
Figure 6 illustrates in the first raw the error in the X-
Position, and the Y-Position between the desired and the Figure 3. The detection results of the “car” video sequence
measured trajectory by the proposed algorithm for the “car”

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Figure 4. The detection results of the “new_car” video sequence

Figure 6. The error in the X&Y-Position Trajectories

Figure 7. The error in the X&Y-Position Trajectories

Figure 5. The error in the X&Y-Position Trajectories

Figure 7 illustrates in the first raw the error in the X- VI. ANALYSIS OF THE OBTAINED RESULTS
Position, and the Y-Position between the desired and the From the experimental results and figure 2 through figure 7 and
measured trajectory by the proposed algorithm for the from table1 we found that:
“new_car” video sequence, the second raw is the error between
the desired and the measured trajectory by the feature 1- Temporal filtration algorithm is difficult to handle
extraction algorithm, and the last raw is the error between the shadow and occlusion.
desired and the measured trajectory by the temporal filtration.

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Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011
2- Temporal filtration is fails to track the position of the [3] T. Ellis, “Performance metrics and methods for tracking in
surveillance”, 3rd IEEE Workshop on PETS, Copenhagen, Denmark
object correctly at sudden changes in background or (2002), pp. 26-31.
brightness. [4] P. Pérez, C. Hue, J. Vermaak, M. Gangnet, “Color-based probabilistic
3- Temporal filtration is fails to track the position of the tracking”, Conference on Computer Vision, LNCS, vol. 2350 (2002), pp.
object that suddenly stopped. 661-675.
4- Feature extraction algorithm success to track an object but [5] T. Schoenemann, D. Cremers, “Near Real-Time Motion Segmentation
not precisely as the proposed algorithm because the Using Graph Cuts”, Springer, DAGM 2006, LNCS 4174, 2006, pp. 455-
464.
proposed algorithm can detect the edges of the object and
[6] Hu, W., Tan T., Wang L., Maybank S., "A Survey on Visual
track it. Surveillance of Object Motion and Behaviours" IEEE Transactions on
5- Our proposed algorithm can detect and track any object Systems, Man, and Cybernatics, Vol. 34, no. 3, August 2004.R. Polana
within frame and does not require producing a and R. Nelson, “Low level recognition of human motion.” Proceedings
background frame, and does not require to known any IEEE Workshop Motion of Non-Rigid and Articulated Objects, Austin,
TX, 1994, pp. 77–82.
feature about the object. But it will detect the edges for
[7] N. Paragios and R. Deriche, “Geodesic active contours and level sets for
the object. the detection and tracking of moving objects,” IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal.
6- This algorithm is a contour object tracking based on edge Machine Intell., vol. 22, pp. 266–280, Mar. 2000.Burkay B. ÖRTEN,
detection technique. “Moving Object Identification and Event Recognition in Video
Surveillance Systems”, Master of Science, The Graduate School of
7- Table 1 showed that our proposed algorithm have Natural and Applied Sciences of Middle East Technical University, July
minimum MSE that indicates high detection rate. 2005.
[8] Javed Ahmed, M. N. Jafri, J. Ahmed, M. I. Khan, “Design and
Implementation of a Neural Network for Real-Time Object Tracking”,
The obtained results in this paper showed the robustness of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, June 2005.
using contour object tracking with feature extraction and [9] Sallam et all, “Real Time Algorithm for Video Tracking”, AL-Azhar
temporal filtration algorithms. Engineering Eleventh International Conference AEIC-2010 , Cairo,
Egypt, December 21-23, pp. 228-235, 2010.
[10] M. Yang and N. Ahuja, “Detecting Human Faces in Color Images”,
TABLE I. THE AVERGE MEAN SQUARE ERROR
Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, IEEE
Video Sequence Computer Soc. Press, Los Alamos, Calif., pp. 127-139, 1998.
Algorithm [11] David N. McKinnon, “Multiple Object Tracking in Real-Time”,
“airplane” “car” “car_new”
Undergraduate Thesis, Univ. Queensland, St Lucia, Dept. Computer
Science and Electrical Engineering, 1999.
MSE 16.2961 20.8275 24.5187 [12] Daniel R. Corbett, “Multiple Object Tracking in Real-Time”,
Algorithm
Proposed

Undergraduate Thesis, Univ. Queensland, St Lucia, Dept. Computer

Science and Electrical Engineering, 2000.
[13] J. Vass, K. Palaniappan, X. Zhuang, “Automatic Spatio-Temporal Video
AMSE 0.1426 0.1893 0.1635 Sequence Segmentation”, Proc. IEEE International Conference on Image
Processing V3, IEEE Computer Soc. Press, Los Alamos, Calif., pp.958-
962, 1998.
Feature Extraction

MSE 28.2895 30.1802 30.2111 [14] Sallam et all, “Object Based Video Coding Algorithm”, Proceedings of
Algorithm

the 7th International Conference on Electrical Engineering, ICEENG

2010, May 2010.
[15] Robert Andrews, “Multiple Object Tracking in Real-Time”,
AMSE 0.2482 0.2744 0.2014 Undergraduate Thesis, Univ. Queensland, St Lucia, Dept. Computer
Science and Electrical Engineering, 1999.
[16] Berthold. K. P. Horn, “Robot Vision”, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1986.
MSE 45.6505 41.6678 41.0847
Algorithm

[17] K. Chang, S. Lai, “Adaptive Object Tracking with Online Statistical

Temporal
Filtration

Model Update”, Springer, ACCV 2006, LNCS 3852, 2006, pp. 363-372.
[18] E. Trucco, K. Plakas, “Video Tracking: A Concise Survey”, IEEE
AMSE 0.4004 0.3788 0.2739 Journal of Oceanic Engineering, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2006.
[19] J. R. Parker, “Algorithms for Image Processing and Computer Vision”,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2011.
a. Low Mean Square Error lead to high detection

REFERENCES

[1] V. Manohar, P. Soundararajan, H. Raju, D. Goldgof, R. Kasturi, J.

Garofolo, “Performance Evaluation of Object Detection and Tracking in
Video,” LNCS, vol. 3852, 2(2006), pp.151-161.
[2] Y. T. Hsiao, C. L. Chuang, Y. L. Lu, J. A. Jiang, “Robust multiple
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Human Iris Recognition In Unconstrained

Environments
Mohammad Ali Azimi Kashani Mohammad Reza Ramezanpoor Fini
Department of Computer Science & Research Branch Department of Computer Science & Research Branch
Islamic Azad University Branch Shoushtar Islamic Azad University Branch Shoushtar
Shoushtar, Iran Shoushtar, Iran
[email protected] [email protected]

Mahdi Mollaei Arani

Department of Computer Science & Research Branch
Payame Noor University
Ardestan, Iran
[email protected]

Abstract—Designation of iris is one of biometric recognition

methods .That use modal recognition technique and is base on II. AVAILABLE IRIS RECOGNITION SYSTEM
pictures whit high equality of eye iris .Iris modals in comparison Daugman technique [3, 9] is one of oldest iris recognition
whit other properties in biometrics system are more resistance system. These systems include all of iris recognition process:
and credit .In this paper we use from fractals technique for iris Taking picture, assembling, coding tissue and adaption.
recognition. Fractals are important in these aspects that can
express complicated pictures with applying several simple codes.
Until, That cause to iris tissue change from depart coordination A. Daugman techniques
to polar coordination and adjust for light rates. While Daugman algorithm [3,9] is the famous iris algorithm. In
performing other pre-process, fault rates will be less than EER, this algorithm, iris medaling by two circles than aren’t
and lead to decreasing recognition time, account table cost and necessary certified. every circle defined whit there parameters
grouping precise improvement. ( xo , y o , r ) that ( x o , y o ) are center of circle with r radios .
Use - a differential – integral performer for estimating 3
Keywords-Biometrics; Identitydistinction;Identity erification; parameter in every circle bound. All pictures search rather to
Iris modals. increasing r radius to maximize following Equation (1):

I. INTRODUCTION I ( x, y )
G (r ) * ds
Biometric use for identity distinction of input sample r x0 , y0 , r 2 r
compare to one modal and in some case use for recognition In this formulate ( x , y ) is picture light intensify , ds is
special people by determined properties .Using password or curve circle , 2 r use for normalization in tetras G( r ) is Gus
identity card. Can create some problems like losing forgetting filter as used for flotation , and * is convolution performed
thief. So using from biometric property for reason of special (agent).
property will be effective. Biometric parameters dived to group
base on figure one [1]: Physiologic: this parameter is related to
fig.1 of body human. Behavioral: this parameter is related to III. SUGGESTIVE ALGORITHM
behavior of one person. In this algorithm, we use from new method for identity
distinction base on fractal techniques, specially used fractal
codes as coding iris tissue modal. For testing suggestive
method, we used from available pictures in picture base of bath
university. General steps of iris distinction would be as follow.
Clearly indicate advantages, limitations and possible
applications.

Figure 1. grouping some biometrics property

Figure 2. Sample of available pictures in iris database of Bath University

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A. Iris assembling Then separated iris tissue control for light intensifies.
The main goal of this part is recognition of iris area in eye Means picture contrast increased to iris tissue recognize very
pictures. For this reason, we should recognize internal and good. In Fig.6 you can see sample of norm led iris tissue.
external bound in iris by two circles. One method for
assembling is using from fractal dimension. In Fig.3 we present
dimension of Hough circle and in Fig. 4 show the Iris
normalization, is more than 1 threshold. For accounting of
fractal diminution, the picture dived to Blocks with 40 pixel
width. As showed in picture, pupil and eye- lid areas
recognized very good. Figure 6. Diagram of normal iris picture.

C. Iris tissue coding

In this step, we should coding iris tissue pixels set, and use
it for comparing between 2 iris pictures. In suggestive methods.
We use from fractal code. So fractal code of normal iris
account. And this code as one modal saves in data base. To
used for recognition and comparing iris pictures. In next step,
we should encoding input picture with this fractal codes. So I
need to change all pictures to standard size. For accounting
fractal code first normal iris picture change to one rectangle
64*180 pixels. So fractal codes for different iris have same
length.fig.7.
Figure 3. output hough circle

Figure 7. Normal iris picture in diminution 64*180 pixels

D. Change range to wide blocks

Main step in accounting fractal picture coding is changing
range to wide blocks. For every wide block copy of range
Figure 4. Iris normalization block compare to that block. W changing is combination of
geometrics and light changing. In case of I grey picture, if z
B. Iris normalization express pixel light intensify in (x, y), we can show w as matrix
as follow:
In this step, should decant coordination change to polar
coordination. For this reason , 128 perfect circle next to pupil
center and with starting from pupil radius toward out , separate x a b 0 x e
from iris , pour pixels on these circles in one rectangle , in this W y c d 0 y f
way iris that was the form of circle trope , change to rectangle, z 0 0 s z o
it means iris from Decoct coordination change to polar
coordination. In fig.5 you can watch iris polar coordination. f, a, b, c, d, e coefficient, control main aspect of changing
Since changing in light level, pupil environment of iris geometrical. While s, o recognized contrast and both of them
changed. We should control input light. However, it may recognize light parameters (fig.8). Changing geometrics
person interval different from camera, but size of iris doesn’t parameters limit to hardness adaption. [11]
same in different pictures. So with choosing this 128 prefect
circles iris normalization done in respect to size.

Figure 5. Diagram of polar coordination of iris tissue

Figure 8. Picture of rang and wide blocks

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Comparing range wide in a 3 steps process. One of base
eight directions applied on selected range block. Then, oriented
D ( x‚y) max
0 i N
xi yi

range block, become minimum till be equal to wide block Rk.

If we want general changed be contradictor, wide should be
range block [11]. However, present ting picture as set of F. Suggestive method simulation
changed blocks, don't present precise copy, but it´s good Suggestive method for identity recognition performed on
approximate. Minimizing fault between Rk and w (Dj) can subset iris picture data base in Bath University. Available
minimize fault between estimated and main picture. If ri and d subset include 1000 picture from 25 different persons. 20
and I=1‚…‚n be pixel amounts relate to blocks having same pictures from left eye and 20 picture form right eye were
size Rk and shrink , fault and ERR is as following[11] : showed. Since iris left and right eye is different in every
person. Among every 50 eyes, from 20 pictures, 6 pictures are
n considered for teaching and testing (fig.9.10.11).
Err ( s .d i o ri ) 2
i 1

n
Err n.o 2 (s 2.d i2 2.s.d i.o 2.s.d i.ri 2.o.ri ri2)
i 1

n
err
( 2.s.di2 2.di. .o 2.di .ri ) 0
s i 1
n n
Err 2.n.o ( 2.n.o ( 2.s.di 2.ri ) 0
i 1 i 1

It happens when [10]:

n n n
n d .r d r
i 1 i i i 1 i i 1 i
s
n n
n di 2 ( d )2
i 1 i 1 i

1 n n
o ri s d
n i i 1 i

One of advantage of suggestive method for iris recognition

Figure 9. curve ROC relate to suggestive identity verification system.
is that when registering person, we save input fractal code of
person iris picture as modal in data base, and so with regard to
compressing property of fractal codes, we have less weight data
base.

E. Grouping and adapting

In this respect we should compare input picture with
available modals in data base system, and achieve similarity
between them. For this reason, iris norm led picture encoding
with available fractal codes in data base. For recognition
similarity between input and encoding picture, used form
interval between them. Nominal similarity size is 0 and 1 [10].
Interval form mincosci defined base on soft LP:

N 1
d p (x‚y) p (xi yi ) p
i 0

Figure 10. curve ROC RELATES to suggestive identity verification system

When p , achieved L : with regard to adoptions numbers. (n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

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and sub fractal techniques. Also for more precise identity
distinction and adaptation use more various grouping
techniques like k (nearest neighborhood).

REFERENCES
[1] A. K. Jain, R. Bole, S. Penchant, “Biometrics: Personal Identification in
Network Society.” Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.
[2] A. K. Jain, A. Ross and S. Pankanti, "Biometrics: A Tool for
Information Security" IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and
Security 1st (2), 2006.
[3] International Biometric Group, Independent Testing of Iris Recognition
Technology, May 2005.
[4] J. Daugman, “How iris recognition works”, IEEE Trans. Circuits
Systems Video Technol. v14i1. 21-30, 2004.
[5] J. Daugman, “High confidence visual recognition of persons by a test of
statistical independence”, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence, vol. 15, pp.1148-1161, 1993.
Figure 11. curve ROC relate to suggestive identity verification system with [6] J. Daugman, “The importance of being random: Statistical principles of
regard to adoptions numbers. iris recognition” Pattern Recognition 36, 279–291, 2003.
[7] J.Daugman, “New Methods in Iris Recognition”.IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND YBERNETICS, 2007.
TABLE I. COMPARING IDENTITY DISTINCTION PRECISE OF SUGGESTIVE
[8] J. Daugman, “Demodulation by complex-valued wavelets for stochastic
SYSTEM WITH DAUGMAN METHOD BASE ON REGISTER TEACHING PICTURE
NUMBER . (N=1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
pattern recognition” International Journal of Wavelets, Multiresolution
and Information Processing, 1(1):1–17, 2003.
Identity Daugman Identity suggestive Picture [9] J. Daugman, “New Methods in Iris Recognition”. IEEE
method method number(n) TRANSACTIONS ON SYSTEMS, MAN, AND CYBERNETICS,
%96 %88 1 picture 2007.
%96 %86 2 picture [10] H. Ebrahimpour-Komleh, Fractal Techniques for Face Recognition, PhD
%96 %94 3 picture thesis, Queensland University of technology, 2004.
%96 %94 4 picture [11] H. Ebrahimpour-Komleh, V. Chandra., and S. Sridharan, "Face
recognition using fractal codes" Proceedings of International Conference
%96 %96 5 picture on Image Processing(ICIP), vol. 3, pp. 58-61, 2009.
%96 %96.13 6 picture [12] H. Ebrahimpour-Komleh, V. Chandra, and S. Sridhar an, "Robustness to
expression variations in fractal-based face recognition" Sixth
International, Symposium on Signal Processing and its Applications,
vol. 1, pp. 359-362, 2001.
IV. CONCLUSION
[13] H. Ebrahimpour-Komleh, V. Chandra, and S. Sridhar an “An
In this paper, we have proposed a new method base on Application of Fractal Image-set Coding in Facial Recognition,”
fractal techniques for identity verification and recognition with Springer Verlag Lecture Notes in computer science, Volt 3072,
help of eye iris modals. For a lot of reasons that iris modals Biometric authentication, pp178-186, Springer-Velar, 2004.
have ran the than other biometrics properties it’s more
fantastic. In assembling part. It says that with using of light in Mohammad A. Azimi Kashani (Jun ’83)
tensely process techniques and modeling performance and received the B.S and M.S degrees in computer
Anny margin or can recognize iris internal bound. In engineering from Islamic Azad university of
normalization part centrifuged rules toward pupil center and Kashan and Dezfoul, Iran in 2006 and 2009
starting radius toward out, can determine noise originate from respectively. He works in the area of PCA and
eye-lash and eye-lid. Since in coding and encoding iris picture his primary interest are in the theory of
detection and estimation, including face
and we use fractal codes iris fractal codes save as modals in
detection, eye detection, face and eye tracking.
data base. This method has same advantages like less weight of He accepted numerous papers on different
database .more security and relative good precise. when conferences for IEEE.
entering one person, iris picture encoding on fractal codes for
one step, to Euclid interval and interval minimum e method can
use .In suggestive system normalization part, iris tissue change Mohammad R. Ramezanpour fini (sep’85)
form depart coordination to polar coordination and adjust light received the B.S degree in computer
in tensely, while performing other preprocess, fault rate ERR engineering from Islamic Azad university of
will be less than this amount .If used data base in iris Kashan , Iran, in 2007 and the M.S degree
distinction system be big, search time will be a lot. So, in from the Islamic Azad university of Arak,
grouping and adapting iris modals for reason of decreasing Iran, in 2010. His research interests are
distinction time, decreasing accounting cost and improving primarily in the fields of communication,
grouping precise, can use form diminution fractal. Also, it is image processing and signal processing.
suggest using fractal codes as iris tissue property and using Presently, he is working in image processing,
coding techniques fractal picture set for confine fractal codes cam-shift, particle filter and Kalman filter for estimate and tracking.

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A Combined Method for Finger Vein Authentication

System
Azadeh Noori Hoshyar Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ir.Riza Sulaiman
Department of Computer Science Department of Industrial Computing
University Kebangsaan Malaysia University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi, Malaysia Bangi, Malaysia
[email protected] [email protected]

Afsaneh Noori Hoshyar

Department of Industrial Computing
University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi, Malaysia
[email protected]

Abstract— Finger vein as a new biometric is developing in

security purposes. Since the vein patterns are unique between
each individual and located inside the body, forgery is extremely Vein patterns are located inside the body. Therefore, it
difficult. Therefore, the finger vein authentication systems have provides a high level of accuracy due to the uniqueness and
received extensive attention in public security and information complexity of vein patterns of the finger. It is difficult to forge.
security domains. According to the importance of these systems, Epidermis status cannot effect on recognition system [2].
the different techniques have been proposed to each stages of the Finger vein systems provide user-friendly environment.
system. The stages include image acquisition, preprocessing, Therefore, finger vein is a good candidate for authentication
segmentation and feature extraction, matching and recognition. and security purposes.
While the segmentation techniques often appear feasible in
theory, deciding about the accuracy in a system seems important. According to the importance of finger vein authentication
Therefore, this paper release the conceptual explanation of finger system, this paper proposes a system as shown in figure1.
vein authentication system by combining two different techniques
in segmentation stage to evaluate the quality of the system. Also,
it applies Neural Network for authentication stage. The result of
this evaluation is 95% in training and 93% in testing.

Keywords- Finger Vein authentication; Vein recognition;

Verification; Feature extraction; segmentation

I. INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of systems require the reliable personal Figure 1. The scheme of finger vein authentication system
authentication schemes to confirm or identify an individual In the proposed system, different filters are applies for pre-
requesting their services. The purpose of these schemes is processing stage. Since there are different techniques on
ensuring that only a legal user and no one else can access to segmentation stage of authentication systems such as matched
provider services. Among different authentication traits such as filter [3], morphological methods [4], repeated line tracking
fingerprints, hand geometry, vein, facial, voice, iris and method [5] and maximum curvature points in image profiles
signature, finger vein authentication is a new biometric [6], the lack of experiment on combining two different
identification technology using the fact that different person techniques of “gradient-based threshold” and “maximum
has a different finger vein patterns. The idea using vein patterns curvature points in image profile” was found to improve the
as a form of biometric technology was first proposed in 1992, quality of verification system, while the previous studies
while researches only paid attentions to vein authentication in considered just a single technique for segmentation purpose. In
last ten years. Vein patterns are sufficiently different across next step, Neural Network is applied to evaluate the quality of
individuals, and they are stable unaffected by ageing and no training and testing, finally Neural Network is trained and
significant changed in adults by observing. It is believed that tested for pattern recognition purpose.
the patterns of blood vein are unique to every individual, even
among twins [1].

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Experimental results of this work show that the system is
valid for user authentication purpose even in high security Input image
environments, as it was the initial intention given the nature of
human finger vein.

II. FINGER VEIN AUTHENTICATION SYSTEM cropping

The steps of finger vein authentication system are explained in

the following.
Reducing noise
A. Image Acquisition
The first step in finger vein authentication system is
capturing the image of finger veins. The quality of captured
image helps to identify the veins of fingers as well. Image Increasing contrast
Acquisition can be done in two ways; i) using infrared-
sensitive digital camera with wavelength between 700nm to Figure 3. Image enhancement process
1000nm and banks of LEDs ; ii) using digital camera with
CCD sensor and IR filter which is located on the camera with C. Segmentation and Feauture extractions
wavelength 700nm to 1000nm and banks of LEDs . In this stage, the enhanced finger vein image is segmented
Therefore, as shown in figure 2, the Near-infrared rays and the features are extracted. Since there are different methods
generated from a bank of LEDs (light emitting diodes) for segmentation, this paper propose the combination of two
penetrate the finger and are absorbed by the hemoglobin in the segmentation methods as "Gradient-based thresholding using
blood. The areas in which the rays are absorbed (veins) thus morphological operation" and "Maximum Curvature Points in
appear as dark areas in an image taken by a CCD camera Image Profiles" to segment and extract the features. The
(charge-coupled device) located on the opposite side of the features of first segmentation method are merged with features
finger. The CCD camera image will be transferred to PC for of second segmentation method to obtaine an accurate record
next step of authentication [7]. for each finger vein images.
1) Gradient-based thresholding using morphological
operation: In this segmentation method, the gradient of
image by alpha filter is created. Then, thresholding is
performed on gradient of image. The high gradient values
which are more than threshold value in the image fall as
edge (vein). After the vein determination in an image, the
morphological operations are employed to make an image
smoother. The proposed morphological operations are
„majority‟ to remove extra pixels, „openning‟ to smooths
Figure 2. Image Acquisition system[8] the contour of image and breaks narrow passages, „bridge‟
to connects the neighbor pixels which are disconnected.
As stated above, the better quality can make recognition The original and obtained image after first segmentation
system more accurate. For this purpose, the noise is reduced on method (includes performing gradient, thresholding,
next step. morphological operation) are shown in figure 4.
B. Pre-Processing
As the image has been taken by camera has redundant parts
which needs to be cropped. Therefore, only the central part of
finger vein image can be taken in Matlab by a simple line;

I2= imcrop (I, rect); (1)

Where „I‟ is an image and „rect‟ is the position for

cropping.
a b
The next step in this section is reducing the noise of finger
Figure 4. a) Original image b) Obtained image after first
vein image to improve segmentation. Since the captured image segmentation
has much noise, therefore it needs to be improved for getting
better quality. For this purpose, the enhancement Functions The total process for the "Gradient-based thresholding
such as ‟medfilt2‟, „medfilt2‟ can be employed. As the final using morphological operation" method is shown as figure 5.
step for image pre-processing, the image contrast can be
increased using commands in Matlab such as „histeq‟. Figure 3
shows the total process for enhancing the image.

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Gradient of image

The total process for the "Maximum Curvature Points in

Thresholding Image Profiles” method is shown as figure 5.
Calculating the cross
sectional profile of image
'majority' operation

calculating curvatures
'open' operation

Calculating the Local

'bridge' operation maximum of curvatures

Segmented image Calculating the scores of

center points

Figure 5.Total process of first method for finger vein extraction

Assigning scores to center
2) Maximum Curvature Points in Image Profiles: In this points
segmentation method, the curvatures of image profiles are
checks, then, the centerlines of veins are obtained by Figure 5. Total process of second method for finger vein extraction
considering the positions where the curvatures of a cross- The following features in the first and second methods of
sectional profile are locally maximal. The centerlines are "Gradient-based thresholding using morphological operation"
connected to each other; finally, the vein pattern is achieved. and "Maximum Curvature Points in Image Profiles" are
This method is robust against temporal fluctuations in vein extracted to train Neural Network.
width and brightness (N.Miura, A.Nagasaka, and T.Miyatake
2005). The extracted features for the first method are as follows.
The algorithm for achieving the pattern can be divided into 2  Sum(~BW2(:)) : The number of black pixels in the
stages; segmented vein image.
 Extracting the centreline positions of veins: The first step of  Bwperim(BW2): Perimeter of foreground(veins) in
algorithm is to detect the centerline positions. For this segmented vein image.
purpose, the cross-sectional profile of finger vein image is
calculated to obtain the intensity value of each pixel along the  Bwdist(BW2): Number to each pixel that is the distance
line in an image. In created matrix of intensity, when the between the pixel and the nearest nonzero pixel of BW2.
intensity is positive, it is considered as curvature until it  Bwarea(BW2): The area of the foreground (veins) in
becomes negative again. The maximum differences of segmented vein image.
intensities between two pixels are considered as a vein pixel
in a row of matrix.
 Connecting center positions of veins: For connecting the The extracted features for the second method are as follows.
center positions, all the pixels are checked. If a pixel and two  Cross sectional profile of segmented vein image in
neighbors in both sides have large values, the horizontal line vertical direction: Sum of the intensities of pixels in
is drawn. If a pixel and two neighbors in both sides have segmented vein image in vertical direction.
small values, a line is drawn with a gap at a pixel position.
Therefore, the value of a pixel should be increased to connect  Cross sectional profile of segmented vein image in
the line. The last condition on connecting the center positions horizental direction: Sum of the intensities of pixels in
of veins is a pixel has large value and two neighbors in both segmented vein image in horizental direction.
sides have small values, a dot of noise is created in pixel
position, and therefore the value of a pixel should be reduced.  Cross sectional profile of segmented vein image in
Figure 6 shows the result of second segmentation. oblique1 direction: Sum of the intensities of pixels in
segmented vein image in oblique1 direction.
 Cross sectional profile of segmented vein image in
oblique2 direction: Sum of the intensities of pixels in
segmented vein image in oblique2 direction.
 Curvatures score: Sum of the calculated scores of
curvatures in segmented vein image.

a b
D. Matching and Recognition by Neural Network
The table which is created using the combination of
Figure 6. a) Original image b) Obtained image after second segmentation
"Gradient-based thresholding using morphological operation"

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and "Maximum Curvature Points in Image Profiles" methods is
applied for training Neural Network and also estimating the
quality of training and testing for proposed model. This assess
is done by comparing the true output and the output of the
model.
For training Neural Network the table is divided into two
tables of training and testing. Therefore, training table has data
are used for training purpose and testing table has data are used
for testing purpose. Also another two tables are created as
training output and testing output. The data of training and
testing output considered as the name of image. Therefore, the
Neural Network has been trained and then simulated to assess
the model quality by comparing the true output and the model
output.
In training Neural Network, the epochs and goal were
considered „200000‟ and „0‟. The best run occurred when the
performance become close to the goal. As figure 6, the
performance becomes „0.183054‟ from „200000‟ which is close
to the goal „0‟.

Figure 8. The VAF index for training and testing

After training, the Neural Network is simulated using the

simulation command in Matlab as the following.
R=sim(net,Features)
R= The result of Network simulation
Net = Created Neural Network
Features = obtained features from previous section

Figure 6. Training process After simulation the R is obtained as Figure 9.

The result of this trainig are shown as figure 7. It shows the
differences between output and actual output in training and
testing.The blue line is output and the red line is actual output.

a b
Figure 7 a) Output and actual output in training b) Output and actual output
in testing

The Variance Accounted For (VAF) index which use to

assess the quality of the model is estimated as 95% for training
and 92% for testing as shown in figure 8 .

Figure 9. Simulation result

R=7.1756‟ shows the image belongs to the 7th person in the

table which was trained in Neural Network. Therefore, R
recognizes the person who is dealing with a system. This

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recognition can be employed in different applications of Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering, ICBBE
security. Shanghai
[3] A.D.Hoover, V.Kouznetsova, and M.Goldbaum. 2000. Locating blood
vessels in retinal images by piecewise threshold probing of a matched
III. CONCLUSION filter response. IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 19: 203 - 210.
This paper proposed a combined method for finger vein [4] Walter, T., J. Klein, P. Massin, and F. Zana. 2000. Automatic
Segmentation and Registration of Retinal Fluorescein Angiographies—
authentication system. “Gradient-based threshold” and Application to Diabetic Retinopathy. In InternationalWorkshop on
“Maximum curvature points in image profiles” were combined Computer Assisted Fundus Image Analysis: Denmark.
to obtain precious features. The Neural Network was trained by [5] Miura, N., A. Nagasaka, and T. Miyatake. 2004. Feature Extraction of
the features to evaluate the quality of the system. Also, Neural Finger- Vein Patterns Based on Repeated Line Tracking and Its
Network was applied to individual recognition. Application to Personal Identification. Machine Vision and Applications
15:194-203.
Experimental results of this work show that the proposed [6] Miura, N., A. Nagasaka, and T. Miyatake. 2007. Extraction of Finger-
method is valid for user authentication purpose even in high Vein Patterns Using Maximum Curvature Points in Image Profiles. In
security environments, as it was the initial intention given the IEICE - Transactions on Information and Systems. Japan: Oxford
nature of human finger vein. Results show that the performance University Press.
of the system is 95% in training and 93% in testing. [7] Hitachi . 2006. Finger Vein Authentication: White Paper, available from:
http://www.hitachi-
america.us/supportingdocs/services/smart_solutions/Finger_Vein_Authe
REFERENCES ntication_White_Paper.pdf
[1] Yin, P.Y., ed. 2008. Pattern Recognition Techniques, Technology and [8] Lin, D. 1997. Computer-Access Authentication with Neural Network
Applications. Vienna, Austria. Based Keystroke Identity Verification. In International Conference on
Neural Networks.
[2] Lian, Z., Z. Rui, and Y. Chengbo. 2008. Study on the Identity
Authentication System on Finger Vein. In The 2nd International

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Colorization of gray level images by using

optimization
Hossein Ghayoumi Zadeh Hojat Jafari Alireza Malvandi Javad Haddadnia
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem University Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem University Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem University Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem University
Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi, Iran Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi, Iran Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi, Iran Sabzevar, Khorasan Razavi, Iran
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract —This article discusses the colorization of gray Another well known approach to colorization [5]
level images. Because of the technique applied in this assumes that small changes take place between two
paper, this method can be used in colorizing medical consecutive frames; therefore, it is possible to use
images. Color images achieved have good distinction optical flow to estimate dense pixel to pixel
and separation. The proposed method can be used to correspondences. Chromatic information can then be
separate the objects in gray images. Our method is
transferred directly between the corresponding pixels.
based on a simple premise: neighboring pixels in space-
time that have similar intensities should have similar
There are some approaches [6], [7], [8] which make
colors. We formalize this premise using a quadratic cost use of the assumption that the homogeneity in the
function and obtain an optimization problem that can gray-scale domain indicates homogeneity in the color
be solved efficiently using standard techniques. In our domain and vice versa. This assumption provides a
approach an artist only needs to annotate the image possibility to propagate color from several user-
with a few color scribbles, and the indicated colors are defined seed pixels to the rest of the image. In [9],
automatically propagated in both space and time to colorization is done through luminance-weighted
produce a fully colorized image or sequence. chrominance blending and fast intrinsic distance
computations. Shi et al.[10] color the grayscale
images by segmentation and color filling method,
Keywords- colorization, Equalization, gray level where an image is first segmented into regions and
then the desired colors are Used to fill each region.
I. INTRODUCTION
Since the existing automatic image segmentation
algorithms usually cannot segment the image into
Colorization is the art of adding color to a meaningful regions, only color filling of each
monochrome image or movie. This is done in order to segmented region cannot produce natural colorized
increase the visual appeal of images such as old black results. Sykora et al. [11] suggested using
and white photos, classic movies or scientific unsupervised image segmentation in cartoons
illustrations. Various semi-automatic colorization colorization. However the method usually cannot get
approaches have been published previously. They all ideal results for other types of images and is restricted
involve some form of partial human intervention in to only cartoons.A major difficulty with colorization,
order to make a mapping between the color and the however, lies in the fact that it is an expensive and
intensity. Luminance keying also known as time-consuming process. For example, in order to
pseudocoloring[1] is a basic colorization technique colorize a still image an artist typically begins by
which utilizes a userdefined look-up table to segmenting the image into regions, and then proceeds
transform each level of grayscale intensity into a to assign a color to each region. Unfortunately,
specified hue, saturation and brightness, i.e a global automatic segmentation algorithms often fail to
color vector is assigned to each grayscale value. correctly identify fuzzy or complex region boundaries,
Welsh et al.[2] proposed techniques where rather than such as the boundary between a subject's hair and her
choosing colors from a palette to color individual face. Thus, the artist is often left with the task of
components, the color is transferred from a source manually delineating complicated boundaries between
color image to a target grayscale image by matching regions. Colorization of movies requires, in addition,
luminance and texture information between the tracking regions across the frames of a shot. Existing
images. This approach is inspired by a method of tracking algorithms typically fail to robustly track
color transfer between images described in Reinhard non-rigid regions, again requiring massive user
et al. [3] and image analogies by Hertzmann et al. [4]. intervention in the process.

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III. HISTOGRAM EQUALIZATION

II. ALGORITHM
This method usually increases the global contrast of
The first step in colorizing the gray level images is many images, especially when the usable data of the
to remove noise and perform threshold operation on image is represented by close contrast values.
images so that colorization is done accurately. If the Through this adjustment, the intensities can be better
primary picture is similar to fig.1, the figure histogram distributed on the histogram. This allows for areas of
needs to be examined carefully presented in fig. 2. lower local contrast to gain a higher contrast.
Histogram equalization accomplishes this by
effectively spreading out the most frequent intensity
values.
The method is useful in images with backgrounds
and foregrounds that are both bright or both dark. In
particular, the method can lead to better views of bone
structure in x-ray images, and to better detail in
photographs that are over or under-exposed. A key
advantage of the method is that it is a fairly
straightforward technique and an invertible operator.
So in theory, if the histogram equalization function is
known, then the original histogram can be recovered.
The calculation is not computationally intensive. A
disadvantage of the method is that it is indiscriminate.
It may increase the contrast of background noise,
while decreasing the usable signal.Histogram
equalization often produces unrealistic effects in
photographs; however it is very useful for scientific
Figure 1. Gray level main image to colorize images like thermal, satellite or x-ray images, often
the same class of images that user would apply false-
color to. Also histogram equalization can produce
undesirable effects (like visible image gradient) when
applied to images with low color depth. For example,
if applied to 8-bit image displayed with 8-bit gray-
scale palette it will further reduce color depth (number
of unique shades of gray) of the image. Histogram
equalization will work the best when applied to
images with much higher color depth than palette size,
like continuous data or 16-bit gray-scale images.
To transfer the gray levels so that the histogram of
the resulting image is equalized to be a constant:
H[i] =constant for all i
The purposes:
To equally use all available gray levels ; for
further histogram specification. (Fig .3)

Figure 2. Histogram of the primary figure

As you observe in fig.2, histogram is not even so

we use equalization.

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1} and the continuous mapping function becomes

discrete:
x
y = f[x] ≜ i=0 h i =Hx (5)
Where h[i] is the probability for the gray level of any
given pixel to be I (0≤i≤L-1):

ni ni L−1
h[i]= L −1 n = and i=0 h i = 1 (6)
i=0 i N

Of course here h [i] is the histogram of the image and

H[i] is the cumulative histogram.
The resulting function y is in the range 0 ≤y ≤ 1 and
it needs to be converted to the gray levels 0 ≤y≤ L-1
by either of the two ways:

y = y L − 1 + 0.5 (8)
Figure 3. This figure shows that for any given mapping function y − ymin
y=f(x) between the input and output images y= L − 1 + 0.5
1 − ymin
Where [x] is the floor, or the integer part of a real
number x, and adding 0.5 is for proper rounding. Note
The following holds: that while both conversions map ymax = 1 to the
P(y)dy=p(x)dx (1) highest gray level L-1, the second conversion also
maps ymin to 0 to stretch the gray levels of the output
i.e., the number of pixels mapped from x to y is image to occupy the entire dynamic range 0≤Y<L-1.
unchanged.
The result is shown in fig.4.
To equalize the histogram of the output image, we
let p(y) be a constant. In particular, if the gray levels
are assumed to be in the ranges between 0 and 1
(0≤x≤1, 0≤y≤1), then p(y) =1. Then we have:
dy=p(x)dx or dy/dx=p(x) (2)
i.e., the mapping function y=f(x) for histogram
equalization is:

x
y=f X = 0
p u du = p x − p 0 = p(x) (3)
Where
x
p x = 0
p u du , p 0 = 0 (4)
Is the cumulative probability distribution of the input
image, which monotonically increases .
Intuitively, histogram equalization is realized by the
following: Figure 4. Image equalization
If p(x) is high, P(x) has a steep slope, dy will be wide,
We work in YUV color space, commonly used in
causing p(y) to be low to keep p(y)dy=p(x)dx ;
video, where Y is the monochromatic luminance
If p(x) is low, P(x) has a shallow slope; dy will be channel, which we will refer to simply as intensity,
narrow, causing p(y) to be high. while U and V are the chrominance channels,
encoding the color [Jack 2001].
The algorithm is given as input an intensity volume
For discrete gray levels, the gray level of the input x Y(x; y; t) and outputs two color volumes U(x; y; t)
takes one of the L discrete values: x∈ {0,1,2, . . , L −

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and V(x; y; t). To simplify notation we will use Then the pixel (x0, y0, t) is a neighbor of pixel (x1,
boldface letters (e.g. r; s) to denote (x; y; t) triplets. y1, t +1) if:
Thus, Y(r) is the intensity of a particular pixel. As
mentioned in the introduction, we wish to impose the x0 + vx x0 , y0 + vy y0 − (x1 , y1 ) < 𝑇 (12)
constraint that two neighboring pixels r; s should have
similar colors if their intensities are similar. Thus, we The tow field vx(x0),vy(y0) is calculated using a
wish to minimize the difference between the color standard motion estimation algorithm [Lucas and
U(r) at pixel r and the weighted average of the colors Kanade 1981]. Note that the optical flow is only used
at neighboring pixels: to define the neighborhood of each pixel, not to
propagate colors through time. Now given a set of
2
𝐽 𝑈 = 𝑟 (𝑈 𝑟 − 𝑠∈𝑁(𝑟) 𝑤𝑟𝑠 𝑈(𝑠)) (9) locations ri where the colors are specified by the user
u(ri) = ui , v(ri) = vi we minimize J(U), J(V) subject to
Where wrs is a weighting function that sums to one, these constraints. Since the cost functions are
large when Y(r) is similar to Y(s) , and small when quadratic and the constraints are linear, this
the two intensities are different. Similar weighting optimization problem yields a large, sparse system of
functions are used extensively in image segmentation linear equations, which may be solved using a number
algorithms (e.g. [Shi and Malik 1997; Weiss 1999]), of standard methods. Our algorithm is closely related
where they are usually referred to as affinity to algorithms proposed for other tasks in image
functions. We have experimented with two weighting processing. In image segmentation algorithms based
functions. The simplest one is commonly used by on normalized cuts [Shi and Malik 1997], one
image segmentation algorithms and is based on the attempts to find the second smallest eigenvector of the
squared difference between the two intensities:
matrix D -W where W is a n pixels×npixels matrix
𝑟 −𝑌 𝑠 )2 /2𝜎𝑟2
wrs∝ 𝑒 −(𝑌 (10) whose elements are the pair wise affinities between
pixels (i.e., the r; s entry of the matrix is wrs) and D is
A second weighting function is based on the a diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are the
normalized correlation between the two intensities: sum of the affinities (in our case this is always 1). The
second smallest eigenvector of any symmetric matrix
1 A is a unit norm vector x that minimizes xTAx and is
𝑤𝑟𝑠 ∝ 1 + 𝜎 2 𝑌 𝑟 − 𝜇𝑟 (𝑌 𝑠 − 𝜇𝑟 ) (11)
𝑟 orthogonal to the first eigenvector. By direct
Where μr and σr are the mean and variance of the inspection, the quadratic form minimized by
intensities in a window around r. normalized cuts is exactly our cost function J, that is
The correlation affinity can also be derived from xT(Dj-W)x = J(x). Thus, our algorithm minimizes the
assuming alocal linear relation between color and same cost function but under different constraints. In
intensity [Zomet and Peleg 2002; Torralba and image denoising algorithms based on anisotropic
Freeman 2003]. Formally, it assumes that the color at diffusion [Perona and Malik 1989; Tang et al. 2001]
a pixel U(r) is a linear function of the intensity Y(r): one often minimizes a function similar to equation 1,
but the function is applied to the image intensity as
U(r) = aiY(r)+bi and the linear coefficients ai ,bi are
the same for all pixels in a small neighborhood around well.
r. This assumption can be justified empirically [Zomet
and Peleg 2002] and intuitively it means that when the IV. EDGE REMOVING
intensity is constant the color should be constant, and
when the intensity is an edge the color should also be In the provided method the kind of edge removing
an edge (although the values on the two sides of the is very significant. The more edge vector
edge can be any two numbers). While this model adds segmentation, the more details must be presented on
to the system a pair of variables per each image the image color. Because of this reason, SOBEL
window, a simple elimination of the ai, bi variables algorithm is utilized. With regard to type of the edge
yields an equation equivalent to equation 1 with a vector, the desired colors are put on the image (fig.5).
correlation based affinity function. The notation r ∈
N(s) denotes the fact that r and s are neighboring
pixels. In a single frame, we define two pixels as
neighbors if their image locations are nearby.
Between two successive frames, we define two pixels
as neighbors if their image locations, after accounting
for motion, are nearby. More formally, let vx(x, y),
vy(x,y) denote the optical flow calculated at time t.

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Figure 8. The reduction of disturbance on the colorized image

V. RESULTS
Figure 5. Desired colors are drawn on RGB image.

The result of colorization can be observed in fig.6. Figure 9 displays another sample of colorization on
the image.

Figure 9. The result from colorization on the image

The histogram of RGB image color can be observed

in figure 10.
Figure 6. Colorized image on RGB image

Looking accurately at the image, we can notice

noises and disturbances on the image that should be
reduced and minimized so a middle filter is used for
this purpose that is a middle mask presented in figure
7 is applied for each color.

(a)

Figure 7. Low- pass filter, a quiet plaice

The results obtained from this filter are illustrated in

figure 8.

(b)

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AUTHORS PROFILE

Hossein Ghayoumi Zadeh received the

B.Sc.degree in electrical engineering with
honors from shahid ragae teacher training
University, Tehran ,Iran, in 2008. He is now
M.Sc. student in electrical and electronic
engineering at Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem
University in Iran. His current research
interests include computer vision, pattern recognition, image
processing, artificial neural network, intelligent systems, fuzzy
(c) logic and soft computing and etc.
Figure 10. (a)histogram of red band.(b) histogram of green
band.(c) histogram of blue band
Hojat Jafari received the B.Sc.degree in
Conclusion electrical engineering with honors from The
Islamic Azad University – Sabzevar Branch,
Sabzevar,Iran, in 2007. He is now M.Sc.
In this paper, the gray level image is converted to RGB student in electrical and electronic
image by using image processing techniques combined engineering at Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem
with noise and disturbance reduction. The power of this University in Iran. His current research
method is appropriately confirmed by results. interests include computer vision, pattern recognition, image
processing, artificial neural network, intelligent systems and etc.
REFERENCE
[1] R.C.Gonzalez and R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing
Alireza Malvandi received the B.Sc.degree
(second ed.), AddisonWesley Publishing, Reading, MA
(1987). in electrical engineering with honors from
The Islamic Azad University – Sabzevar
[2] T. Welsh, M. Ashikhmin and K. Mueller, Transferring color
to greyscale images, in: ACM SIGGRAPH 2002 Conference Branch ,Sabzevar ,Iran. He is now M.Sc.
Proceedings (2002) pp. 277-280. student in electrical and electronic
[3] E. Reinhard, M. Ashikhmin, B. Gooch and P. Shirley, Color engineering at Sabzevar Tarbiat Moallem
transfer between images, IEEE Transactions on Computer University in Iran. His current research
Graphics and Applications 21 (2001) (5), pp. 34-41. interests include computer vision, pattern recognition, image
[4] A. Hertzmann, C.E. Jacobs, N. Oliver, B. Curless and D.H. processing, artificial neural network, intelligent systems and etc.
Salesin, “Image analogies”, ACM SIGGRAPH 2001
Conference Proceedings, 327-340(2001) .
[5] Z. Pan, Z. Dong and M. Zhang, A new algorithm for adding
color to video or animation clips, in: Proceedings of WSCG Javad Haddadnia received his B.Sc. and
International Conference in Central Europe on Computer
M.Sc. degrees in electrical and electronic
Graphics, Visualization and Computer Vision (2004) pp .
515-519. engineering with the first rank from
[6] T. Horiuchi, Estimation of color for gray-level image by Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran,
probabilistic relaxation, in: Proceedings of IEEE Iran, in 1993 and 1995, respectively. He
International Conference on Pattern Recognition (2002) pp. received his Ph.D. degree in electrical
867-870. thor’s engineering from Amirkabir University of
[7] T. Horiuchi and S. Hirano, Colorization algorithm for Technology, Tehran, Iran in 2002. He joined Tarbiat Moallem
grayscale image by propagating seed pixels, in: Proceedings University of Sabzevar in Iran since 2002 as an associated
of IEEE International Conference on Pattern Recognition Photo
professor. His research interests include neural network, digital
(2003) pp. 457- 460.
image processing, computer vision and medical Engineering. He
[8] A. Levin, D. Lischinski and Y. Weiss, Colorization using has published several papers in these areas. He has served as a
optimization, in: ACM SIGGRAPH 2004 Conference
Proceedings (2004) pp. 689-694. Visiting Research Scholar at the University of Windsor, Canada
during 2001- 2002. He is a member of SPIE, CIPPR, and IEICE.
[9] Liron Yatziv and Guillermo Sapiro, Fast image and video
colorization using chrominance blending, in: IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, Vol. 15, No. 5, May 2006,
pp. 1120-1129.
[10] Shi, J., Malik, J., 1997.Normalized cuts and image
segmentation. In: Proc. IEEE Conf. Computer Vision and
Pattern Recognition, pp. 731-737.
[11] Sy´kora, D., Buria´nek, J.,Zara, J., 2003. Segmentation of
Black and White Cartoons, In: Proceedings of Spring
Conference on Computer Graphics, pp. 245-254.

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Performance Comparison of Image Classifier Using

DCT, Walsh, Haar and Kekre’s Transform
Dr. H. B. Kekre Tanuja K. Sarode Meena S. Ugale
Senior Professor, Asst. Professor, Asst. Professor,
Co mputer Engineering, MP’STME, Thadomal Shahani Engineering Xavier Institute of Engineering,
SVKM’S NMIMS University, College, Mumbai, India Mumbai, India
Mumbai, India [email protected] [email protected] m
[email protected]

Abstract—In recent years, thousands of images are generated Image categorization is an important step for efficiently
everyday, which implies the necessity to classify, organize and handling large image databases and enables the
access them by easy and faster way. The need for image implementation of efficient ret rieval algorith ms. Image
classification is becoming increasingly important.
classification aims to find a description that best describe the
The paper presents innovative Image Classification technique
based on feature vectors as fractional coefficients of transformed
images in one class and distinguish these images fro m all the
images using Discrete Cosine, Walsh, Haar and Kekre’s other classes. It can help us ers to organize and to browse
transforms. The energy compaction of transforms in higher images. Although this is usually not a very difficu lt task for
coefficients is taken to reduce the feature vector size per image humans, it has been proved to be an extremely difficu lt
by taking fractional coefficients of transformed image. The problem for co mputer programs.
various sizes of feature vectors are generated such as 8X8, 16X16,
32X32, 64X64 an d 128X128. Classification of images involves identifying an area of known
The proposed technique is worked over database of 1000 images
spread over 10 different classes. The Euclidean distance is used cover type and instructing the computer to find all similar
as similarity measure. A threshold value is set to determine to areas in the study region. The similarities are based on
which category the query image belongs to. reflectance values in the input images.

Keywords— Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Walsh Dig ital image processing is a collect ion of techniques for the
Transform, Haar Transform, Kekre’s Transform, Image man ipulation of digital images by computers. Classification
Database, Transform Domain, Feature Vector generally co mprises four steps [27]:

1. Pre-processing: E.g . at mospheric correction, noise

suppression, and finding the band ratio, principal
I. INT RODUCTION component analysis, etc.
2. Train ing: Selection of the particular feature which best
In recent years, many applicat ion domains such as biomedical, describes the pattern.
military, education and web store a b ig nu mber of images in 3. Decision: Choice of suitable method for comparing the
digital libraries. image patterns with the target patterns.
4. Assessing the accuracy of the classification.
The need to manage these images and locate target images in
response to user queries has become a significant problem Image classification refers to the labeling of images into one
[26]. Image classification is an important task for many of predefined semantic categories.
aspects of global change studies and environmental
applications. Using an image Classificat ion, images can be analysed and
indexed automatically by automatic description wh ich
In recent years, the accelerated gro wth of d igital media depends on their objective visual content. The most important
collections and in particu lar still image collections, both step in an Image Classification system is the image description.
proprietary and on the Web, has established the need for the Indeed, features extraction g ives a feature vector per image
development of hu man-centered tools for the efficient access which is a reduced representation of the image visual content,
and retrieval of visual in formation. As the amount of because images are too big to be used directly for indexing
informat ion available in the form of still images continuously and retrieval [30].
increases, the necessity of efficient methods for the retrieval
of the visual information becomes evident [30]. In this paper the use of Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT),
Walsh Transform, Haar Transform and Kekre’s Transform is

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investigated for image classificat ion technique A feature the JPEG and MPEG coding standards [12][3]. The DCT
vector is ext racted for an image of size N X N using DCT or decomposes the signal into underlying spatial frequencies,
Walsh or Haar or Kekre’s Transform. The similarity which then allo w further processing techniques to reduce the
measurement (SM), where a d istance (e.g., Euclidean distance) precision of the DCT coefficients consistent with the Hu man
between the query image and each image in the databas e using Visual System (HVS) model. The DCT coefficients of an
their feature vectors is computed so that the top ―closest image tend themselves as a new feature, which have the
images can be retrieved [7, 14, 17]. ability to represent the regularity, co mplexity and some
texture features of an image and it can be direct ly applied to
image data in the compressed domain [31]. Th is may be a way
II. RELATED WORK to solve the large storage space problem and the
computational co mplexity of the existing methods.
Many image classification systems have been developed since The two dimensional DCT can be written in terms of pixel
the early 1990s. Various image representations and values f(i, j) for i,j = 0,1,…,N-1 and the frequency-domain
classification techniques are adopted in these systems: the transform coefficients F(u,v):
images are represented by global features, block-based
features, region-based local features, or bag-of-wo rds
features[8], and various machine learn ing techniques are
adopted for the classificat ion tasks, such as K-nearest
neighbor (KNN)[24], Support Vector Machines (SVM )[24],
Hidden Markov Model(HMM)[21], Diverse Density(DD)[29],
DD-SVM[28] and so on.
Recently, a popular technique fo r representing image content
for image category recognition is the bag of visual word
model [10, 6].
In the indexing phase, each image of the database is
represented using a set of image attribute, such as color [25],
shape [9, 1], texture [2] and layout [26]. Ext racted features are
stored in a visual feature database. In the searching phase,
when a user makes a query, a feature vector for the query is
computed. Using a similarity criterion, this vector is co mpared
to the vectors in the feature database.
A heterogeneous image recognition system based on content
description and classification is used in which for image The DCT tends to concentrate information, making it useful
database several features extract ion methods are used and for image comp ression applications and also helping in
applied to better describes the images content. The features minimizing feature vector size in CBIR [23]. For full 2-
relevance is tested and improved through Support Vectors Dimensional DCT for an NxN image the nu mber of
Machines (SVMs) classifier of the consequent images index mu ltip licat ions required are N2 (2N) and number of addit ions
database [26]. required are N2 (2N-2).
In literature there are various Image classificat ion methods.
Some of these methods use wavelets transform and support
vector machine [33]; some methods use effective algorithm IV. WALSH TRANSFORM
for build ing codebooks for visual recognition [14]; some
advanced image classification techniques use Artificial Neural Walsh transform mat rix [18,19,23,26] is defined as a set of N
Networks, Support Vector Machines, Fu zzy measures and rows, denoted Wj, for j = 0, 1, .... , N - 1, which have the
Genetic Algorith ms [23] whereas some methods are proposed following properties:
for classifying images, which integrates several sets of
Wj takes on the values +1 and -1.
Support Vector Machines (SVM ) on mu ltiple low level image
Wj[0] = 1 fo r all j.
features [32].
Wj xW K T =0, for j ≠ k and Wj xW K T =N, for j=k.
Wj has exact ly j zero crossings, for j = 0, 1, ...., N-1.
III. DISCRETE COSINE TRA NSFORM (DCT) Each ro w Wj is even or odd with respect to its
In general, neighbouring pixels within an image tend to be midpoint.
highly correlated. As such, it is desired to use an invertible Walsh transform mat rix is defined using a Hadamard matrix
transform to concentrate randomness into fewer, decorrelated of order N. The Walsh transform matrix row is the row of the
parameters [13].The Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) has Hadamard matrix specified by the Walsh code index, wh ich
been shown to be near optimal for a large class of images in must be an integer in the range [0... N -1]. For the Walsh code
energy concentration and decorrelating. It has been adopted in index equal to an integer j, the respective Hadamard output
code has exactly j zero crossings, for j = 0, 1... N - 1.

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For the full 2-Dimensional Walsh transform applied to image
of size NxN, the number of additions required are 2N2 (N-1) TABLE I
and absolutely no multip licat ions are needed in Walsh COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY FOR APPLYING T RANSFORMS T O
transform [18]. IMAGE OF SIZE NXN [18]
Kekre’s
DCT Walsh Haar
Transform
Number of
2N2 (N-1) 2N2 (N-1) 2N2 log2 (N) N[N(N+1)-2]
Additions
Number of
V. HAAR TRANSFORM N2 (2N) 0 0 2N(N-2)
Multiplications
This sequence was proposed in 1909 by Alfred Haar. Haar Total
used these functions to give an examp le of a countable Additions for
transform of 37715968 4161536 229376 2113280
orthonormal system for the space of square-integral functions 128 x128
on the real line. The Haar wavelet is also the simplest possible image
wavelet. The technical disadvantage of the Haar wavelet is
that it is not continuous, and therefore not differentiable. [Here one mu ltip licat ion is considered as eight additions for
The Haar wavelet's mother wavelet function (t) can be last row co mputations]
described as:

VII. PROPOSED A LGORITHM

(3)
The proposed algorithm makes use of well known Discrete
Cosine Transform (DCT), Walsh, Haar and Kekre’s
Transform to generate the feature vectors for the purpose of
And its scaling function can be described as,
search and retrieval of database images.
We convert an RGB image into gray level image. For spatial
localization, we then use the DCT or Walsh or Haar or
(4) Kekre’s transformation. Each image is resized to N*N size.
DCT or Walsh or Haar or Kekre’s Transform is applied on the
image to generate a feature vector as shown in figure 1.
VI. KEKRE’S TRANSFORM
A. Algorithm for Image Classification
Kekre’s transform matrix can be of any size NxN, wh ich need
not have to be in powers of 2 (as is the case with most of other 1. Feature vector of the query image is generated as shown
transforms). A ll upper diagonal and d iagonal values of in figure 1.
Kekre’s transform matrix are one, while the lower d iagonal 2. Feature vector of the query image is compared with the
part except the values just below diagonal is zero [23]. feature vectors of all the images in the database.
Generalized NxN Kekre’s transform matrix can be given as: Euclidean distance measure is used to check the closeness
of the query image and the database images.
3. Euclidean distance values are sorted w.r.t. ascending
order sequence to find first 50 closest matches with query
image.
4. The closest matches with query image for all 10
categories are calculated.
5. A threshold value is set to determine to wh ich category
the query image belongs to.
6. Display the category of the query image .
For taking Kekre’s transform of an NxN image, the nu mber of
required mu ltiplications are 2N(N-2) and number of addit ions
required are N(N2 +N-2).

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Input image
8
16 32 64 128
Resize the image to
8
M X N pixels
16

Gray-level conversion
32

Apply DCT or Walsh

or Haar or Kekre’s
Transform to get 64
feature vector

128
Feature Vector
Fig. 2: Selection of varying size portion from feature
Fig. 1: Flowchart for feature extraction

VIII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 3: Sample Database Images

[Image database contains total 1000 images with 10 categories]

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The implementation of the proposed algorithm is done in images. Each group contains 50 images fro m each category.
MATLAB 7.0 using a co mputer with Intel Core2 Duo There are total 10 categories.
Processor E4500 (2.20GHz) and 2 GB RAM. The DCT and The algorith m is executed with 500 Train ing images. A
Walsh Transform algorith m is tested on the image database of threshold value is set fro m these results.
1000 variable size images collected fro m Corel Co llection [23] The algorith m is applied on the Testing images group. As per
and Caltech-256 dataset [11]. These images are arranged in 10 the set threshold value, it is seen that algorithm classifies the
semantic groups: Elephants, Horses, Roses, Coins, Mountains, images in the image database to the different categories viz.,
Birds, Buses, Rainbows, Dinosaurs and Seashores. It includes Dinosaur, Roses, Horses, Elephant, Rainbow, Mountains,
100 images fro m each semantic group. The images are in Coins, Seashores and Birds. The results of all these algorith ms
JPEG format. for Training and Testing images are listed in the following
The image database of 1000 images is div ided into two groups tables.
of 500 each naming the Training images and the Testing
Table II
T RAINING RESULT S OF DCT FOR FEATURE VECTOR SIZE – 128X 128
Feature Vector Size -128 X 128
Category Rainbow Mountains Horse Rose Elephant Dinosaur Bus Seashore Coins Bird

Rainbow 18.8 5.2 5.48 1.44 3.66 0.98 0.26 6.3 0.78 6.92
Mountains 13.08 9.08 6.02 3.92 2.76 0 1.18 6.4 0.5 6.92
Horse 7.48 1.22 14.9 6.38 1.82 0 0 8.64 0.66 8.96
Rose 2.02 0.5 5.74 32.8 0 0 0.26 1.04 0.44 7.2
Elephant 12.76 2.22 7.72 0.08 11.06 0.48 0.1 11.52 0.62 3.44
Dinosaur 1.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 43.81 0.00 0.00 4.95 0.00
Bus 9.54 6.06 6.66 6.34 2.36 0 2.54 7.82 0.56 8.1
Seashore 7.98 1.8 10.86 1.54 3.44 0 0 17.82 0.44 6.12
Coins 6.14 0.6 3.74 2.46 6.68 11.66 0.1 3.24 12.94 2.44
Birds 10.24 1.58 6.82 4.2 1.16 0.02 0 4.42 0.66 20.92

Table II shows the training results of Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) for feature vector size – 128 X 128. It is seen fro m this
table that if the threshold value (TH) is set as 8, all the testing images will get classified.
Similarly the algorith m is executed with Walsh, Haar and Kekre’s Transform on the train ing images and a threshold value is
found out for all feature vector sizes. The results of all these algorith ms for testing images are listed in the following tables.
Table III
PERCENTAGE ACCURACY OF DISCRETE COSINE T RANSFORM
Thresholds
Feature Vector Size
TH >=8 TH >=9 TH >=10 TH >=11 TH >=12 TH >=13
8 X8 74.2 71 69 65 61.8 58.8
16 X 16 74 70.6 66.6 63.8 61.2 57.6
32 X 32 73.8 72 67.4 63.4 60 57.2
64 X 64 73 69.8 65.6 62 58.2 56.2
128 X 128 70 67.2 64 59 56.8 53.6

Table III shows the percentage accuracy of Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT). It is seen from this table that the DCT gives
highest classification rate of 74.2% for feature vector size o f 8 X 8, and TH>=8.
Table IV
PERCENTAGE ACCURACY OF WALSH T RANSFORM
Thresholds
Feature Vector Size
TH >=8 TH >=9 TH >=10 TH >=11 TH >=12 TH >=13
8 X8 74.6 71.6 60.2 63.4 59.6 56
16 X 16 73.4 69 58.8 63.2 60 56.4
32 X 32 73.6 71.4 60.2 63.8 60 57.2
64 X 64 72.8 68.6 59 62.2 58 55.8
128 X 128 69 66 57.2 58.4 55.4 52.4

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Table IV shows the percentage accuracy of Walsh Transform. It is seen fro m this table that the Walsh Transform g ives highest
classification rate of 74.6% for feature vector size of 8 X 8, and TH>=8.

Table V
PERCENTAGE ACCURACY OF HAAR T RANSFORM

Thresholds
Feature Vector Size
TH >=8 TH >=9 TH >=10 TH >=11 TH >=12 TH >=13
8 X8 74.6 71.6 67.6 63.4 59.6 56

16 X 16 73.4 69 65.8 63.2 60 56.4

32 X 32 73.6 71.4 67.2 63.8 60 57.2

64 X 64 73.6 69.6 66.2 62.6 58.4 56.6

128 X 128 70 67.2 64 59 56.8 53.6

Table V shows the percentage accuracy of Haar Transform. It is seen fro m this table that the Haar Transform g ives highest
classification rate of 74.6% for feature vector size of 8 X 8, and TH>=8.

Table VI
PERCENTAGE ACCURACY OF KEKRE’S T RANSFORM

Thresholds
Feature Vector Size
TH >=8 TH >=9 TH >=10 TH >=11 TH >=12 TH >=13
8 X8 62 56.8 50.4 45.6 41.6 37.2
16 X 16 64 59.6 54.4 46.4 39.6 34.4

32 X 32 67.2 58.6 53.2 45.6 41 35.4

64 X 64 65.6 59.6 52.2 47.6 43.6 40.6

128 X 128 66.6 61.4 56.8 51 46.8 42.6

Table VI shows the percentage accuracy of Kekre’s Trans form. It is seen from this table that the Kekre’s Transform g ives
highest classification rate of 67.2% for feature vector size o f 32 X 32, and TH>=8.

classification rate values of 74.2%, 74.6% and 74.6%

IX. CONCLUSION
respectively for feature vector size of 8 X 8; whereas Kekre’s
Transform g ives the highest classification rate value of 67.2%
The need for image classification is becoming increasingly for feature vector size of 32 X 32.
important as thousands of images are generated everyday,
which imp lies the necessity to classify, organize and access The complexity co mparison of DCT and Walsh transform
them by easy and faster way. shows that the complexity of DCT is more by 9.063 times
In this paper, a simple but effective algorith m of Image than the complexity of Walsh Transform; whereas the
Classification which uses Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) complexity o f Walsh transform is more by 18.142 times than
or Walsh or Haar or Kekre’s Transform is presented. To the complexity of Haar Transform and the complexity of
evaluate this algorithm, a heterogeneous image database of Kekre’s transform is more by 9.2131 times than the
1000 images fro m 10 semantic groups is used. complexity of Haar transform.

It is seen that, the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Haar

Transform and Walsh Transform give the highest

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[17] H.B.Kekre, Dhirendra Mishra, ―Content Based Image Retrieval using
Weighted Hamming Distance Image hash Value‖ published in the
proceedings of international conference on contours of computing AUT HORS PROFILE
technology pp. 305-309 (Thinkquest2010) 13th & 14th March 2010.
[18] H.B.Kekre, Sudeep D. Thepade, ―Improving the Performance of Image Dr. H. B. Kekre has received B.E. (Hons.) in Telecomm. Engg. from
Retrieval using Partial Coefficients of Transformed Image‖,International Jabalpur University in 1958, M.Tech (Industrial
Journal of Information Retrieval, Serials Publications, Volume 2, Issue 1, Electronics) from IIT Bombay in 1960,
2009, pp. 72-79 (ISSN: 0974-6285). M.S.Engg. (Electrical Engg.) from University of
[19] H.B.Kekre, Sudeep D. Thepade, Archana Athawale, Anant Shah, Ottawa in 1965 and Ph.D. (System Identification)
Prathmesh Verlekar, Suraj Shirke,―Energy Compaction and Image from IIT Bombay in 1970. He has worked
Splitting for Image Retrieval using Kekre Transform over Row and Over 35 years as Faculty of Electrical
Column Feature Vectors‖, International Journal of Computer Science Engineering and then HOD Computer Science
and Network Security (IJCSNS),Volume:10, Number 1, January 2010, and Engg. at IIT Bombay. For last 13 years
(ISSN: 1738-7906) Available at www.IJCSNS.org. worked as a Professor in Department of
[20] H.B.Kekre, Sudeep D. Thepade, Archana Athawale, Anant Shah, Computer Engg. at Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai. He is
Prathmesh Verlekar, Suraj Shirke, ―Performance Evaluation of Image currently Senior Professor working with Mukesh Patel School of T echnology
Retrieval using Energy Compaction and Image T iling over DCT Row Management and Engineering, SVKM’s NMIMS University, Vile Parle(w),
Mean and DCT Column Mean‖, Springer-International Conference on Mumbai, INDIA. He has guided 17 Ph.D.s, 150 M.E./M.Tech Projects and
Contours of Computing T echnology (Thinkquest-2010), Babasaheb several B.E./B.Tech Projects. His areas of interest are Digital Signal
processing, Image Processing and Computer Networks. He has more than 300

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papers in National / International Conferences / Journals to his credit.
Recently eleven students working under his guidance have received best
paper awards. T wo of his students
have been awarded Ph. D. of NMIMS University. Currently he is guiding ten
Ph.D. students.

Dr. Tanuja K. Sarode has received M.E. (Computer Engineering) degree

from Mumbai University in 2004, Ph.D. from
Mukesh Patel School of Technology,
Management and Engg., SVKM’s NMIMS
University, Vile-Parle (W), Mumbai, INDIA. She
has more than 11 years of experience in teaching,
currently working as Assistant Professor in Dept.
of Computer Engineering at Thadomal Shahani
Engineering College, Mumbai. She is member of
International Association of Engineers (IAENG)
and International Association of Computer Science and Information
Technology (IACSIT ). Her areas of interest are Image Processing, Signal
Processing and Computer Graphics. She has 75 papers in National
/International Conferences/journal to her credit.

Ms. Meena S. Ugale has received B.E. (Electronics) degree from Shivaji
University, Kolhapur in 2000. She is pursuing M.E.
(Computer Engineering) degree from Thadomal
Shahani Engineering College, Bandra (W),
Mumbai, INDIA. She has more than 6 years of
experience in teaching, currently working as
Lecturer in Dept. of Information Technology at
Xavier Institute of Engineering, Mumbai. Her
areas of interest are Image Processing and Signal
Processing. She has 2 papers in International
Conferences/journal to her credit.

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Decreasing control overhead of ODMRP by using

passive data acknowledgement

Robabeh Ghafouri
Department of computer
Shahr-e-Qods branch, Islamic Azad University
Tehran, Iran
[email protected]

Abstract— On Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) is Unique characteristics of an ad hoc network raise several
a multicast routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks. requirements for the routing protocol design: ad hoc network
Although its simplicity and robustness to mobility, render it one routing must be simple, robust and minimize control message
of the most widely used MANET multicast protocols, it suffers exchanges. Ad hoc routing must be simple because routing is
from excessive control overhead and redundant data performed by generic mobile hosts which have limited CPU
transmissions as the network size and the number of sources and memory capacities and are powered by batteries.
increase. This event wastes valuable resources - such as channel Bandwidth is a scarce resource in wireless networks. Routing
bandwidth- and increases the packets collision. In this paper, we algorithms which consume excessive bandwidth for routing
present a new method for reducing control overhead of ODMRP
control message exchanges may not be appropriate for wireless
and called the new protocol LFPA_ODMRP (Limited Flooding
by Passive data Acknowledgements). LFPA_ODMRP restricts
networks. The topology of an ad hoc network is inherently
some nodes to flood Join-Query packets by using passive data volatile and routing algorithms must be robust against frequent
acknowledgments. Consequently it limits the scope of Join- topology changes caused by host movements.
Query packets flooding and reduces the control overhead. Many routing schemes have been presented to provide
Simulation results showed that the proposed method reduces the adequate performance of ad hoc networks, for example DBF
control overhead, end to end delay and at some conditions [1], DSDV [2], WRP [3], TORA [4], DSR [5], AODV [6],
improves the data packet delivery ratio.
ABR [7], RDMAR [8] . In addition to unicast routing
Keywords-Ad hoc networks; multicast routing; ODMRP; passive
protocols, several multicast routing protocols for ad hoc
acknowledgement; GLOMOSIM networks have been proposed in more recent years [9–13].
Multicast consists of concurrently sending the same message
from one source to multiple destinations. Unicast is a special
I. INTRODUCTION form of multicast. Some proposed multicast routing protocols
An ad hoc network is a multi-hop wireless network formed support both unicast and multicast routing [9, 10]. Multicasting
by a collection of mobile nodes without the intervention of plays a very crucial role in the application of Ad hoc networks.
fixed infrastructure. Because an ad hoc network is It plays an important role in video-conferencing, distance
infrastructure-less and self-organized, it is used to provide education, co-operative work, video on demand, replicated
impromptu communication facilities in inhospitable database updating and querying, online gaming, chat rooms
environments. Typical application areas include battlefields, etc...
emergency search and rescue sites, and data acquisition in The proposed multicast protocols for ad hoc network can be
remote areas. An ad hoc network is also useful in classrooms classified into two categories: tree-based protocols and mesh-
and conventions where participants share information based protocols. In the tree-based schemes, a single shortest
dynamically through their mobile computing devices. path between a source and a destination is selected out for data
Each mobile node in an ad hoc network functions as a delivery. MAODV [9], AMRIS [12] and AMRoute [13] are
router to establish end-to-end connections between any two typical tree-based schemes. In the mesh-based schemes,
nodes. Although a packet reaches all neighbors within multiple paths are selected for data delivery. ODMRP [9, 16,
transmission range, a mobile node has limited transmission 17], CAMP [11], FGMP [14], NSMP [15] are typical mesh-
ranges and its signals may not reach all hosts. To provide based schemes. Tree-based protocols are generally more
communications throughout the network, a sequence of efficient than mesh-based protocols, but they are not as robust
neighbor nodes from a source to a destination form a path and against topology changes as mesh-based schemes because there
intermediate mobile hosts relay packets in a store-and-forward is no alternative path between a source and a destination.
mode. Recent study [18] shows that the mesh-based schemes
generally outperform the tree-based schemes. It also concludes
that ODMRP outperforms other mesh-based protocols.

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Although ODMRP is simple and robust to mobility, it relies the packet. When the JOIN _Query packet reaches a multicast
on frequent network-wide flooding to maintain its forwarding receiver, it broadcasts join replies to the neighbors. When a
mesh. This event creates lots of control packets, and the large node receives a Join reply, it checks if the next node ID of one
amounts of control packets occupy most of limited wireless of the entries matches its own ID. If it dose, the node realize
bandwidth. Thereby, data packets cannot acquire enough that it is on the path to the source and thus is part of the
bandwidth for their transmissions. forwarding group. It then sets the FG-flag and broadcasts its
own join reply built upon matched entries. The join reply is
Some protocols were proposed to improve the ODMRP thus propagated by each forwarding group member until it
flooding scheme. The local recovery approach was introduced reaches the multicast source. This process constructs the routes
to limit the scope of flooding. According to that, most link from sources to receivers and builds a mesh of nodes, the
failure recoveries can be localized to a small region along forwarding group.
previous route [8]. NSMP [15], PatchODMRP [19],
PoolODMRP [20, 21] and PDAODMRP [22] are proposed to
save their control overhead by their local route maintenance B. Data forwarding
system. DCMP [23] reduced the control overhead by After the group establishment and route construction
dynamically classifying the sources into Active and Passive process, a multicast source can transmit packets to receivers via
categories. The key concept in DCMP is to make some sources selected routes and forwarding groups. When receiving
Passive, which then forward data packets through their core multicast data packets, a node forwards it only if it is not a
nodes. duplicate and the setting of the FG-flag for the multicast group
has not expired.
In this paper, in order to reducing the control overhead of
ODMRP, we used passive data acknowledgements to limit the
scope of join query packets flooding. By using the passive III. MOTIVATION
ACK scheme and limiting some nodes to flood Join-Request As mention in II-A, ODMRP relies on frequent network
packets, the control overhead reduced. We called the new wide flooding to maintain its forwarding mesh. This wide
protocol LFPA_ODMRP. Simulation results showed that the flooding creates lots of control packets, and the large amounts
proposed method reduces the control overhead, end to end of control packets occupy most of limited wireless bandwidth.
delay and at some conditions improves the data packet delivery The excessive control overhead degrades the scalability of the
ratio. ODMRP protocol especially when there are too many sources
in a multicast group. In this paper, we propose a method called
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II,
LFPA (Limit Flooding by Passive Acknowledgements) which
contains an overview of ODMRP. In Section III, we provide
use the passive data acknowledgement scheme and limit some
the motivation for our work. In Section IV, we describe our
nodes to flood Join-Request packets. There fore it reduces
multicast routing protocol. We present numerical results from
control messages and control overhead of ODMRP .We called
the simulation studies of our multicast routing protocol in
new protocol LFPA_ODMRP.
Section V. Finally, we make some concluding remarks in
Section VI.
IV. PROPOSED PROTOCOL DESCRIPTION

II. ON- DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL A. An overview of proposed protocol

(ODMRP)
In proposed protocol we utilized a limited flooding scheme
ODMRP is an on-demand multicast routing protocol to reducing control overhead in ODMRP. We used the Passive
designed for ad-hoc networks. This protocol was proposed in Data acknowledgements and called the new protocol
1999 by lee. It is a mesh based protocol that provides rich LFPA_ODMRP (Limited Flooding by using the Passive ACK).
connectivity among multicast members. By building a mesh LFPA_ODMRP forbids some nodes to broadcasting
and supplying multiple routes, multicast packets can be JOIN_Query Packets, by using the passive data
delivered to destination in the face of node movement and acknowledgements.
topology changed. To establish a mesh for each multicast
group, ODMRP uses the concept of forwarding group .the When node B transmits a packet to node C after receiving a
forwarding group is a set of nodes responsible for forwarding packet from node A, node A can hear the transmission of node
multicast data between any member pair . B if it is within B's radio propagation range. Hence, the packet
transmission by node B to node C is used as a passive
A. Multicast route and mesh creation acknowledgment to node A. A node may not hear the passive
acknowledgments of its downstream neighbor because of
In ODMRP, group membership and multicast routes are conflicts due to the hidden terminal problem. It will also not
established and updated by the source on demand. Similar to on hear the passive acknowledgment if the downstream neighbor
demand unicast routing protocols, a request phase and reply has moved away.
phase comprise the protocol. While a multicast source has
packets to send, it periodically broadcasts to the entire network, We can utilize these passive acknowledgments to verify the
a member advertising packet, called JOIN _Query. When a delivery of data packets. In LFPA_ODMRP the number of data
node receives a non-duplicate JOIN _Query, it stores the packets which a FG node has forwarded but it has not received
upstream node ID (i.e., backward learning) and rebroadcasts passive acknowledgement for them, are counted. We called this

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 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
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value NDD (Not Delivered Data packet) and we set a threshold data delivery and is composed of a request phase and a reply
value τ. According to NDD value and threshold value, we phase similar to ODMRP.
decide whether FG node forwards the J-Query packet and joins
to the forwarding group or not, in the next rout refresh interval. Request phase: When a source has data packets to send
without knowing routes, it floods a Join Query packet to
If NDD value of the node is greater than threshold value, acquire membership information and routes to entire network,
that node is forbidden from forwarding Join-Query packets in when a node receives a non-duplicate Join Query, it checks its
the next rout refresh interval. The higher threshold value makes “Passive ACK Table” to decide whether it drops the Join
the LFPA_ODMRP similar to ODMRP. The lower threshold Query packet or rebroadcast it. The decision principles are as
value saves more control messages, but at low threshold value follows.
and high load of network traffic, some multicast sessions have
no routes to receivers because intermediate nodes save too • We set a threshold value τ that it is double of Packet
many control massages. We determined optimized threshold Transmission Rate. NDD is number of Passive ACK
value by simulation results. Simulation results show that table entries which their delivery field is false. NDD
optimized threshold value must be double of Packet value indicates number of data packets which a FG
Transmission Rate or network traffic load. node has forwarded but it has not received passive
ACK for them.
B. The data structure of LFPA_ODMRP • For every FG node if NDD value exceeds threshold
In addition to data structures used in ODMRP, two other value, it drops the Join Query packet; otherwise it
data structures used in LFPA_ODMRP are as follow: rebroadcasts the Join Query packet.
Data Passive ACK Table: In LFPA_ODMRP this data Reply phase: After receiving Join Query packets, a
structure is created to every FG node. “Fig. 1”, shows the fields member answers its received Join Query packets with a Join
of an entry in a Data Passive ACK Table. Each entry in this Reply packet same as ODMRP. When a node receives a Join
table includes source address, group address, sequence number Reply packet, it checks whether it is a downstream node
of data packet, a flag bit to indicate whether this node has defined in the downstream list of the Join Reply packet. If the
received passive acknowledgement for this data packet or not node is a downstream node, then the node marks itself as a
and time stamp field indicates recording time of this record. forwarding node. The new forwarding node records the address
When a forwarding node receives an unduplicated data packet, of a node dealing the reply packet last (the address of the node
it inserts a record to its own “Data Passive ACK Table”. which has been received reply packet from it) as next address
in its “Next Node Table”, and broadcasts a new Join Reply
packet. Therefore, the nodes on the paths are marked as
Mcast.Addr Scr.Addr Seq.Num Time.stamp Delivery forwarding nodes, and each forwarding node knows which
nodes are its next nodes on path to receivers.
Figure 1. Format of Data Passive ACK Table

Next Node Table: Another data structure that every FG D. Data packet forwarding in LFPA_ODMRP
node maintains is “Next Node Table”. “Fig. 2”, shows the A source begins to broadcast its data packets, after its
fields of an entry in a Next Node Table. In this table, multicast forwarding mesh founded. When a FG node receives a data
address field is the address of a multicast group; source address Packet, it deals with the data packet as follows:
field is the address of a node, which initiates the data packet;
next node address field presents which node deals with the • When a forwarding node receives an unduplicated data
packet last. When a node receives join reply packet and packet, it relays the data packet then it records its
becomes a forwarding node of a group, it records the address of source address, multicast group address and sequence
a node which deals the reply packet last as next node address in number in “Passive ACK table”, if next node of this
its “Next Node Table”. Therefore, each forwarding node knows node is not pure receiver or member of multicast
which nodes are its next nodes on path to receivers. If the node group.
which its address is written in “next node address” field is pure
• When the FG node receives a data packet from its next
member of group, “It is a member” field is set “true” because
node on path to a receiver (data passive ACK), it refers
the members don’t forward data packets.
to its “Data Passive ACK Table” and sets true to
delivery field in related record.
Mcast.Addr Scr.Addr Next node Time.stamp It is a
Addr member
V. SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT
Figure 2. Format of Next Node Table We evaluated the performance of our proposed scheme by
carrying out various simulation studies. The simulation model
C. The forwarding mesh setup in LFPA_ODMRP was built around GLOMOSIM [24] developed at the
University of California, Los Angeles using PARSEC. The
LFPA_ODMRP is a mesh-based on-demand multicast
IEEE 802.11 DCF is used as the MAC protocol. The free-space
protocol which is based on ODMRP. The setup and
propagation model is used at the radio layer. In the radio
maintenance of routes are roughly the same as ODMRP with
model, we assumed that the radio type was radio-capture.
small difference. LFPA_ODMRP builds a mesh for multicast

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In our simulation model, 50 mobile nodes move within a Impact of Number of Sources: In this subsection, we test
1200m × 1200m area. The random-way-point model the impact of the number of the sources of multicast group to
implemented in GLOMOSIM is used in simulation runs and evaluate the scalability of LFPA_ODMRP. The experimental
the pause time is taken as 0 seconds. The radio transmission values of parameters are the same as that in Table 1.
range used is 250 meters. Channel capacity is assumed as
2Mbits/sec. Constant Bit Rate (CBR) model is used for data “Fig. 4”, describes the impact of the source number of
flow and each data packet size is taken as 512 bytes. multicast group on the control overhead of ODMRP and
LFPA_ODMRP. When the number of sources increases, the
The network traffic load is kept at 15 packets/sec control overhead increases in both the cases. However, in the
throughout the simulation. Sources flood Join_Query packets at case of LFPA_ODMRP, the increase in control overhead is
intervals of 3 seconds. Sources and receivers are chosen markedly less compared to that in ODMRP (about 22 %). This
randomly and join the multicast session at the beginning and is due to the fact in LFPA_ODMRP, flooding scope of the Join
remain as members throughout the simulation. The multicast Query packets is limited, whereas in ODMRP, all nodes need
group size is taken as 21. Each simulation is run for 300 to relay (transmit) the Join Query packets.
seconds of simulation time and the final results are averaged
over 20 simulation runs. We have used same simulation “Fig. 3”, describes the impact of the source number of
parameters for both LFPA_ODMRP and ODMRP. multicast group on the data delivery ratio of ODMRP and
LFPA_ODMRP. “Fig. 3”, also shows that the data delivery
ratio decreases when the number of sources increases. The data
A. Performance metrics delivery ratio of LFPA_ODMRP decreases slower than
ODMRP since it has lower control overhead.
The performance evaluation metrics used in simulation are
as follows: “Fig. 5”, describes the impact of the source number of
multicast group on the end to end delay. End to end delay is
• Packet delivery Ratio: It is defined as the ratio which mainly determined by the wireless bandwidth for data packet
the number of data packets received by receivers over transmission when their forwarding mesh is strong enough for
the number of data packets supposed to be delivered to guaranteeing the data delivery. Hence, LFPA_ODMRP has the
multicast receivers. The ratio presents the routing lower end to end delay due to its lower control overhead.
effectiveness of the protocol. The higher value of it is
the better.
• Control overhead: Number of Control Packets related 1
to the route creation process (Join query and join reply)
Data Delivery Ratio

per Data Packet Delivered. This metric represents

control overhead of each protocol. 0.9

• End to end delay: It takes for a data packet to reach its ODMRP
destination from the time it is generated at the source 0.8 LFPA_ODMRP
and includes all the queuing and protocol processing
delays in addition to the propagation and transmission
delays. 0.7
0 5 10 15 20 25
B. Simulation results Number of Sources
Several experiments were carried out to determine the Figure 3. Data delivery ratio as a function of sources
effect of number of senders, mobility and traffic load, on the
performance metrics for ODMRP and LFPA_ODMRP. The
simulation parameters are shown in Table 1.
2.5

TABLE I. VALUES OF THE SIMULATION PARAMETERS 2 ODMRP

Control Overhead

LFPA_ODMRP
experiments Number Node Traffic Threshold Multicast 1.5
of sources speed load value τ group size

1
Number of {5, 10, 15 5 m/s 15 30 21
sources ,20} pkts/sec
0.5

Mobility 5 {0, 10 , 15 30 21 0
Speed 20, pkts/sec
30,40} 0 5 10 15 20 25
Num ber of Sources
Traffic load 5 5 m/s {5, 10, {10, 20, 21 Figure 4. Control overhead as a function of sources
15, 20, 30,40 ,50}
25}

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2 0.05

1.6 0.04
End to End Delay

ODMRP

End to End Delay

1.2 LFPA_ODMRP 0.03

0.8 0.02 ODMRP

LFPA_ODMRP
0.4 0.01

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 10 20 30 40 50
Num ber of Sources Node Speed (m /s)‫ا‬

Figure 5. End to end delay as a function of sources Figure 8. End to end delay as a function of node speed.

Impact of Mobility: In mobile ad-hoc networks, the Impact of Load: In this section, we consider various
mobility is an expectable situation. Thus, we evaluate our performance metrics for packet transmission rate from 5 pkt/s
approach to see whether it is suitable for highly mobility or not. to 25 pkt/s. In this simulation, the experimental values of
In this section, we consider various performance metrics for parameters are the same as that in Table 1.
mobility from max speed 5 m/s to 40 m/s. The experimental
values of parameters are the same as that in Table 1. The packet delivery ratio vs. network traffic is shown in
“Fig. 9”. Since in LFPA_ODMRP the number of control packet
Packet delivery ratio as a function of mobility is shown in transmissions is less compared to ODMRP and hence data
“Fig. 6”. As we observe, packet delivery ratio of packet losses due to collisions are also less, resulting in more
LFPA_ODMRP is about the same as that of ODMRP. ODMRP data packet delivery at high load. Control overhead of ODMRP
and LFPA_ODMRP are insensitive to mobility because of their and LFPA_ODMRP is shown in “Fig. 10”. “Fig. 11”, shows
mesh configuration. In “Fig. 7” and “Fig. 8”, we can observe that LFPA_ODMRP has reduced the end to end delay by
that LFPA_ODMRP has the fewer control overhead (about decreasing the control overhead. In LFPA_ODMRP the control
23%) and end to end delay than ODMRP. overhead was reduced by 24%.
1 1
DataDelivery Ratio
DataDelivery Ratio

0.8
0.9
0.6
ODMRP
ODMRP
0.4 0.8 LFPA_ODMRP
LFPA_ODMRP
0.2
0.7
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 10 20 30 40 50
Node Speed (m /s) Netw ork Traffic Load(pkt/sec)

Figure 6. Data delivery Ratio as a function of node speed. Figure 9. Data Delivery ratio as a function of Packet Transmission Rate

0.6
1.4
0.5 1.2 ODMRP
Control Overhead
Control O verhead

0.4 1 LFPA_ODMRP

0.3 0.8
ODMRP
0.6
0.2 LFPA_ODMRP 0.4
0.1 0.2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Node Speed (m /s) Netw ork Traffic Load(pkt/sec)
Figure 7. Control overhead as a function of node speed Figure 10. Control overhead as a function of Packet Transmission Rate

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2 Vol. 9, No. 7, 2011
[13] E. Bommaiah, M. Lui, A. McAuley, R. Talpade, “AMRoute: Adhoc
Multicast Routing Protocol”, Internet draft IETF, August 1998.
End to End Delay

1.5 ODMRP [14] Ching-Chuan Chiang, Mario Gerla, and Lixia Zhang, “Forwarding group
LFPA_ODMRP multicast protocol (fgmp) for multihop, mobile wireless networks,” Cluster
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[15] S. Lee, C. Kim, “A new wireless ad hoc multicast routing protocol”,
Journal of Computer Networks 38 (2), 2002, pp. 121–135.
0.5
[16] S. Lee, W. Su, M. Gerla, “On-demand multicast routing protocol
(ODMRP) for ad hoc networks”, Internet-draft, IETF July 2000.
0 [17] S. Lee,W. Su,M. Gerla, “Ad hoc wirelessmulticast withmobility
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 prediction”, Proceedings of IEEE ICCCN’99, Boston, MA October1999 ,
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of ad hoc wireless multicast protocols”, Proceedings of INFOCOM’2000, Tel-
Figure 11. End to end delay as a function of Packet Transmission Rate Aviv, Israel 2000, pp. 751–756.
[19] M. Lee, Y.K. Kim, “PatchODMRP: an ad-hoc multicast routing
protocol”, Proceedings of the 15th International conference on Information
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Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Mitigating App-DDoS Attacks on Web Servers

1 2
Ms. Manisha M. Patil Prof. U. L. Kulkarni.
1, 2
Dr .D. Y. Patil College of Engineering &Technology, Konkan Gyanpeeth’s College of Engineering,
Kolhapur, (Maharashtra) India. Karjat, Dist.-Raigad, (Maharashtra) India
E-mail:[email protected] E-mail:[email protected]

Abstract—In this paper, a lightweight mechanism is proposed The intent of these attacks is to consume the network
to mitigate session flooding and request flooding app-DDoS bandwidth and deny service to legitimate users of the
attacks on web servers. App-DDoS attack is Application layer systems. Many studies has noticed such type of attacks and
Distributed Denial of Service attack. This attack prevents proposed different mechanisms, solutions to protect the
legitimate users from accessing services. Numbers of network and equipment from bandwidth attacks. So it is not
mechanisms are available and can be installed on routers and
easy as in the past for attackers to launch the network layer
DDoS attacks.
firewalls to mitigate network layer DDoS attacks like SYN-
flood attack, ping of death attack. But Network layer solution When the simple Net-DDoS attacks fail, attackers are
is not applicable because App-DDoS attacks are giving their way to more sophisticated Application layer
indistinguishable based on packets and protocols. A DDoS attacks [2].
lightweight mechanism is proposed which uses trust to Application layer DDoS attack is a DDoS attack that
differentiate legitimate users and attackers. Trust to client is sends out requests following the communication protocol
evaluated based on his visiting history and requests are and thus these requests are indistinguishable from
scheduled in decreasing order of trust. In this mechanism legitimate requests in the network layer. Most application
trust information is stored at client side in the form of cookies. layer protocols, for example, HTTP1.0/1.1, FTP and SOAP,
This mitigation mechanism can be implemented as a java are built on TCP and they communicate with users using
package which can run separately and forward valid requests sessions which consist of one or many requests. As App-
DDoS attacks are indistinguishable from legitimate requests
to server. This mechanism also mitigates request flooding
based on packets and protocols, network layer solution
attacks by using Client Puzzle Protocol. When server is under cannot be used here. Most existing scheme uses packet rate
request flooding attack source throttling is done by imposing as a metric to identify attackers. But intelligent users can
cost on client. Cost is collected in terms of CPU cycles. adjust the packet rate based on server’s response to evade
detection. Even IP address based filtering is not possible as
Keywords— DDoS attacks, App-DDoS, Trust. attackers may hide behind proxies or IP addresses can be
spoofed.
I. INTRODUCTION Application layer DDoS attacks employ legitimate
Distributed Denial of Service attack means an attempt to HTTP requests to flood out victim’s resources. Attackers
prevent a server from offering services to its attacking victim web servers by HTTP GET requests
legitimate/genuine users. This is accomplished by attackers (HTTP flooding) and pulling large image files from victim
by sending requests in overwhelming number to exhaust the server in large numbers. Sometimes attackers can run large
server’s resources, e.g. bandwidth or processing power. number of queries through victim’s search engine or
database query and bring the server down [6].
Due to such DDoS attacks server slows down its
responses to clients or sometimes refuses their accesses. Application layer attack may be of one or combination
Thus DDoS attack is great threat to internet today. of session flooding attack, request flooding attack and
asymmetric attack [1]. Session flooding attack sends
Now a day many of the businesses like banking, trading, session connection requests at higher rates than that of
online shopping uses World Wide Web. So it is very legitimate users. Request flooding attack sends sessions that
essential to protect the web sites from this DDoS attacks. contain more requests than normal sessions.
Traditionally, DDoS attacks were carried out at the Asymmetric attack sends sessions with higher workload
network layer, such as SYN flooding, UDP flooding, ping requests. The proposed mechanism focuses the session
of death attacks, which are called Net-DDoS attacks. flooding attacks and request flooding attacks.

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By considering the bandwidth and processing power of accepts incoming requests. The mechanism needs a
application layer server, threshold for simultaneously challenge server which can be the new target of DDoS
connected sessions and maximum number of requests that attack.
can be serviced with assurance of Quality of service is
decided. Under session flooding attack the proposed J. Yu, Z. Li, H. Chen, and X. Chen proposed a
mechanism rejects the attackers and allocates the available mechanism named DOW (Defense an Offence Wall), which
sessions to legitimate users. Under request flooding attacks defends against layer-7 attacks using combination of
the proposed mechanism sends puzzles to the client and the detection technology and currency technology [5]. An
requests are processed only when client sends result back anomaly detection method based on K-means clustering is
by solving the puzzles. introduced to detect and filter request flooding attacks and
asymmetric attacks. But this mechanism requires large
The proposed mechanism uses trust to mitigate session amount of training data.
flooding attack and Client Puzzle Protocol to mitigate
request flooding attack. Yi Xie and Shun-Zheng Yu introduced a scheme to
capture the spatial-temporal patterns of a normal flash
Distributed Denial of Service attacks have been crowd event and to implement the App-DDoS attacks
increasing in the recent times. Most of the well known sites detection [9]. Since the traffic characteristics of low layers
are affected by these kinds of attacks. Commercial sites are are not enough to distinguish the App-DDoS attacks from
more vulnerable during the business time as there will the normal flash crowd event, the objective of their work is
be many genuine users accessing it, and attacker needs to find an effective method to identify whether the
only a little effort to launch DDoS attack. It is difficult surge in traffic is caused by App-DDoS attackers or by
to prevent such attacks from happening and the attackers normal Web surfers. Web user behavior is mainly
may continue their damage using new and innovative influenced by the structure of Website (e.g., the Web
approaches. Proposed mechanism is a way to handle the documents and hyperlink) and the way users access web
situation without any change at the user end and very little pages. In this paper, the monitoring scheme considers the
change at the server end. App-DDoS attack as anomaly browsing behavior.
The idea is to assign trust value to each client according Our literature survey has noted that many
to his visiting history and allocate available number of mechanisms are developed to service legitimate users only.
sessions to users according to their decreasing order of trust Abnormalities are identified and denied. But large amount
values. To improve the server performance under request of training data is required. Sometimes mitigation
flooding DDoS attacks, attacker enforced to pay the CPU mechanism can itself becomes target of DDoS attack.
stamp fee, hence making the attacker also to use his
resources more or less equally [4]. When a client is The need is felt to design and develop a new
making legitimate requests, this cost is negligible but when lightweight mechanism that can mitigate both session
the client becomes malicious the costs grow huge there by flooding and requests flooding Application layer DDoS
imposing a limit on the number of requests that the client attacks with small amount of training data. It will service all
can send. users if and only if resource is available and use bandwidth
effectively. It will identify the abnormalities and serve them
To clarify the idea, we can design a small hypothetical with different priorities.
website which will handle 500 requests per second. The
distributed attack is launched against the website using web III. LEGITIMATE USER & ATTACKER MODEL
stress tool and it will start sending 1000 requests per We can build legitimate user model and attacker
second. Then performance of website is measured without model with several attack strategies of different
mitigation mechanism and with mitigation mechanism. complexities. We can make few assumptions about web
server.
II. RELATED WORK
S. Ranjan et al. proposed a counter-mechanism by Assumption 1: Under session flooding attacks, the
building legitimate user model for each service and bottleneck is maximal number of simultaneously connected
detecting suspicious requests based on the contents of the sessions called MaxConnector. It depends on banwidth and
requests [2]. To protect servers from application layer processing power of the server.
DDoS attacks, they proposed a counter-mechanism that Assumption 2: Without attacks, the total number of
consist of a suspicion assignment mechanism and DDoS session connections of server should be much small than
resilient scheduler DDoS shield. The suspicion mechanism MaxConnector.
assigns continuous value as opposed to a binary measure to
each client session, and scheduler utilizes these values to Assumption 3: Under request flooding attacks, the
determine if and when to schedule a session’s requests. bottleneck is maximal number of requests in one session
that can be processed with assured quality of service.
M. Srivatsa et el. performed admission control to
limit the number of concurrent clients served by the online Legitimate User Model:
service [3]. Admission control is based on port hiding that Legitimate users are people who request services for
renders the online service invisible to unauthenticated their benefit from the content of the services. So, the inter-
clients by hiding the port number on which the service arrival time of requests from a legitimate user would form a

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certain density distribution density (t). Here t is inter-arrival V. TRUST VALUE COMPUTATION
time and density (t) is the probability a legitimate user will Every time when new session connection request is
revisit the website after time t. The traces collected at made by client, new value of short term trust and long term
AT&T Labs Research and Digital Equipment Corporation trust is first calculated. Short term trust relies on the interval
by F. Douglis et el. [8] is used to build model density (t). of the latest two accesses of the client. Long term trust is
Attacker Model: calculated using the negative trust, average access interval
and total number of accesses. Using long term trust, short
The goal of session flooding DDoS attack is to keep the
term trust just calculated and misusing trust provided in the
number of simultaneous session connections of the server
trust information, new value of overall trust is computed.
as large as possible to stop new connection requests from
legitimate users being accepted. Attacker may consider Negative trust is computed by cumulating difference of
using following strategies when he controls lots of zombie newly computed trust to the initial trust value each time
machines. new trust value is smaller than initial value. The misusing
trust is computed by cumulating the difference in trust
1. Send session connection requests at a fixed rate,
value if new trust value is smaller than previous value.
without considering response or the service ability of
victim. VI. TRUST BASED SCHEDULER
2. Send session connection requests at a random rate, The session connection request first reaches to the
without considering response or the service ability of mitigation mechanism. Then new trust value is calculated.
victim. If it is below the minimum value then request is directly
3. Send session connection requests at a random rate rejected. If it is above the minimum value then the
and consider the service ability of victim by adjusting scheduler decides whether to redirect it to the server based
requests at a rate according to the proportion of accepted upon its trust value. If total number of ongoing sessions
session connection requests by server. and number of waiting sessions is less than the threshold
4. First send session connection requests at a rate value of server then all requests are redirected to server.
Otherwise requests up to threshold value are redirected to
similar to legitimate users to gain trust from server, then
server in decreasing order of trust value.
start attacking with one of the above strategies.
5. Sends sessions containing large number of requests
than that of the legitimate user session.
IV. ASSIGNING THE TRUST VALUE
For every established connection four aspects of trusts
are recorded. They are short term trust, long term trust,
negative trust and misusing trust [1]. To evaluate visiting
history of clients, trust value is used. The client who
behaves better in history gets higher value of trust. Four
aspects of trust are used for calculating overall trust value
of the client.
1) Short term trust: It estimates recent value of trust. It
is used to identify those clients who send session Fig. 1. Proposed Mechanism
connection requests at a high rate when server is under
session flooding attack. This mechanism can be implemented as a package,
which can run separately and redirect scheduled requests to
2) Long term trust: It estimates long term behavior of web servers and thus mitigate session flooding attack.
client. It is used to distinguish clients with normal visiting
history from clients with abnormal visiting history.
3) Negative trust: It is calculated by cumulating the
distrust to the client, each time clients overall trust falls
below initial trust value.
4) Misusing trust: It is calculated by cumulating the
suspicious behavior of the client who misuses his
cumulated trust.
Every time client makes session connection request,
new trust value is calculated. The calculated trust value is
stored at client side using cookies.

Fig. 2. Module Structures

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VII. HANDLING REQUEST FLOODING ATTACKS In the above algorithm the cip represents the clients
Once the mitigation mechanism for session flooding IP address and it is in the form of A.B.C.D. ipMapValue is
attacks redirects requests to web server, session is started. the value that is generated from the client IP address and
Request flooding attacks are those that send sessions with this value is unique for each client. So the ‘q’ value
large number of requests than that of legitimate users. So generated for each client will be unique. The ‘NP’ in the
here numbers of request are compared with predefined above algorithm represents the number of primes in
threshold and if it is less than threshold then all requests are ‘Primes’ array.
processed in normal way. Otherwise some cost is imposed VIII. RESULT AND ANALYSIS
to the web client to make each such request [4].
Fig. 3 shows the change of overall trusts of attackers.
The cost can be collected in terms of CPU cycles. Here Fig. 3a shows trusts of legitimate user. All requests are
server will send a puzzle to the client and wait for reply accepted as trust is above the threshold 0.1. It shows that
from that client before the request is processed. If client the trusts of legitimate users quickly increase from 0.1 to
does not send reply, request will not be processed. Thus 0.3 in first few sessions.
automatically rate of requests will be decreased as client’s
processer has to spend some time to solve the puzzle. When
number of requests is less then this cost is very negligible
but as number of requests grows it will be significant. It
will cause source throttling effect. If requests are sent by
compromised hosts then they might not be able to send
reply of puzzle. JavaScript is used to implement this. When
number of requests is more than threshold, java script is
invoked to send the number ‘n’ which is the product of two
4 digit prime numbers, to the client making the request.
Then client has to compute two prime factors of ‘n’ and
send back the result. When the client sends answer, then
and then only request is processed. Here processing power
of attacker’s CPU is used. This will achieve attacker source
throttling effect. Source throttling module will calculate the
value of ‘n’ by taking two prime numbers ‘p’ and ‘q’ from a) No attack
primes array and multiplying them.
Algorithms to generate ‘p’ and ‘q’ values dynamically
are as follows:

Algorithm 1: Generate p
GenerateP(NP,primes,st)
{
pMapValue=(st) mod NP
p=primes[pMapValue]
return p
}

In the above algorithm the st represents the server’s

current time in milliseconds. As st differs for every
millisecond the ‘p’ value generated will be unique for each
request.
b) Attack with Strategy 1
Algorithm 2: Generate q
For Fig. 3b), attacker use strategy 1. He sends session
GenerateQ(NP,primes,cip) connection requests with fixed rate at one request per 30
{ seconds. The trust of attacker fluctuates and decreases
below the threshold after few sessions.
cip=”A.B.C.D”
For Fig. 3c), attacker uses strategy 2. He sends session
ipMapValue=224*A+216*B+28*C+D connection requests at random rate. The randomness of
attack rate causes fluctuation of the trust values as shown in
qMapValue=(ipMapValue) mod NP
figure.
q=primes[qMapValue]
For Fig. 3d), attacker use strategy 3. He adjusts sending
return q rate according to the rate of accepted requests by the server.
The attack strategy increases fluctuation of trusts and most
}

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of the times trust value goes below the threshold and The goal of request flooding attack is to send so
session is rejected. many requests in one session that server remains busy in
handling those requests and it cannot accept other
For Fig. 3e), attacker use strategy 4. First he sends legitimate user’s requests. Here source throttling module is
session connection requests like a legitimate user, so the invoked to send puzzle to client, when number of requests
trust value increases for first few sessions. But as he starts in one session goes beyond the threshold. Thus for each
attacking by using strategy 2, misusing trust starts next request cost is imposed on the client in terms of CPU
increasing and so within next few sessions trust decreases cycles. Fig. 4 shows client’s CPU utilization against the
below the threshold and sessions are rejected. number of requests. When number of requests goes beyond
the threshold, client’s CPU utilization also increases due to
source throttling module.

c) Attack with Strategy 2

Fig. 4. Client’s CPU utilization over the number of

requests in a session
Fig. 5 shows graph of Response time of genuine user
with and without solution. The graph shows that response
time of genuine user decreases if proposed solution is used.

d) Attack with Strategy 3

Fig. 5. Client’s Response Time (in milliseconds) With

Solution and Without Solution

IX. CONCLUSION
To defend against application layer DDoS attack is
pressing problem of the Internet. Motivated by the fact that
it is more important for service provider to accommodate
e) Attack with Strategy 4 good users when there is scarcity in resources, we have
used lightweight mechanism to mitigate session flooding
Fig. 3. Trusts over the number of sessions attack using trust evaluated from user’s visiting history. The
request flooding attack is also handled by throttling client’s

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CPU. Due to this mechanism genuine user’s response time

decreases and attacks are mitigated. In future, work can be
extended to mitigate other types of application layer DDoS
attacks like asymmetric attack.
X. REFERENCES

[1] Jie Yu, Chengfang Fang, Liming Lu, Zhoujun Li. Lightweight Mechanism to
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[2] Supranamaya Ranjan, Ram Swaminathan, Mustafa Uysal, Edward

Knightly. DDoS Shield: DDoS-Resilient Scheduling to Counter
Application Layer DDoS Attacks. In IEEE/ACM TRANSACTIONS ON
NETWORKING, VOL. 17, NO. 1, 2009.

[3]M. Srivatsa, A. Iyengar, J. Yin, and L. Liu. Mitigating application-level

denial of service attacks on Web servers: A client-transparent approach.
ACM Transactions on the Web, 2008.

[4] Saraiah gujjunoori, Taqi Ali Syed, Madhu Babu J, Avinash D,

Radhesh Mohandas, Alwyn R Pais. Throttling DDoS Attacks. In
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(SECRYPT 2009), Milan, Italy, July 7-10, 2009.

[5]J. Yu, Z. Li, H. Chen, and X. Chen. A Detection and Offense Mechanism to
Defend Against Application Layer DDoS Attacks. In Proceedings of
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[6]P. Niranjan Reddy, K. Praveen Kumar, M. Preethi. Optimising The

Application-layer DDoS Attacks for Networks. In IJCSIS Vol. 8 No. 3,
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[7]Y. Xie and S. Yu. A large-scale hidden semi-Markov model for anomaly
detection on user browsing behaviors. IEEE/ACM Transactions on
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[8] F.Douglis, A. Feldmanz, and B.Krishnamurty. Rate of change and other

metrics: a live study of the World Wide Web. In Proceedings of USENIX
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[9] Yi Xie and Shun-Zheng Yu. Monitoring the Application-Layer DDoS

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AUTHORS PROFILE

Ms. Manisha Mohan Patil has achieved B.E.

(Computer Science and Engineering) degree from
Walchand College of Engineering, Sangli in 2002. She is
now pursuing M. E. ( Computer Science and Engineering)
degree from Dr. D. Y. Patil College of Engineering &
Technology, Kolhapur, Maharashtra.
Prof. U. L. Kulkarni has completed M.E. (Computer
Science and Engineering) degree from Walchand College
of Engineering, Sangli. He is working as a Assistance
Professor at Konkan Gyanpeeth’s College of Engineering,
Karjat, Dist.-Raigad, (Maharashtra) India. He has 11years
of teaching experience. His research areas are Artificial
Neural Network, Image Processing, Network Security.

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A Framework For Measuring External Quality Of

Web-sites
Ritu Shrivastava Dr. R.K. Pandey Dr. M. Kumar
Department of Computer Science Director, University Institute of Department of Computer Science and
and Engineering Technology, Engineering
Sagar Institute of Research Barkatullah University Sagar Institute of Research
Technology & Science Bhopal 462041, India Technology
Bhopal 462041, India Bhopal 462041, India

Abstract— Web-sites are domain intensive and some important The aim of this research is to evolve a generic framework
categories are social, cultural, entertainment, e-commerce, e- that can be applied to measure external quality of Web-sites of
government, museum, tourism, academic, etc. It is obvious that all domains. Such a framework is possible because it has been
domains of Web-sites differ significantly, and hence a common observed that many attributes and sub-attributes are common to
yardstick can not be applied to measure quality of all Web-sites. all domains and only domain specific attributes and sub-
Signore, Loranca, Olsina, Tripathi, Kumar and others have tried attributes are different. Here, we have considered Web-site
to define quality characteristics that are domain specific. quality measurement process from the point of view of user
Attempts have also been made to empirically validate these (that is external quality) only.
quality characteristics models. While measuring quality of Web-
sites from external point of view, that is quality in use, it has been
observed that many quality characteristics are common across II. LITRATURE SURVEY
domains of Web-sites and some domain specific characteristics The software industry is more than three decades old but it
change. The authors, therefore, have made an attempt to evolve a still lacks a rigorous model of attributes and metrics that can be
common framework to measure external quality of Web-sites and
used to measure the quality of finished software product. It is
have applied this framework to measure quality of academic
due to the fact that the perception of quality differs from
institute Web-sites.
person to person. It is natural because users are interested in
Keywords-component; Web-site Quality, Academic domain, external quality (quality in use) i.e. usability, functionality etc.,
Hierarchical model, Attributes, Metrics where as developers are interested in maintainability,
portability etc. Some widely used software quality models
were proposed by Boehm, Brown and Lipow [9], and McCall
I. INTRODUCTION and Covano [10]. A complete survey of metrics used to
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a see of information of measure quality of software can be found in [12,13].
almost all disciplines like philosophy, art, culture,
entertainment, science, engineering and medical science etc. International bodies such as ISO and CEN(European) are
The information content on WWW is growing at rapid pace trying to integrate different approaches to the definition of
due to uploading of many new Web-sites every day. Often quality, starting from the awareness that the quality as an
quality of Web-sites is unsatisfactory and basic Web principles attribute which changes developer’s perspective and action
like inter-portability and accessibility are ignored [1, 2]. The context [11]. The ISO/IEC 9126 model [11] defines three
main reason for lack of quality is unavailability of trained staff views of quality: user’s view, developer’s view, and manager’s
in Web technologies/engineering and orientation of Web view. Users are interested in the quality in use (external quality
towards a more complex XML based architecture [1, 2, 3]. attributes), while developers are interested in internal quality
attributes such as maintainability, portability etc. This model is
Web-sites can be categorized as social, cultural, e- hierarchical and contains six major quality attributes each very
commerce, e-government, museums, tourism, entertainment, broad in nature. They are subdivided into 27 sub-attributes that
and academic intensive. It is obvious that domains of Web-sites contribute to external quality and 21 sub-attributes that
differ significantly, and hence a common yardstick can not be contribute to internal quality.
applied to measure quality of all Web-sites. Loranca et. al. [4]
and Olsina et. al. [5] have identified attributes, sub-attributes, Olsina et. al. [5,6] have proposed hierarchical models of
and metrics for e-commerce based Web-sites. Olsina et. al. [6] attributes, sub-attributes and metrics for assessing quality of
have also specified metrics for Web-sites of museums. Tripathi Web-sites of museum and e-commerce domains. They have
and Kumar [7] have specified quality characteristics for e- also developed a technique called WebQEM to measure quality
commerce based Web-sites of Indian origin from user point of of these sites [5]. Tripathi and Kumar [7] have identified
view. Recently, Shrivastava, Rana and Kumar [8] have attributes, sub-attributes and metrics for Indian origin e-
specified characteristics, sub-characteristics and metrics to commerce Web-sites. They have validated the proposed quality
measure external quality of academic Web-sites from user characteristics model both theoretically and empirically [14].
point of view.

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Recently, Shrivastava, Rana and Kumar [8] have proposed and
theoretically validated a hierarchical model of attributes, sub-

Evaluation
Goals

Needs Guide
Web lines ISO/IEC
User 9126 Model

Evaluation Design
Quality Req. Quality Req.
Definitions Specifications
Web product
Description

Elementary Global
Metric Preference Preference
Selection Criteria Criteria
definition definition

Evaluation Implementation
Web product Measured Elementary Scored Partial / Global Final
Measurement
Implementation Preference Preference
components Values Implementation Values Implementation Result

Fig 1: Generic Framework of External Quality Measurement of Websites

The selected characteristics, sub-characteristics and metrics

are translated into quality requirement tree. In our case, we
attributes and metrics for evaluating quality of Web-sites of prepared quality requirement tree (see Fig. 2) using this
academic domain. In this research, we are proposing a principle and validated it in the paper [8].
generic framework that can be applied to measure external
quality of Web-sites of all domains. The framework is given 2. Elementary Evaluation that is Design and
in Fig. 1 and is described in the next section. Implementation of Measurement Criterion:
Elementary evaluation consists of evaluation design and
III. GENERICFRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATING implementation. Thus, for each measurable attribute Ai of
quality requirement tree, we can associate a variable Xi
EXTERNAL QUALITY
which can take a real value of the attribute (metric). It
The suggested framework of Fig. 1 is useful to evaluate should be noted that the measured metric value will not
external quality of operational Web-sites. The framework represent the elementary requirement satisfaction level, so it
suggests that evaluator should identify user needs becomes necessary to define an elementary criterion
(expectations) from Web-sites along with common practice function that will yield elementary indicator or satisfaction
of describing quality characteristics as defined in works of level. For example, consider invalid links then a possible
Bohem et. al. [9], McCall et. al. [10], ISO/IEC 9126-1 indirect metric could be
standard [11]. The identified characteristics, sub- X = # invalid links / # total links on website.
characteristics should be expressed in terms of lower We can now define elementary criterion function (or
abstraction attributes (metrics) that are directly measurable. elementary quality preference EP ) as
The framework also suggests that the quality evaluation
process consist of following three phases EP = 1 (full satisfaction), if X = 0
= (Xmax – X)/Xmax, if X < Xmax
1. Quality Requirements Definition and Specification: = 0 ( no satisfaction), if X = > Xmax
Here, evaluators select a quality model, say, ISO 9126-1
which specifies general quality characteristics of software where Xmax is some agreed threshold value for invalid links.
products. Depending upon evaluation goal (internal or
external) they select appropriate characteristics quality 3. Global Evaluation that is Design and
model [ 11] and also user expectation (viewpoint) translated Implementation of Combining all Measurements
in terms of characteristics, sub-characteristics and metrics. to Rank Websites:

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Here, we select an aggregation criterion and a scoring We can not use equation (1) to model input simultaneity.
model to globally rank Websites. Further, this makes our The nonlinear multi-criteria scoring model is used to
evaluation model more structured, accurate, and easy to represent input simultaneity or replace ability, etc. This is a
apply. For aggregation, we can use either linear additive generalized additive model, called Logic Scoring
model [15] or non-linear multi-scoring model [16]. Both use Preferences (LSP) model (see [16]), and is expressed as
weights to consider relative importance of metrics in the

( )
quality tree. The aggregation and partial/global preferences m
P / GP = ∑ Wi EPi r
1/ r
(P/GP) or indicators, in case of additive model, can be ; i = 1,2,........, m (2)
calculated using formula i =1

(1)
Where − ∞ ≤ r ≤ ∞ and

where Wi are weights and EPi are elementary preferences in

unit interval range. The following is true for any EPi

or The parameter r is a real number that is selected to achieve

the desired logical relationship and polarization intensity.
(in percentage) The equation (2) is additive when r = 1, which models
Further neutrality relationships. The equation (2) models input
replace ability or disjunction when r ≥ 1 and models input
1, and Wi > 0 for each i, i = 1,2, …….m. conjunction or simultaneity when r<1.
It should be noted that the basic arithmetic aggregation
operator in equation (1) for inputs is the plus (+) connector.
1 Usability 2.3. Student-Oriented Features
1.1. Global Site understandability 2.3.1 Academic Infrastructure Information
1.1.1 Site Map(location map) 2.3.1.1 Library Information
1.1.2 Table of Content 2.3.1.2 Laboratory Information
1.1.3 Alphabetical Index 2.3.1.3 Research Facility Information
1.1.4 Campus Image Map 2.3.1.4 Central Computing Facility Information
1.1.5 Guided Tour 2.3.2 Student Service Information
1.2. On-line Feedback and Help Features 2.3.2.1 Hostel Facility Information
1.2.1 Student Oriented Help 2.3.2.2 Sport Facilities
1.2.2 Search Help 2.3.2.3 Canteen Facility Information
1.2.3 Web-site last Update Indicator 2.3.2.4 Scholarship Information
1.2.4 E-mail Directory 2.3.2.5 Doctor/Medical Facility Information
1.2.5 Phone Directory 2.3.3 Academic Information
1.2.6 FAQ 2.3.3.1 Courses Offered Information
1.2.7 On-line Feedback in form of Questionnaire 2.3.3.2 Academic Unit (Department) Information
1.3. Interface and Aesthetic Features 2.3.3.3 Academic Unit Site Map
1.3.1 Link Color Style Uniformity 2.3.3.4 Syllabus Information
1.3.2 Global Style Uniformity 2.3.3.5 Syllabus Search
1.3.3 What is New Feature 2.3.4 Enrollment Information
1.3.4 Grouping of Main Control Objects 2.3.4.1 Notification uploaded
2.3.4.2 Form Fill/Download
2 Functionality 2.3.5 Online Services
2.1. Search Mechanism 2.3.5.1 Grade/ Result Information
2.1.1 People Search 2.3.5.2 Fee dues/Deposit Information
2.1.2 Course Search 2.3.5.3 News Group Services
2.1.3 Academic Department Search
2.1.4 Global Search 3 Reliability
2.2. Navigation and Browsing 3.1. Link and Other Errors
2.2.1 Path Indicator 3.1.1 Dangling Links
2.2.2 Current Position Indicator 3.1.2 Invalid Links
2.2.3 Average Links Per Page 3.1.3 Unimplemented Links
2.2.4 Vertical Scrolling 3.1.4 Browser Difference Error
2.2.5 Horizontal Scrolling 3.1.5 Unexpected Under Construction Pages
4 Efficiency
4.1 Performance
4.1.2 Matching of Link Title and Page Information
4.1.3 Support for Text only Version
4.1.4 Global Readability
4.1.5 Multilingual Support

Fig. 2 Quality Characteristics For Academic Institute Web-sites

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Table 1 A Sample Template for Measuring Functionality

Template Illustrative Example
Title(code) Functionality (2)
Type Characteristics
Sub-characteristic (Code) Search Mechanism (2.1)
Definition & Comments The capability of Web-site to maintain specific level of search mechanism

Subtitle (code) Academic Department Search (2.1.3)

Type Attribute
Definition and Comments It represents the facility to search for any department in the institute
Metric criterion To find out whether such a search mechanism exists on the Website
Data collection Whether data is gathered manually or automatically through some tools ( manually)
Elementary Preference Function EP=1, if search mechanism exists
= 0, if it does not exist.

Table 2 Attribute Measured Values

Attribute IIT, Delhi MANIT, Bhopal BITS, Pilani CBIT, Hyderabad
1.1.1 100 100 100 100
1.1.2 100 100 100 100
1.1.3 0 0 0 0
1.1.4 100 0 80 100
1.1.5 80 0 100 0
1.2.1 100 0 100 0
1.2.3 100 0 0 0
1.2.4 100 80 0 0
1.2.5 100 60 0 0
1.2.7 100 0 0 0
2.1.1 100 80 100 0
2.1.2 100 100 100 100
2.1.3 100 100 100 100
2.2.1 100 0 0 100
2.2.2 100 0 0 100
2.2.3 90 80 70 70
2.2.4 100 100 100 100
2.2.5 0 0 0 0
2.3.1.1 100 100 100 100
2.3.1.3 100 60 100 40
2.3.1.4 100 0 0 0
2.3.3.1 100 100 100 100
2.3.3.2 100 100 100 100
2.3..3.3 100 0 0 0
2.3.3.4 100 100 100 100

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measuring the quality. The framework is applied to measure
IV. APPLYING THE FRAMEWORK metric values of Fig. 2 and the measured values are given in
Following the guidelines given in the section III, and the Table 2. The global usability and functionality of the sites are
hierarchical tree of quality characteristics (Fig.2), we have given in Fig. 3 & 4. The work of partial and global evaluation
evaluated external quality of Web-sites of four academic using generalized model (equation (2)) is in progress and will
institutions, viz., I. I. T., Delhi, M. A. N. I. T., Bhopal, B. I. T. be reported soon.
S., Pilani, and C. B. I. T., Hyderabad. During the evaluation
process, we have defined for each quantifiable attribute, the REFERENCES
basis for the elementary evaluation criterion so that [1] O. Signore , “Towards a quality model for Web-sites” , CMG
Poland Annual Conference, Warsaw, 9-10 May, 2005,
measurement becomes unambiguous. For this, we have created http://www.w3c.it/papers/cmg2005Poland-quality.pdf.
templates as shown in Table 1 for each characteristic of [2] J. Offutt , “Quality attributes of Web software applications” , IEEE
hierarchical tree of Fig. 2 and measured each attribute Software, March/April, pp25-32, 2002.
(measurements were taken between 1st and 15th April 2011). [3] O. Signore, et. al. , “Web accessibility principles” , International
The measured values of some attributes are given in Table 2. Context and Italian Regulations”, EuroCMG, Vienna, 19-21 Sept.
We have used additive model (equation (1)) to calculate 2004, http://www.w3c.it/paperseurocmg2004.pdf.
usability and functionality of sites. The values are shown in [4] M. B. Loranca, J. E.Espinosa, et. al. , “Study for classification of
quality attributees in Argentinean E-commmerce sites” , Proc. 16th
Fig. 3 & 4. IEEE Itern. Conf. on Electronics Communication & Computers
2006.
[5] L. Olsina and G. Rossi, “Measuring Web application quality with
WebQEM” , IEEE Multimedia, pp 20-29. Oct-Dec 2002.
[6] L. Olsina , “Website quality evaluation method : A case study of
Museums”, 2nd workshop on Software Engineering over Iternet,
ICSE 1999.
[7] P. Tripathi, M. Kumar ,” Some observations on quality models for
Web-applications” , Proc. of Intern Conf on Web Engineering and
Applications, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, India, 23-24 Dec 2006 (Proc
Published by Macmillan 2006).
[8] R. Shrivastava, J. L. Rana and M. Kumar, “Specifying and
Validating Quality Characteristics for Academic Web-sites –
Indian Origin”, Intern. Journ. of Computer Sc. and Information
Security, Vol 8, No 4, 2010.
[9] B. Boehm, J. Brown, M. Lipow, “Quantitative evaluation of
software quality process” , Intern. Conference on Software
Engineering, IEEE Comdputer Society Press, pp 592-605, 1976.
[10] J. Covano, J. McCall , “A framework for measurement of software
quality “ , Proc. ACM Software Quality Assurance Workshop,
pp133-139, 1978.
[11] ISO/IEC 9126-1 : Software Engineering – Product Quality Part 1
: Quality Model(2000) : http://www.usabilitynet
.org/tools/international.html#9126-1.
[12] IEEE Std. 1061, “IEEE Standard for Software Quality Metrics
Methodology”, 1992.
[13] N. E. Fenton and S. L. Fleeger, Software Metrics: A Regorous
Approach, 2nd Edition, PWS Publishing Company, 1997.
[14] P. Tripathi , M. Kumar and N. Shrivastava, “ Ranking of Indian
E-commerce Web-applications by measuring quality factors “ ,
Proc of 9th ACIS Itern Conf on Software Engineering, AI,
Networking and Parallel/Distributed Computing, Hilton Phulket,
Thailand, (Proc Published by IEEE Comp. Soc.), Aug 6-8, 2008.
[15] T. Gilb, Software Metrics, Chartwell-Bratt, Cambridge, Mass,
1976.
[16] J. J. Dujmovic, “A Method for Evaluation and Selection of
Complex Heardwar and Software Systems”, Proc. 2nd Intern Conf
Resource Management and Performance Evaluation of Computer
Systems, Vol. 1, Computer Measurement Group, Turnesville, N. J.,
pp. 368-378, 1996.
V. CONCLUSION
The paper describes a generic framework for measuring AUTHORS PROFILE
external quality of Web-sites. It emphasizes that Web user
needs, evaluation goals and international guidelines for quality Ritu Shrivastava has taught computer science to graduate students for 17
yrs in institutions like MANIT, Bhopal, Amity University, Delhi. She is
measurement should be guiding force for deciding the actively involved in research in the field of object-oriented software
characteristics, sub-characteristics, and metrics to be used for engineering/technology.
e-mail [email protected]

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of the Indian Science Congress, at Annamalai Nagar during January 3-7,
2007. Prof Pandey has also successfully supervised 19 doctoral students.
Dr R. K. Pandey is Director of University Institute of Technology,
Barkatullah University, Bhopal. He received Masters and Doctoral Degree Dr Mahendra Kumar is presently Prof. & Dean of Computer Science at
from Ravishankar University, Raipur. He also worked as a post doctoral S.I.R.T., Bhopal. He was Professor and Head Computer applications at
fellow at B.H.U, Varanasi. His research interests are in the field of M.A.N.I.T., Bhopal. He has 42 years of teaching and research experience. He
Nanotechnology, Semiconductor Device Physics, Solar Cells and Thin/Thick has published more than 90 papers in National and International journals. He
Film Technology. He has coauthored the book entitled “ Handbook of has written two books and guided 12 candidates for Ph. D. degree and,
Semiconductor Electro-deposition” which was published by Marcel Decker, U currently 3 more candidates are enrolled for Ph. D.. His research interests
S A. He has also published one review, over 80 original research papers in are Software Engineering, Cross Language Information Retrieval, Text
international journals of repute. He has also presented more than 100 papers in Mining, and Knowledge Management.
National and International Conferences as invited speaker. Prof Pandey was e-mail: [email protected]
invited to deliver the prestigious Platinum Jubilee Lecture at the 94th Session
[email protected]

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A New Image Compression framework :DWT

Optimization using LS-SVM regression under IWP-
QPSO based hyper parameter optimization

S.Nagaraja Rao, Dr.M.N.Giri Prasad,

Professor of ECE, Professor of ECE,
G.Pullaiah College of Engineering & Technology, J.N.T.U.College of Engineering,
Kurnool, A.P., India Anantapur, A.P., India

Abstract— In this chapter, a hybrid model integrating DWT and A machine learning approach LS-SVM for regression can
least squares support machines (LSSVM) is proposed for Image be trained to represent a set of values. If the set of values are
coding. In this model, proposed Honed Fast Haar wavelet not complex in their representation they can be roughly
transform(HFHT) is used to decompose an original RGB Image approximated using a hyper parameters. Then this can be used
with different scales. Then the LS-SVM regression is used to
predict series of coefficients. The hyper coefficients for LS-SVM
to compress the images.
selected by using proposed QPSO technique called intensified The rest of the chapter organized as; Section II describes
worst particle based QPSO (IWP-QPSO). Two mathematical related work in image coding using machine learning
models discussed, one is to derive the HFHT that is techniques. Section III describes the technologies used in
computationally efficient when compared with traditional FHT, proposed image and signal compression technique. Section IV
and the other is to derive IWP-QPSO that performed with describes a mathematical model to optimize the Fast HAAR
minimum iterations when compared to traditional QPSO. The Wavelet Transform. Section V describes a mathematical model
experimental results show that the hybrid model, based on LS- to optimize the QPSO based parameter search and Section VI
SVM regression, HFHT and IWP-QPSO, outperforms the describes the mathematical model for LS-SVM Regression
traditional Image coding standards like jpeg and jpeg2000 and, under QPSO. Section VII describes the proposed image and
furthermore, the proposed hybrid model emerged as best in signal compression technique. Section VII contains results
comparative study with jpeg2000 standard. discussion. Section VIII contains comparative analysis of the
results acquired from the proposed model and existing
Keywords- Model integrating DWT; Least squares support JPEG2000 standard.
machines (LS-SVM); Honed Fast Haar wavelet transforms
(HFHT); QPSO; HFHT; FHT. II. RELATED WORK
I. INTRODUCTION Machine learning algorithms also spanned into Image
Compression of a specific type of data entails transforming processing and have been used often in image compression.
and organizing the data in a way which is easily represented. M H Hassoun et al[2] proposed a method that uses back-
Images are in wide use today, and decreasing the bandwidth propagation algorithm in a feed-forward network which is the
and space required by them is a benefit. With images, lossy part of neural network.
compression is generally allowed as long as the losses are Observation: The compression ratio of the image
subjectively unnoticeable to the human eye. recovered using this algorithm was generally around 8:1 with
The human visual system is not as sensitive to changes in an image quality much lower than JPEG, one of the most well-
high frequencies [1]. This piece of information can be utilized known image compression standards.
by image compression methods. After converting an image Amerijckx et al. [3] presented an image coding technique
into the frequency domain, we can effectively control the that uses vector quantization (VQ) on discrete cosine
magnitudes of higher frequencies in an image. transform (DCT) coefficients using Kohonen map.
Since the machine learning techniques are spanning into Observation: Only in the ratios greater than 30:1, it’s been
various domains to support selection of contextual parameters proven to be better than jpeg.
based on given training. It becomes obvious to encourage this Robinson et al[4] described an image coding technique that
machine learning techniques even in image and signal perform SVm regression on DCT coefficients. Kecman et
processing, particularly in the process of signal and image al[5] also described SVM regression based technique that
encoding and decoding. differs with [4] in parameter selection

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Observation: These [4, 5] methods has produced better • Haar Transform is real and orthogonal. Therefore
image quality than JPEG in higher compression ratios. Hr=Hr* ……. (1)
Sanjeev Kumar et al [6] described the usage of SVM Hr-1 = HrT …….. (2)
regression to minimize the compression artifacts. • Haar Transform is a very fast transf orm.
Observation: Since the hyper parameter search • The basis vectors of the Haar matrix are sequence
complexity, The model being concluded as fewer efficient in ordered.
large data • Haar Transform has poor energy compaction for
Compression based on DCT has some drawbacks as images.
described in the following section. The modern and papular • Orthogonal property: The original signal is split into
still image compression standard called JPEG2000 uses DWT a low and a high frequency part, and filters enabling
technology with the view of overcoming these limitations. the splitting without duplicating information are said
It is also quite considerable that in color (RGB) image to be orthogonal.
compression, it is a well-known fact that independent • Linear Phase: To obtain linear phase, symmetric
compression of the R, G, B channels is sub-optimal as it filters would have to be used.
ignores the inherent coupling between the channels.
• Compact support: The magnitude response of the
Commonly, the RGB images are converted to YCbCr or some filter should be exactly zero outside the frequency
other unrelated color space followed by independent
range covered by the transform. If this property is
compression in each channel, which is also part of the
satisfied, the transform is energy invariant.
JPEG/JPEG-2000 standard. This limit encourages us to find
• Perfect reconstruction: If the input signal is
efficient image and signal coding model particularly in RGB
transformed and inversely transformed using a set of
Images.
weighted basis functions, and the reproduced sample
To optimize these DWT based compression models, an
values are identical to those of the input signal, the
image compression algorithm based on wavelet technology
transform is said to have the perfect reconstruction
and machine learning technique LS-SVM regression is
property. If, in addition no information redundancy is
proposed. The aim of the work is to describe the usage of
present in the sampled signal, the wavelet transform
novel mathematical models to optimize FHT is one of the
is, as stated above, ortho normal.
popular DWT technique, QPSO is one of the effective hyper
parameter search technique for SVM. The result of No wavelets can possess all these properties, so the choice
compression is considerable and comparative study with of the wavelet is decided based on the consideration of which
JPEG2000 standard concluding the significance of the of the above points are important for a particular application.
proposed model. Haar-wavelet, Daubechies-wavelets and bi-orthogonal
III. EXPLORATION OF TECHNOLOGIES USED wavelets are popular choices. These wavelets have properties
which cover the requirements for a range of applications.
A. HAAR and Fast HAAR Wavelet Transformation
C. Quantitative Particle Swarm Optimization
The DWT is one of the fundamental processes in the The development in the field of quantum mechanics is
JPEG2000 image compression algorithm. The DWT is a mainly due to the findings of Bohr, de Broglie, Schrödinger,
transform which can map a block of data in the spatial domain Heisenberg and Bohn in the early twentieth century. Their
into the frequency domain. The DWT returns information studies forced the scientists to rethink the applicability of
about the localized frequencies in the data set. A two- classical mechanics and the traditional understanding of the
dimensional (2D) DWT is used for images. The 2D DWT nature of motions of microscopic objects [7].
decomposes an image into four blocks, the approximation As per classical PSO, a particle is stated by its position
coefficients and three detail coefficients. The details include vector xi and velocity vector vi, which determine the trajectory
the horizontal, vertical, and diagonal coefficients. The lower of the particle. The particle moves along a determined
frequency (approximation) portion of the image can be trajectory following Newtonian mechanics. However if we
preserved, while the higher frequency portions may be consider quantum mechanics, then the term trajectory is
approximated more loosely without much visible quality loss. meaningless, because xi and vi of a particle cannot be
The DWT can be applied once to the image and then again to determined simultaneously according to uncertainty principle.
the coefficients which the first DWT produced. It can be Therefore, if individual particles in a PSO system have
visualized as an inverted treelike structure. The original image quantum behavior, the performance of PSO will be far from
sits at the top. The first level DWT decomposes the image into that of classical PSO [8].
four parts or branches, as previously mentioned. Each of those In the quantum model of a PSO, the state of a particle is
four parts can then have the DWT applied to them individually;
depicted by wave function ψ ( x, t ) , instead of position and
splitting each into four distinct parts or branches. This method
is commonly known as wavelet packet decomposition velocity. The dynamic behavior of the particle is widely
divergent from that of the particle in traditional PSO systems.
B. The Properties of the Haar and FHT Transform In this context, the probability of the particle’s appearing in

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position xi from probability density function | ψ ( x, t ) | , the

2

form of which depends on the potential field the particle . The

particles move according to the following iterative equations ….. (3)
[9], [10]: Subject to:
x(t +1) = p +β * |mbest - x(t)| *ln(1/ u) if k ≥ 0.5
x(t +1) = p -β * |mbest - x(t)| *ln(1/ u) if k < 0.5 …..(4)

where The first part of this cost function is a weight decay which
p= (c1 pid c2 Pgd ) /(c1 + c2 ) is used to regularize weight sizes and penalize large weights.
Due to this regularization, the weights converge to similar
value. Large weights deteriorate the generalization ability of
the LS-SVM because they can cause excessive variance. The
d
1 M

∑p
second part of cost function is the regression error for all
mbest=U ik training data. The relative weight of the current part compared
k =1 M i −1
to the first part can be indicated by the parameter ‘g’, which
Mean best (mbest) of the population is defined as the mean of has to be optimized by the user.
the best positions of all particles; u, k, c1 and c2 are uniformly Similar to other multivariate statistical models, the
distributed random numbers in the interval [0, 1]. The performances of LS-SVMs depends on the combination of
parameter b is called contraction-expansion coefficient. several parameters. The attainment of the kernel function is
The flow of QPSO algorithm is Initialize the swarm cumbersome and it will depend on each case. However, the
Do kernel function more used is the radial basis function (RBF), a
Find mean best simple Gaussian function, and polynomial functions where
Optimize particles position width of the Gaussian function and the polynomial degree will
Update Pbest be used, which should be optimized by the user, to obtain the
Update Pgbest support vector. For the RBF kernel and the polynomial kernel
Until (maximum iteration reached) it should be stressed that it is very important to do a careful
D. LS-SVM model selection of the tuning parameters, in combination with
the regularization constant g, in order to achieve a good
Support vector machine (SVM) introduced by Vapnik[12,
generalization model.
13] is a valuable tool for solving pattern recognition and
classification problem. SVMs can be applied to regression
problems by the introduction of an alternative loss function. IV. A MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO OPTIMIZE THE
Due to its advantages and remarkable generalization FAST HAAR WAVELET TRANSFORM.
performance over other methods, SVM has attracted attention
Since the reconstruction process in multi-resolution wavelet
and gained extensive application[12]. SVM shows outstanding
are not require approximation coefficients, except for the level
performances because it can lead to global models that are
0. The coefficients can be ignored to reduce the memory
often unique by embodies the structural risk minimization
requirements of the transform and the amount of inefficient
principle[12], which has been shown to be superior to the
movement of Haar coefficients. As FHT, we use 2N data.
traditional empirical risk minimization principle. Furthermore,
For Honed Fast Haar Transform, HFHT, it can be done by
due to their specific formulation, sparse solutions can be
just taking (w+ x + y + z)/ 4 instead of (x + y)/ 2 for
found, and both linear and nonlinear regression can be
approximation and (w+ x − y − z)/ 4 instead of (x − y)/ 2 for
performed. However, finding the final SVM model can be
differencing process. 4 nodes have been considered at once
computationally very difficult because it requires the solution
time. Notice that the calculation for (w+ x − y − z)/ 4 will
of a set of nonlinear equations (quadratic programming
yield the detail coefficients in the level of n−2.
problem). As a simplification, Suykens and Vandewalle[14]
For the purpose of getting detail coefficients, differencing
proposed a modified version of SVM called least-squares
process (x − y)/ 2 still need to be done. The decomposition
SVM (LS-SVM), which resulted in a set of linear equations
step can be done by using matrix formulation as well.
instead of a quadratic programming problem, which can
Overall computation of decomposition for the HFHT for 2N
extend the applications of the SVM. There exist a number of
data as follow:
excellent introductions of SVM [15, 16] and the theory of LS-
q=N/4;
SVM has also been described clearly by Suykens et al[14, 15]
Coefficients:
and application of LS-SVM in quantification and classification
reported by some of the works[17, 18].
In principle, LS-SVM always fits a linear relation (y = wx
+ b) between the regression (x) and the dependent variable (y).
The best relation is the one that minimizes the cost function
(Q) containing a penalized regression error term:

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The computational steps of optimized QPSO algorithm are

N = 2 n
given by:
q = 2 n
/ 4 Step 1: Initialize the swarm.
2 n
/ q −1 Step 2: Calculate mbest
2 n
/ q −1 ∑ f ((2 n
/ q )m + p Step 3: Update particles position
a m = U p = 0 Step 4: Evaluate the fitness value of each particle
m = 0 N / q … (5) Step 5: If the current fitness value is better than the best fitness
value (Pbest) in history Then Update Pbest by the current
Detailed coefficients if N is divisible by 4
fitness value.
x = 2 n / q − 1; Step 6: Update Pgbest (global best)
x/2 x Step 7: Find a new particle
2 / q −1
n ∑
p=0
f ((2 n / q ) m + p + ∑
p=x/2
− f ((2 n / q ) m + p Step 8: If the new particle is better than the worst particle in
dm = U the swarm, then replace the worst particle by the new particle.
m =0 2n / q Step 9: Go to step 2 until maximum iterations reached.
The swarm particle can be found using the fallowing.
3 p = a , q = b, r = c for k = 1;
…. (6) ti = ∑ pi − qi ) * f ( r )
2 2

k =1 p = b, q = c, r = a for k = 2;
Detailed coefficients if N is divisible by 2
y p = c, q = a, r = b for k = 3
N /2 ∑
m = y −1
k . fm
d = U p = a , q = b, r = c for k = 1;
y
2 3
t1i = ∑ pi − qi ) * f (r )
y =1
…. (7)
Where k is -1 for m=n-2…n; k =1 p = b, q = c, r = a for k = 2;
Detailed coefficients in any case other than above referred p = c, q = a, r = b for k = 3
2n
dm = U ∂ …. (8)
m = 2n / 2
ti
x i = 0.5 * ( )
Where ∂ is rounded to zero t1i
In the above math notations ‘a’ is best fit swarm particle, ‘b’
and ‘c’ are randomly selected swarm particles xi is new
swarm particle.
VI. MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR LS-SVM REGRESSION
UNDER QPSO.

Consider a given training set of N data points { xt , yt }t =1

N

with input data xt ∈ R and output yt ∈ R . In feature space

d

LS-SVM regression model take the form

y (x) = w T ϕ (x) + b … (9)
Where the input data is mapped ϕ (.) .
The solution of LS-SVM for function estimation is given by
the following set of linear equations:
V. MATHEMATICAL MODEL TO OPTIMIZE THE QPSO BASED
⎡0 1 .... 1 ⎤ ⎡b ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
PARAMETER SEARCH
⎢1 K(x1, x1) +1/ C .... K(x1, x1) ⎥ ⎢α ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1⎥ ⎢ 1⎥
We attempt to optimize the QPSO by replacing least good ⎢. . . . ⎥ ⎢. ⎥ = ⎢. ⎥
swarm particle with new swarm particle. An interpolate ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
equation will be traced out by applying a quadratic polynomial ⎢. . . . ⎥ ⎢. ⎥ ⎢. ⎥
model on existing best fit swarm particles. Based on emerged ⎢⎣1 K(x1, x1) K(x1, x1) +1/ C⎥⎦ ⎢⎣α1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y1 ⎥⎦
interpellant, new particle will be identified. If the new swarm …… (10)
particle emerged as better one when compared with least good W h e r e K ( x i ,x j ) = φ ( x i ) φ ( x j ) f o r i , j = 1 ...L
T T And
swarm particle then replace occurs. This process iteratively
the Mercer’s condition has been applied.
invoked at end of each search lap.

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This finally results into the following LS-SVM model for biggest fitness corresponds to the optimal parameters of the
function estimation: LS-SVM.
L There are two alternatives for stop criterion of the algorithm.
f ( x) = ∑ α i K ( x, xi ) + b ….(11) One method is that the algorithm stops when the objective
i =1 function value is less than a given threshold ε; the other is that
Where α , b are the solution of the linear system, K(.,.) it is terminated after executing a pre-specified number of
represents the high dimensional feature spaces that is iterations. The following steps describe the IWP-QPSO-
nonlinearly mapped from the input space x. The LS-SVM Trained LS-SVM algorithm:
approximates the function using the Eq. (3). (1) Initialize the population by randomly generating the
In this work, the radial basis function (RBF) is used as the position vector iX of each particle and set iP = iX;
kernel function: (2) Structure LS-SVM by treating the position vector of each
k ( xi , x j ) = exp(− || x − xt ||2 /σ 2 ) particle as a group of hyper-parameters;
….(12) (3) Train LS-SVM on the training set;
In the training LS-SVM problem, there are hyper-parameters, (4) Evaluate the fitness value of each particle by Eq.(12),
such as kernel width parameter σ and regularization parameter update the personal best position iP and obtain the global
C, which may affect LS-SVM generalization performance. So best position gP across the population;
these parameters need to be properly tuned to minimize the (5) If the stop criterion is met, go to step (7); or else go to step
generalization error. We attempt to tune these parameters (6);
automatically by using QPSO. (6) Update the position vector o f each particle according to
. Eq.(7), Go to step (3);
(7) Output the gP as a group of optimized parameters.
VII. PROPOSED IMAGE AND SIGNAL COMPRESSION
TECHNIQUE

A. Hyper-Parameters Selection Based on IWP-QPSO:

To surpass the usual L2 loss results in least-square SVR,
we attempt to optimize hype parameter selection.
There are two key factors to determine the optimized
hyper-parameters using QPSO: one is how to represent the
hyper-parameters as the particle's position, namely how to
encode [10,11]. Another is how to define the fitness function,
which evaluates the goodness of a particle. The following will
give the two key factors.
1) Encoding Hyper-parameters:
The optimized hyper-parameters for LS-SVM include Fig 2: Hyper-Parameter optimization response surface under IWP-QPSO for
kernel parameter and regularization parameter. To solve LS-SVM
hyper-parameters selection by the proposed IWP-QPSO B. Proposed Method
(Intensified Worst Particle based QPSO), each particle is
requested to represent a potential solution, namely hyper- This section explains the algorithm for proposed image coding
parameters combination. A hyper-parameters combination of where the coefficients will be found under LS-SVM regression
dimension m is represented in a vector of dimension m, such and IWP-QPSO.
as xi = (σ , C ) . The resultant Hyper-parameter optimization • The source image considered into multitude blocks of
under IWP-QPSO can found in following graph 2 custom size and the source image can also be
considered as a block.
2) Fitness function: • 2D-DWT will be applied on each block as an image
The fitness function is the generalization performance using HFHT.
measure. For the generation performance measure, there are • Collect the resultant approximate and details
some different descriptions. In this paper, the fitness function coefficients from HFHT of each block
is defined as: • Apply LS-SVM regression under IWP-QPSO on each
1 coefficient matrix that generalizes the training data by
fitness = …. (12) producing minimum support vectors required.
RMSE (σ , γ )
• Estimate the coefficients in determined levels.
Where RMSE(σ ,γ ) is the root-mean-square error of predicted
• Encode the quantized coefficients using best
results, which varies with the LS-SVM parameters (σ ,γ ) .
encoding technique such as Huffman-coding
When the termination criterion is met, the individual with the
principle

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Original Image existing JPEG2000 standard proposed model

Ratio: 1:1 Ratio: 23:1 Ratio: 24:1

Size: 85.7KB Size: 45.1kb Size: 43.4kb
PSNR: 44.749596 PSNR: 45.777775
RMSE: 1.9570847 RMSE: 1.9178092

A. Comparative Study:
The comparative study conducted between proposed model
and jpeg 2000 standard for lossy compression of RGB images.
The correlation between size compressed and compression
ratio, and between PSNR and RMSE verified using statistical
technique called Principle Component Analysis (PCA).

1) Results Obtained from existing jpeg2000 standard

TABLE 1: TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF COMPRESSION RATIO,
SIZE, PSNR AND RMSE OF THE JPEG2000 STANDARD
Quality Ratio Size PSNR RMSE

1 382 2.8 27.92663 10.23785

2 205 5.2 32.92759 5.756527

3 157 6.8 34.52446 4.789797

4 115 9.3 35.77153 4.149192

5 92 11.6 38.80287 2.926825

6 81 13.3 36.14165 3.976103

7 68 15.8 38.83935 2.914558

Fig 3: Flow chart representation of IWP-QPSO based LS-SVM regression
on HFHT Coefficients 8 59 18.2 40.50812 2.405105

VIII. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS ACQUIRED 9 52 20.4 42.45808 1.92148

FROM THE PROPOSED MODEL AND EXISTING JPEG2000
STANDARD 10 48 22.3 38.99128 2.864021

The images historically used for compression research 11 43 24.8 42.79325 1.848747
(lena, barbra, pepper etc...) have outlived their useful life and
it’s about time they become a part of history only. They are 12 39 27 43.362 1.73157
too small, come from data sources too old and are available in 13 36 29.3 46.17574 1.25243
only 8-bit precision.
These high-resolution high-precision images have been 14 33 31.8 46.02605 1.2742
carefully selected to aid in image compression research and
algorithm evaluation. These are photographic images chosen 15 31 34.2 46.86448 1.156955
to come from a wide variety of sources and each one picked to 16 29 36 44.72035 1.480889
stress different aspects of algorithms. Images are available in
8-bit, 16-bit and 16-bit linear variations, RGB and gray. 17 27 38.5 45.84377 1.301223
The Images that are used for testing are available at [19]
18 26 40.7 45.38951 1.371086
without any prohibitive copyright restrictions.
In order to conclude the results, Images are ordered as 19 24 43.4 44.04869 1.599948
original, compressed with existing JPEG2000 standard and
compressed with proposed model. 20 23 45.1 43.11262 1.782007
Note: Compression performed under 20% as quality ratio

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8 62 17.3 41.1652 2.229875

9 54 19.8 43.02466 1.800144

10 52 20.4 39.0202 2.854502

11 45 23.9 42.82678 1.841625

12 41 26.2 44.23324 1.566311

13 37 28.8 46.474 1.210152

14 34 31.2 46.02834 1.273864

15 32 33.6 46.86378 1.157048

16 30 35.2 44.74467 1.47675

17 28 37.8 45.84192 1.3015

Fig 4(a): Representation of compression Ratio, size, pasnr and rmse of the 18 26 39.9 45.38717 1.371455
JPEG2000 standard
19 25 42.4 44.14166 1.582913

20 24 43.4 43.86201 1.634706

Fig 4(b): Representation of the frequency between compression Ratio, size,

psnr and rmse of the JPEG2000 standard
Fig 5(a): Representation of compression Ratio, size, pasnr and rmse of the
proposed model
2) Results Obtained from Proposed model

TABLE 2: TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF COMPRESSION RATIO,

SIZE, PSNR AND RMSE OF THE PROPOSED MODEL
Quality Ratio Size PSNR RMSE

1 567 1.9 28.2512 9.862342

2 246 4.4 33.69187 5.271648

3 180 6 35.22379 4.41927

4 128 8.4 36.03423 4.02558

5 99 10.9 38.96072 2.874114

6 92 11.6 36.46788 3.829535

Fig 5(b): Representation of the frequency between compression Ratio, size,
7 72 14.8 39.34 2.751316
PSNR and RMSE of the Proposed Model.

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B. Evaluation of the correlation between size compressed

and compression ratio using PCA The resultant correlation information confirmed that the
correlation between size compressed and bit ratio is
comparitviley stable as like in JPEG2000 standard. The
correlation between size compressed and bit ratio for JPEG
2000 standard and proposed model can be found bellow graph.
IX. CONCLUSION
In this chapter a new machine learning based technique for
RGB image compression has been discussed. The proposed
model developed by using machine learning model called
LS_SVM Regression that applied on coefficients collected
(a) JPEG 2000 Standard
from DWT. The Hyper coefficient selection under LS-SVM
conducted using QPSO. To optimize the process of image
coding under proposed machine learning model, we
introduced two mathematical models. One is to optimize the
FHT and the other is to optimize the QPSO. The mathematical
model that proposed for FHT improves the performance and
minimize the computational complexity of the FHT, in turn
the resultant new Wavelet transform has been labeled as
Honed Fast Haar Wavelet (HFHT). The other mathematical
(b) Proposed Model model has been explored to improvise the process of QPSO
Fig 6: PCA for correlation of compression ratio and size compressed based parameter search. In the process of improving the
performance and minimize the computational complexity of
C. Evaluation of the correlation between PSNR and RMSE QPSO, the proposed mathematical model is intensifying the
using PCA least good particle with determined new best particle. The
The resultant correlation information confirmed that the proposed QPSO model has been labeled as IWP-QPSO
correlation between PSNR and RMSE is comparitviley stable (Intensified worst particle based QPSO). The IWP-QPSO is
as like in JPEG2000 standard. The correlation between PSNR stabilizing the performance of the LS-SVM regardless of the
and RMSE for JPEG 2000 standard and proposed model data size submitted. The overall description can be concluded
represnted by bellow graph.
as that an optimized LS-SVM regression Technique under
proposed mathematical models for HFHT and IWP-QPSO has
been discovered for RGB Image compression. The results and
comparative study empirically proved that the proposed model
is significantly better when compared with existing jpeg,
jpeg2000 standards. In future this work can be extended to
other media compression standards like MPEG4.

REFERENCES
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About the authors

Mr.S.Nagaraja Rao, Professor in E.C.E
Department from G.Pullaiah College of
Engineering and Technology, Kurnool, A.P.He
obtained his Bachelor’s Degree in 1990 from
S.V.University, A.P, and took his Masters Degree
in 1998 from J.N.T.U., Hyderabad. Currently he
is pursuing Ph.D from J.N.T.U., Anantapur, A.P
under the esteemed guidance of
Dr.M.N.GiriPrasad .And his area of interest is
Signal & Image Processing. To his credit 10
papers have been published in International &
National Conferences and 4 papers have been
published in International journals.

Dr. M.N. Giri Prasad, Professor & Head of

ECE Department took his Bachelors Degree
in1982 from J.N.T.U. Anantapur, A.P.India and
obtained Masters Degree in 1994 from S.V.U.,
Tirupati. He has been honored with Ph.D in
2003 from J.N.T.U. Hyderabad. Presently he is
the Professor and Head of the E.C.E.
Department in J.N.T.U. College of Engineering,
Pulivendula, A.P., India. To his credit more
than 25 papers published in International &
National Conferences and published various
papers in National & International Journals and
he is working in the areas of Image processing
and Bio-Medical instrumentation. He is
guiding many research scholars and he is a
member of ISTE and IEI India.

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Analysis of Mobile Traffic based on Fixed Line

Tele-Traffic Models
Abhishek Gupta Bhavana Jharia Gopal Chandra Manna
ME Student, Communication System Associate Professor, Department of EC Sr. General Manager
Engineering Branch Jabalpur Engineering College BSNL, Jabalpur
Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India M.P, India M.P, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— An optimal radio network which provides users. However, In previous models the random variation of the
and handle the largest amount of traffic for a given real traffic behaviors are unknown or simply not taken into
number of channels at a specified level of quality of account in the modeling process, such models fall short of a
service are designed by accurate traffic clear Connection with the actual physical processes involves
characterization and a precise analysis of mobile that are responsible for the behavior observed in the traffic
user’s behavior in terms of mobility and cellular data.
traffic. This paper focuses on the traffic Characterization of GSM
network where differences between traditional model and
This paper reviews the statistical characteristics of practical data may occur. The selected GSM networks provided
voice and message traffic. It investigated possible a good conversational service to a population of mobile users in
time-correlation of call arrivals in sets of GSM both dense urban area like Calcutta and the other at rural area at
telephone traffic data and observes proximity of North Eastern province of India. A few sets of GSM traffic data
practical mobile traffic characteristics vis-à-vis has been collected during January 2011 from both areas and
classical fixed-line call arrival pattern, holding time were subjected to analysis in present research work.
distribution and inter-arrival pattern. The results The outline of this paper is organized as follows: section II
indicated dominance of applicability of basic traffic Describes the overview of the previous or classical models for
model with deviations. A more realistic cause for call describing traffic characterization in mobile networks. Section
blocking experienced by users has also been III introduces analytical approach of real traffic data to outline
analyzed. the statistical method of distribution for arrival processes and
Keywords: GSM, Poisson distribution, Exponential the channel holding time. Section IV traffic analysis result are
presented. Section V Concludes the paper.
distribution, Arrival pattern, Holding time Inter-arrival
Pattern.
II.BASIC TRAFFIC MODELLS AND PREVIOUS WORK
I. INTRODUCTION The traditional telephone traffic theory, developed for wired
GSM cellular network have undergone rapid developments Networks, call arrivals to a local exchange are usually
in the past few years. The operators are facing challenges to modeled as a Poisson’s process. The process assumes 1)
maintain an adequate level of quality of service with growing stationary arrival rate since the user population served by the
number of end users and increasing demand for variety of exchange is very large and 2) has negligible correlation among
services [1, 2]. users. These pair of assumptions is also applicable in cellular
networks for incoming calls. These assumptions leads to
The mobile communication system has a limited capacity; it
random traffic model shaped as Poisson process for analytic
can only support a limited amount of simultaneous traffic
simplicity.
especially in peak hours with appropriate Grade of Service
(GoS). In the past few Decades, several traffic models like According to Poisson distribution, the probability of n no of
Exponential model, Poisson models etc. for Cellular systems calls arrival in given time interval 0 to t is
have been proposed for predicting the behavior of mobile
traffic [3]. The mobile traffic models are derived by fitting the
existing traffic data obtained from experience of land-line
traffic.
Where, λ is the arrival rate.
A scale-free user network model was used by researchers
in the analysis of cellular network traffic, which Shown the In research at [5], it has been shown that Poisson’s
clear connection between the user network behavior and the assumption might not be valid in wireless cellular networks for
system traffic load [4]. The traffic performance of a Cellular a Number of reasons like when we concentrating on small area;
system is strongly correlated with the behavior of its mobile where possible correlation may occurs between users;

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presence of congestion; and the effect of handover occurs not specified, we consider all outgoing calls as call arrival in
frequently etc. mobile network for analysis purpose.

The second important parameter for mobile cellular network All Outgoing calls are initiated randomly; if a call arrives
planning is the channel holding time. It can be defined as the and the communication is successfully established, both the
time during which a new call occupies a channel in the given caller and the receiver will be engaged for certain duration.
cell, and it is dependent on the mobility of the user. In the past, The duration of the holding time is also a random variable.
it has been widely assumed as the negative exponential Thus, the traffic load depends on the rate of call arrivals and
distribution to describe the channel holding time [6]. the holding time for each call. Generally, Traffic
characteristics of mobile network are typically measured in
The probability of holding a call by a further time dt after terms of the average activity during the busiest hour or peak
holding the call up to time t is hour of a day [15].

This paper presents a design approach to characterize the

mobility related traffic parameters in the presence of real
The hypothesis of negative exponentially distributed
traffic conditions in urban area and rural area base on Cell
channel holding time is valid under certain circumstances [7].
The channel holding time has been also been showed to fit coverage. This includes the distribution of the arrival
lognormal distributions better than the exponential one [8]. processes and the channel holding time.
Also, several other works are also contradicted this simple We analyzed sets of GSM telephone traffic data, collected
assumption. In [9,10] the probability distribution that better for billing and traffic monitoring purpose which include call
fits empirical data, by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, was arrival time i.e. (Termination point of call) and the duration of
found to be a sum of lognormal distributions. calls at particular cell site. In addition, we also consider traffic
In some other works, it is shown that the channel other then voice calls like SMS service which may also affect
holding time is also affected by user mobility. It is the network performance. Un-answered calls attempt could not
characterized by the cell residence time i.e. period of stay of a be recorded and also no information was recorded to trace the
call in a cell. The cell residence time also follows definite user mobility between the cells, neither was they felt necessary,
distribution pattern. The channel holding time distribution was as totality of the calls were recorded and attributed to the
derived analytically [11, 12, 13] when the cell residence time originating cell.
has Erlang or Hyper-Erlang distribution. A further empirical All unsuccessful repeated call attempts, the impact of
study on GSM telephone traffic data reported in [14] where handovers and congestion were not taken into consideration
answered call holding time and inter-arrival times were found for present analysis. The different graphs have been plotted to
to be best modeled by the lognormal-3 function, rather than by find the relation between the actual data and the classical
the Poisson and negative exponential distribution. models.
All the studies thus could not unanimously declare the best [A]. Analysis of peak traffic
option between the classic Poisson model and the exponential We plot the graph of total traffic offered in erlangs at each
model for telephone traffic in cellular networks. In contrast, cell site. We had considered scale is discrete with one hour
they suggested that call arrivals and holding time distribution intervals to find the number of peaks occurs during the 24
may be significantly time-correlated, due to congestion, user hours intervals. Next, we have calculated the average traffic
mobility and possible correlation between neighboring users. load, peak hour load and the peakdness factor to find the traffic
variation and peakdness range for given number of channels. In
Study of all previous work lead us to further investigate the
our calculation, peakdness factor has been defined as
exact correlation of recent mobile traffic behavior with classic
models and to check whether the traffic characterization
obtained would follow the previous behavior and models. Also,
as a step ahead, if classical models are applicable as best fit, Ideally the value of peakdness factor lie within the range of
then the extent of percentage variation applicable for actual 1 to 5 [16].Greater the range of peakdness factor means that
traffic data. server is over utilized and there may be chance of call drop.
III TRAFFIC CHARACTERIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC Total traffic characteristics depend upon actual traffic load
DATA SETS. carried by the server. This carried load consist of traffic other
In a Mobile network, traffic refers to the accumulated then voice service like SMS originated; which also affect the
number of communication channels occupied by all users. For utilization of server performance. As a result it is important to
evaluate the rate of the SMS service to predict the behavior of
each user, the call arrivals can be divided into two categories:
mobile users along with performance. Also, now a days,
incoming calls and outgoing calls. Since every incoming call several companies offer bulk messages delivery in slack hour at
for one user must be originated from an outgoing call of very cheap cost. As a result, number of users may use this
another user, we only need to consider outgoing calls from service at redundant which may affect the quality of the voice
each user when we analyze the network traffic. Therefore, if service provided by the operators.

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The increasing competition may also motivate the operators to

compromise the voice service quality and as a result there may
be increase in call drop rate. To find the exact traffic, we must
consider the nature of SMS service used by the mobile users.

Fig 2.Call Arrival pattern for ideal Poisson distribution

The fig 2 shows the call arrival pattern of practical data
with arrival rate of 20 at a particular hour. The graph has been
extended to predict probability distribution of arrival of 37 calls
during the hour with mean arrival rate of 20.
The following relation was used to draw the graph-
Fig 1.Actual Carried traffic (in erlangs) and No. of SMS originated at
each hour.
Fig 1 shows the No. of SMS generated at each hour along
with carried traffic load. It shows the correlation between the
maximum Number of SMS generated and actual traffic (voice)
load to match with peak hour traffic or during slack hours. Where both mean and variance is equal to λT
From this observation, we can find the exact No. of TCH
(Traffic channels) and SDCCH (Stand alone Dedicated control
Channel) Channels require to serve the given traffic load.
[B]. Verification of Poisson Model
In this section we examine the relevance and verification
of Poisson Model. As discussed above, the Incoming call
arrival rate follows the traditional Poisson distribution where
the call arrivals in one second have to be perfectly uncorrelated
with the Call arrival in other seconds [17].For this analysis, the
arrival rates of incoming calls have to be determined from the
collected data sets and tried to correlate with Poisson
distribution model. The arrival rate of calls is λ (t) and it has
pseudo periodic trend for both the urban and rural area and are
found approximately same at two different days. The
probability distributions for actual call arrivals plotted against
Ideal Poisson arrival in one peak hour has been shown in fig 3
and corresponding percentage variation between the ideal and
actual pattern are shown in table2.

Fig 3. The distribution of call arrival with Ideal arrival rate

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[C]. Analysis of Inter-arrival traffic behavior The exponential variation of holding time included the
property of Normal distribution. We have traced the busy hours
In all previous work Interarrival (time between of each cell to get maximum number of calls for a correct
successive calls) rate are characterized and best fitted by assessment of holding time distribution. The pattern obtained
exponential distribution model. We plot and analyzed the closely follows the normal distribution pattern. Therefore we
graph of successive arrival call time of peak hours and adapted normal distribution for characterizing the holding time
compared them by fitting into the exponential models. along with peaks duration occurring at the mean value of
The exponential model for inter-arrival rate are characterize distribution and deviation factor (variance) to shows the actual
by [16] nature of channel holding time.

λt The probability distribution function of f(x) of normal

= λ. e distribution are define as
Where λ represent the arrival rate of calls
The Sample inter-arrival exponential model of peak hour are
obtained from a actual data sets of cell id -15231A

By using the normal distribution we plot and analyzed the

characteristics of holding time distribution of peak hours.

Fig. 3 Inter-arrival Graphical Analysis.

In Fig 4 the pattern obtained can be easily analyzed and
compare with standard (exponential) model to give actual idea
about the variation of real time traffic characteristics. Here the
2
value of R (.98) shows the error or variation of real pattern
with respect to Standard model.

[D]. Holding time distribution.

The most important parameter in any cellular traffic

analysis is holding or service time distribution .Generally; in
Common it is characterize by negative exponential distribution. Fig 4.Actual Holding time Distribution.
Mathematically, it’s shows that there is larger number of calls
of small duration as compare to the longer duration. The ideal As seen from fig 4. The holding time characteristics do not
negative exponential models are represented by religiously follow the normal distribution. This is because as
Shown from previous observations that the maximum number
− λ t of calls (in peak hours) does not contribute maximum traffic
P (t<T) = e i.e. holding time is larger during slack hours which support the
normal distribution in part.
Where λ represent the call arrival rate

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IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION: Table 2. Analysis of Call arrival,Inter-arrival and the Call
holding time distribution (10 sample cells).
After analysis of all the 25 cells data recorded on 14 Jan
and 20 Jan 2011 and calculations made there after, average
traffic and peaked ness factors were calculated; results of such Call Intera Call Holding Time
10 sample cells shown in the table 1. Arri rrival (Normal distribution)
val error Mean Mean %
Table 1. Peak hour analysis of Sample Cells for SMS S % rate Value Dev Short
. Cell varia ref in sec in sec Durat
S
.
CELL ID PEAK
TRAFFI
PEAK
DENE
AVERGE
TRAFFI
PEAK
SMS
NO OF
SMS
N
o
ID tion Exp
model µ σ
ion
Calls
. (R2)
N C HOUR SS C IN HOUR
O VALU ERLANG
. E 1 M1170 193.73
2B 11.25 0.957 301.86 69.64
1 M1170 7pm-- 2.12 1.41 7pm- 23
2B 8pm -8pm 2 M1141
2 M1141 8pm-- 2.74 1.52 7pm- 115 3C 5.02 0.974 264.75 424.91 75.43
3C 9pm -8pm 3 M1013
3 M1013 9pm-- 3.50 1.56 9pm- 72 2F 11.76 0.982 293.76 403.37 71.64
2F 0pm - 4 M1003
10pm 2D 12.42 0.982 329.46 415.92 73.07
4 M1003 9pm-- 2.37 0.67 00am 46 5 R15751
2D 10pm --1am J 5.86 0.989 205.41 416.95 76.36
6 R15401
5 R15751 2pm-- 2.43 1.29 2pm- 33 T 19.65 0.968 167.21 258.82 73.04
J 3pm -3pm 7 R15451
6 R15401 7am-- 1.96 2.72 4pm- 16 A 13.45 0.985 275.56 382.97 70.90
T 8am -5pm 8 R15521
V 18.12 0.996 108.09 236.39 75.18
7 R15451 7pm-- 2.56 1.64 7pm- 48 9 R30071
A 8pm -8pm X 7.38 0.997 167.73 211.64 72.54
8 R15521 6pm-- 2.60 4.68 2pm- 134 1 R15301
V 7pm -3pm 0 W 6.09 0.967 140.55 212.67 73.77
9 R30071 7pm-- 2.19 3.24 7pm- 19
X 8pm -8pm
Analysis of the table and Graph of Call arrival pattern of all
1 R15301 7pm-- 2.62 0.88 7pm- 16 cells at peak hours , it is found that the arrival rate
0 W 8pm -8pm approximately follows the Poisson models with a percent
variation between 5- 20 with respect to ideal Poisson nature
The Result Shown in table 1 verified that there is more than
for a given probability. This Conclusion is estimated by
one peak hours occurs in a day with designated busy hour
assuming the variable arrival rate of different cells. However
occurs between 7am-10am in morning and late in evening
there may be chances of more than 20 percent variation occurs
between 6pm-9pm for different cells. At the same time we also
due to very high variable arrival rate but still the applicability
find that peakdness is nearly in the range of 2 to 5 which
of poison model found perfectly with given variable arrival
establishes that the peak traffic to average traffic ratio vary
rate as compare to other models.
nearly in large range. Another important result we find (from
the graph and table) of SMS behavior of users that; in more As obtained in table 2 and graph the Graphical
than 60 percent cases; the number of SMS in busy hours are representation of the inter-arrival pattern follows nearly the
actually high as compared to other times. This is a major reason exponential models. The Critical examination of each cell at
of higher call drop in peak hours when channel measurement peak hours reveals a variation between 0.01 to 0.10 with
reports are not available to BSC due to long messages. respect to ideal models.

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From the table 2 it is found that the channel holding time [6] Roch A.Guérin, “Channel occupancy time distribution in a
closely follow normal distribution in peak hour observation of cellular radiosystem”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
the day. This is evident due to good number of calls with Technology, vol. vt-35, no. 3, August 1987.
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i.e. Short calls are observed more then 70 percent of total calls. [7] Daehyoung Hong, Stephen S. Rappaport, “Traffic model
Short channel holding time can be attributed to the user’s and performance analysis for cellular mobile radio telephone
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V. CONCLUSION vol. vt-35, no. 3, August 1986.

After analyzing all cell data it is stated that if issues like [8] Francisco Barcelo, Javier Jordan, “Channel holding time
congestion, handover calls etc are neglected, the Poisson distribution in cellular telephony”, Electronics Letters, vol. 34
model is still adequate to describe realistically telephone no. 2, pp. 146-147, 1998.
traffic in cellular networks also. The Call holding time is
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short calls below mean whereas long calls are fewer in distribution in public telephony system (PAMR and PCS),"
number. The variance observed longer than mean value which IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 1615–1625,
indicates area covered by the cell is of mixed locality with Sept. 2000.
more offices and less residence. SMS busy hours of the day
are observed same as voice busy hour also in most cases. This [10] C. Jedrzycky and V. C. M. Leung, “Probability
establishes that there is more need of traffic channels to handle distribution of channel holding time in cellular telephony
the traffic load and control channels to meet SMS load at same system," in Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., May 1996.
time in order to meet given quality of service requirements.
[11] Y. Fang, “Hyper-Erlang distributions and traffic
This statistical analysis provides guidelines for future modeling in wireless and mobile networks," in Proc. IEEE
framework study which, through further research work, can Wireless Commun. Networking Conference (WCNC), Sept.
develop a generic model that can be customized and 1999.
parameterized by any operator for planning and development
of their Cellular networks to save cost and maximize
[12] Y. Fang and I. Chlamtac, “Teletraffic analysis and
performance.
mobility modeling ofPCS networks," IEEE Trans. Commun.,
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Kaufmann,Amsterdam, Los Altos, CA, 2004 interarrival and holding time distributions in mobile
networks," in Proc. 19th International Teletraffic Congress
[3] J.C. Bellamy, Digital Telephony, third ed., Wiley, New (ITC), Aug. 2005.
York, 2000.
[15] J.C. Bellamy, Digital Telephony, third ed., Wiley, New
[4] Y. Xia, C.K. Tse, W.M. Tam, F.C.M. Lau, M. Small, York, 2000.[16]. Morino mannis 1980 “Basis Traffic analysis”
Scale-free user network approach to telephone network traffic [16]. Roberta R Martine 1993, “Basic Traffic analysis”1st Ed,
analysis, Phys.Rev. E 72 (2005) 026116. Prentice Hall, Inc, AT & T.
[5].Stefano Bregni, Roberto Ci0ffi,Maurizio Decina “An [17] Rappaport, T. S., 2002. "Wireless Communications:
empirical study on Time correlation of GSM telephone Principles andPractice , 2nd Ed.", Prentice Hall, Inc. , Upper
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AUTHOR PROFILE International Expert through Commonwealth Telecom

Abhishek Gupta received his B.E. Organisation London during August 2010. He had also
degree in Electronics and delivered a speech on WiMAX coverage Evaluation at
Telecommunication Engineering International Conference on Advanced Communications
from Gyan Ganga institute of Technology 2011 at Seoul, Korea and chaired a session on
Science and Technology Jabalpur Network Management. He had also delivered speech on
(M. P.) in 2008. Currently, he is ADSL at International Telecommunication Union seminar in
pursuing his M. E. from the 2000 at Bangalore, India.
Department of Electronics and From 1997 to 2002, Dr. Manna has worked as Deputy General
Telecommunication Engineering, Manager in a Telecommunication Training Centre of DoT. He
Govt. Engineering College was first to install live training node for Internet Service
Jabalpur.His research interest Provider (ISP), designed training schedules and prepared
includes Computer networks and handbook and lab practice schedules. He had conducted
Future generation in mobile training programs for 5 batches of participants deputed by
communication System. Asia Pacific Telecomm unity (APT) and 3 more exclusive
batches for Sri Lankan Telecom. He had also conducted
several seminars with international experts through
Bhavana Jharia received her B.E. UNDP/ITU projects. In 2000, he had delivered distinguished
degree in Electronics and speech on ADSL in a seminar organized by ITU. During 1995
Telecommunication Engineering and 1996, Dr. Manna was posted in Telecommunication
from Govt. Engineering College Engineering Centre (TEC) and developed Artificial
Jabalpur (M. P.) in 1987. She did Intelligence (AI) based software for E10B telephone
her M.E. (Solid State Electronics) exchanges named E10B Maintenance Advisor (E10BMAD).
from University of Roorkee, Dr. Manna had worked as Development Officer in WEBEL
Roorkee in 1998 and Ph.D. (VLSI (erstwhile PHILLIPS) Telecommunication Industries during
Technology) from I.I.T. Roorkee in 1983-1984 after which he joined DoT and worked in different
2005. She joined the Department of executive capacities up to 1994.He was awarded National
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, Govt. Scholarship in 1973 based on school level examination and
Engineering College Jabalpur (M. P.) as faculty in 1990, silver medal for performance in college. He had both
where at present she is working as an Associate Professor. She graduated and post graduated in Radio Physics and Electronics
has 25 publications in National, International referred Journals Engineering from University of Calcutta and undergone
and Conferences. Her research interests are in Electronics trainings at Beijing University of Post and Telecom China in
Design and Simulation and Low Power VLSI Technology. 1990 and DARTEC, Montreal, Canada in 1999.
She is a member of IE (I), CSI, VLSI Society of India, senior
member of IACSIT and Life Member of ISTE.

Dr. Gopal Chandra Manna is

working as Senior General
Manager (Head Quarters),
Inspection Circle, BSNL, a wholly
owned Company under Department
of Telecommunications (DoT),
Govt. of India. Dr. Manna has
carried out extensive research on
coverage issues of GSM, CDMA,
WCDMA and WiMAX radio
access. Study of Wireless Traffic
and QoS estimation of Cognitive Radio are his current areas of
research. In Addition, he has written several articles on
advanced telecommunications which has been published in
national and international journals and symposiums. Dr.
Manna is regularly invited as a panel expert, invited speaker,
session chair etc. in seminars and conferences.
Dr. Manna has developed and conducted one week course on
Quality of Service Monitoring at Information and
Communication Technologies Authority, Mauritius as

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An Analysis of GSM Handover based On Real Data

Isha Thakur Bhavana Jharia Gopal Chandra Manna

ME Student, Communication System Associate Professor, Depptt. Of EC Sr. General Manager
Engineering Branch Jabalpur Engineering College BSNL, Jabalpur
Jabalpur Engineering College, M.P., India M.P, India M.P, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

the RxLev and RxQual ,alone, is not sufficient to provide the

Abstract—Handover decisions in GSM networks are based on the accurate result for optimum handover solution .So, there is a
difference in received signal strength, between the serving cell need of a new handover scheme which not only consider
and the neighboring cells. But in a practical scenario, RxQual and RxLev ,but also some other important parameters,
particularly in city area ,considering difference in signal level for a better handover process .
strength alone , is an inferior criteria to decide handover issue
,because the towers are in close proximity & the absolute signal
strength is quite good to continue the communication ,without In the present work ,we focus our attention on
much difficulty .Also, in these environments, multipath incorporating some more decision criterion in the handover
reflections, scattering due to moving vehicles & diffraction from algorithm .After an extensive study of the GSM measurement
multiple building edges ,contributes to poor signal quality, hence reports obtained from a telecom company, it has been
forcing the mobile to transmit more power to continue the validated that the transmit power (TxPower) ,aggregate C/I &
communication. the FER ,should be given due importance in the handover
decision ,along with RxLev and RxQual. The reason behind
Continuation of an active call is one of the most incorporating these parameters is explained ahead.
important quality measures in the cellular systems. Handover
process enables a cellular system to provide such a facility by In the dedicated mode, TxPower consumes the battery
transferring an active call from one cell to another. Different
power of the mobile handset .Normally the acceptable range
approaches have been proposed and applied in order to achieve
better handover service, by various researchers. The principal of the TxPower is between 5 and 15, where 5 is the desired
parameters considered in the present work, which are used to value. .Hence, TxPower has been proposed to be an important
evaluate handover techniques are: Received signal quality parameter in the handover decision process. The FER may
(RxQual), FER, Received signal level, MS-BS distance, transmit increase in two cases (1) If the complete frame is lost or
power (TxPower) & aggregate C/I. destroyed in transmission and (2) Frame could not be obtained
because error correcting code is destroyed .Hence, FER is a
In the present work, thorough analysis has been done for considerable parameter in handover decision. Similarly the
the received signal strength difference threshold, along with interference level received from all the interference sources in
other RF quality parameters. To ensure best performance to all the system should be given due importance in the criterion list
mobile users at all times and all locations an active set of
for the handover decision .The desired carrier level and the
parameters has been calculated for critical values along with
signal strength difference threshold. interfering carrier level are calculated and measured in
dBm.For convenience, we normally use the C/I ratio to
Keywords: Received signal quality (RxQual), FER, Received determine whether an interference case is acceptable or not.
signal level (RxLev on uplink and downlink), MS-BS distance,
transmit power (TxPower) & aggregate C/I. Since in the real time cellular systems, handover failure
may occur due to a number of practical issues, by introducing
additional criteria for handover decision making, spurious
handover can be avoided to a large extent. Conventional
I. INTRODUCTION techniques suffer from inefficiencies caused by the fact that in
Traditional handover algorithms are based on relative the practical scenario, particularly in city area, difference in
signal strength, relative signal strength with threshold, relative signal level strength has proved to be an inferior criteria to
signal strength with hysteresis, relative signal strength with decide handover issue .To overcome these limitations, the
hysteresis and threshold [1] [2]. Handover analysis uses fuzzy authors has proposed an active set of parameters along with
logic based prediction techniques also [3] [4].Later an their optimum values which can be used to provide better
extensive study found that the received signal strength handover decision efficiency.
(RxLev) & the received signal quality (RxQual), are the prime
parameters in the handover decision. However ,considering

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The rest of the article is organized as follows. Section II III. HANDOVER ANALYSIS
reviews related works. Section III gives analysis of the
handover algorithm. In Section IV, results are discussed, as Handover initiation criteria analyzed in the present
obtained from the model. Finally, conclusions and future paper is based essentially on five variables: the received signal
perspectives are discussed in Section V. level (RxLev), received signal quality (RxQual), FER,
transmit power (Txpower) & aggregate C/I value. In order to
study the effect of the above mentioned variables on the
II. LITERATURE REVIEW handover decision, extensive analysis of the GSM
measurement data has been carried out .Out of total 21
Several aspects of the analytical handover model have been handovers, few handovers were like transit entry into cell, few
investigated in the previous works. An analytic model of were false handover triggers and only in 10 cases, the call
handover algorithm has been presented in [5, 6, 7] based on continued for appreciable time i.e. the handover was stable
the level crossings of the difference between the signal .The data collected before and after handover were reliable
strengths received from two base stations in a log normal and taken into consideration for detailed study.
fading environment. The basic model has the route of the
mobile chosen to be the straight line between two BSs. Two A. Parameter Evaluation
important performance indicators of a handover algorithm are
the mean number of handoffs for this route and the delay in We start the analysis by studying the behavior of
handing off, both of which need to be minimized. The tradeoff various performance metrics with respect to the distance
curve between these two conflicting indicators was drawn in between serving base station & the mobile unit. The line of
order to determine the amount of hysteresis and averaging to sight distance is calculated for a number of cells using the
be used in the algorithm. distance Haversine formula as under

In [5], the validity of the Poisson model has been Dist_Los= SQRT (POWER (F, 2) +POWER (K, 2)
demonstrated for the specific case where the signal strength is Where,
stationary. The handover process was studied in terms of F=height of the BTS antenna in meter
certain level crossings of the difference between the received K=non-line of sight distance in meter
signal strength from two BSs; the model works well where it
is most needed, in the range of optimal parameters. This work Where,
has been extended in [6, 7] for the no stationary case, in which K= (ACOS (SIN(C)*SIN (H) +COS(C)*COS (H)*COS (J-
the level crossings are modeled as Poisson process with time- E)))*6371*1000
varying rate functions. Further, theoretical analysis using level
crossings is given in [8]. In [9], the model was applied to Where,
obtain certain criteria for designing practical handoff C=latitude of BTS antenna
algorithm, especially for designing algorithms that are robust E=longitude of BTS antenna
with respect to variations in the radio propagation H=latitude of mobile station
environment. This includes extensions of the model to take J=longitude of mobile station
into account the absolute value of the signal strength from the Radius of earth 6371 Km
current BS to avoid handoffs when the weaker signal is strong Once the distance values are obtained, the plots between
enough, has been shown in [10]. this distance & the respective parameter is plotted.

It has been observed that the analysis done in the previous 1) RxLev vs. Distance
work on handover ,has been validated by simulation results
only .None of the work has been done on the practical data to Ideal plot of the RxLevel verses distance ,will be the one
validate their findings .However in the present paper ,the in which the RxLevel value should exhibit a downtrend with
effect of several performance metrics (RxLev,RxQual,FER, an increasing distance .One of the plots shown in figure.1
Aggregate C/I &TxPower ) on the handover decision has been ,exhibits this behavior .As the distance between the mobile
validated by analyzing the measurement data ,as obtained station & the serving base station increases ,the received
from the drive test results in GSM network, from Katni town signal level decreases .The entry to this cell occurred at a
of Madhya Pradesh state ,India. distance about 320m, from 320 m to ~340m, the signal
strength varies heavily from -60 dam to -77dbm which
indicates that the recording are done at shade coupled with
heavy transient reflections form neighboring moving vehicles .
As the distance is increased, line of sight is available, signal
strength was stable and there were gradual fall with distance
.The points where the handover situation occurs, are identified
by observing the sudden downtrend in the RxLev .Once these

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points are known, the behavior of the RxLevel over these

points is recorded for observation.
3) FER vs. Distance

In the cellular communication, not only the continuation of

the call is necessary but also quality of speech is an essential
parameter in analyzing the performance of handover
algorithms. The Frame Error Rate (FER) measurement is used
by the mobile to detect bad frames. The mobile starts the
substitution and muting process, and within 300 ms of bad
frame reception it completely mutes the speech. Out of 104,
FER measurements are done over 100 frames, which
correspond to ~2 s of speech. The variation of %FER with the
distance between the serving BTS & the MS is as shown in
figure 3.In contrast to observations in case of RxLevel and
RxQual ,FER shows better performance at the near region and
even at the far region with exception in the middle. This
shows strong immunity of GSM system from frame errors.
But, the overall trend was in upward direction indicating
contribution of this parameter for handover decision.
Figure 1. RxLev vs. Distance

2) RxQual vs. Distance

RxQual is a value between 0 and 7, where each value

corresponds to an estimated number of bit errors in a number
of bursts. Each RxQual value corresponds to the estimated bit-
error rate according, which varies from BER <0.2% for
RxQual 0, 0.8 %< BER<1.6% for RxQual 3 and BER >12.8%
for RxQual 7.
The RxQual value showing an increase contributes to the
handover decision making .The variation of this parameter
with the distance ,one of which is shown as under in Figure.2
.At the entry into the cell, RxQual had wide variation which
shows presence of strong interference .Slowly this situation
improves as the vehicle goes slightly away where a dominant
part in line of sight signal .At the end ,few observations show Figure 3. FER vs. Distance
RxQual>4 which indicated requirement of handover .Overall
positive slope indicated healthy situation for handover
prediction . 4) Aggregate C/I vs. Distance
The aggregate carrier-to-Interference (C/I) ratio is the ratio,
expressed in dB, between a desired carrier (C) and an
interfering carrier (I) received by the same receiver. The
variation of the aggregate C/I with the distance (Figure
.4),better than 15dBm in most cases shows that it has only a
minor effect on the handover decision, but considered here as it
has positive slope.

Figure 2. RxQual vs. Distance

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value – initial value) are taken into account . The distance of

the mobile unit from the serving station & the target station is
also examined .This approach is adopted to identify the role of
each parameter in the handover, more clearly & accurately.
The handover cases which exhibit the near ideal situation are
identified & are taken into consideration for deriving the
optimized handover situation.

Calculations:

The handover position is identified in the excel sheet of the

drive test report ,by looking at the „event type‟ column .After
selecting the location ,a set of about 50 observations ,before &
after the handover event are considered for evaluating the
average values of the before & after values of each parameter
.A sample sheet is shown in APPENDIX to demonstrate method
Figure 4. Aggregate C/I vs. Distance of calculation has been done (sheet 1).The transition
(handover) had taken place from cell id 509 to 619 at the
position highlighted in the sheet .Before values pertains to
5) TxPower vs. Distance values (and average thereafter) before transition in old cell and
after values after transition to new cell .This method is carried
Transmit power plays a very important role in sustaining out for each parameter. The calculations & the respective
higher battery life of the mobile handset .In the dedicated sheets are obtained by performing the calculations in the
mode, TxPower is monitored constantly by the serving station similar manner .The delta (∆) values of the five parameters are
.Normally the acceptable range of the TxPower is between 5 obtained by performing the subtraction of the final & initial
& 15, where 5 is the desired value..Higher TxPower is values respectively. The two other distance calculations (from
unacceptable not only because it consumes the battery power serving cell to target cell & from serving cell to mobile
of the mobile, but also because it may adversely affect the station) is performed by the distance haversine formula as
mobile user‟s health. The variation of the TxPower with the mentioned in previous section.
distance is given in figure 5.
C. Optimization

The optimum situation for handover is identified by

comparative analysis. The comparison of the parameter values
at the time of handover is done with respect to the
recommended range of values & the ideal values respectively
.The tabulated form of the values obtained is given in sheet2.
It has been found that the handover situation in the 5, 8 & 9 th
cell case is exhibiting „near ideal‟ situation. These 3 cases are
then scrutinized to obtain the optimum condition for handover.

Comparisons:

(a)RxLev and ∆RxLev: The 4.3dbm increase in the RxLev

after the handover has taken place, averaged for all 3 cells,
is a sure sign of a successful handover.
Figure 5. Txpower vs. Distance (b)RxQual and ∆RxLev: The performance of the RxQual
value ~=1.46 is most appropriate in the cell after
averaging.
(c)FER & ∆FER: The optimum performance of the FER is
B. Handover Cell Analysis fulfilled by the cell of the serial number 8.

Once the relationship between the distance & the respective (d)TxPower: The cell of the serial number 5 is exhibiting the
parameters is drawn, the analysis of handover cells is studied best case of the TxPower based decision criteria.
exclusively. The cells in which the handover has occurred are
first identified & then the parameter values are studied for (e)Aggregate C/I: The aggregate C/I criteria is fulfilled by the
each cell separately .Not only the absolute values of the cell of the serial number 5.
various parameters is studied but also the relative values (final

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IV. RESULT & DISCUSSION

REFERENCES
We have validated the role of various parameters on the
handover decision making in this paper. It has been found that [1] Gregory P. Pollioni, “Trends in Handover Design”, IEEE
the behavior of the respective parameters & the role of each Communications Magazine, vol. 34, March 1996, pp. 82-90
chosen parameter on the handover decision making, is
satisfying the ideal cases to a close extent .Also the [2] P. Marichamy, S. Chakrabati and S. L. Maskara,
optimization has contributed to obtain a set of values of the “Overview of handoff schemes in cellular mobile networks
respective parameters, which serve as the best case to decide and their comparative performance evaluation”, IEEE
the handover ,as given table1 . VTC‟99, vol. 3, 1999, pp. 1486-1490

TABLE I RESULT [3] M. Chiu, M. Bassiouni, “Predictive Schemes for HandoN

Prioritization in Cellular Networks Based an Mobile
Positioning”, EEE Joumal on selected amas in
RxLev
RxQual FER Tx Power(dBm) communications, Vol. 18, No. 3, March 2000
(dBm) Aggregate C/I
2
-72 5 15 15.82 [4] M.S.Dang, A Prakash, D.K. Anvekar, D. Kapoor,
∆RxLev ∆Tx ∆Aggregate R.Shorey, "Fuzzy Logic Based Handoff in Wireless
∆RxQual ∆FER Networks", in Proceedings of the 51st Vehicular Technology
(dBm) Power(dBm) C/I
-0.3794 Conference (VTC 2000 Spring), Tokyo,
4.3 -1.5 -6.537 1.1066
15-18 May 2000, pp.2375-2379

[5] R. Vijayan and J. M. Holtzman, “The dynamic behavior of

V. CONCLUSION handoff algorithms,” in Proc. Ist Internat. Con$ UniversG 1
Personal Commun., Dallas, TX, Sept. 1992.
The aim of this investigation was first to define some
appropriate performance measures for inter-cell handovers. [6] “Analysis of handoff algorithm using nonstationary signal
The obtained results showed the outperformance of handover strength measurements,” in Proc. GLOBECOM ‟92, Orlando,
algorithm based on multiple parameters (i.e. RSS, BER etc). In FL., Dec. 1992.
this paper, we have extended the model for analyzing the
performance of the handoff algorithm based on signal strength [7] “A model for analyzing handoff algorithms,” IEEE
measurements. This model enables us to achieve good Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 42, no. 3, Aug. 1993.
analytical approximations easily and fast. Therefore, this
model can be used by the network designer to help optimize [8] R. Vijayan and J. M. Holtzman, “Foundations for level
the behavior of the handover strategy by setting appropriate crossing analysis of handoff algorithm,” in Proc. ICC ‟93,
hysteresis, absolute threshold, and other parameters such as Geneia, Switzerland, May 1993.
the averaging length for different propagation environments.
Handover condition for at least 3 of the 5 parameters should [9] R. Vijayan and J. M. Holtzman, “Sensitivity of handoff
be met to take handover decision while 4 conditions meeting algorithms to variations in the Drooagation environment.” in
will be sufficient. Prcc 2nd Internat. Conf I s -Universal Personal Commun.,
As a future course of work, more importance can be Ottawa, Canada, Oct. 1993.
given to the QoS issues where in more number of radio and
network parameters are taken into consideration for averaging [10] R. Beck, F. W. Ho, “Evaluation and performance of field
the threshold values. This ensures that a handover can be strength relatedhandover strategies for micro-cellular systems,”
hastened or delayed as the situation requires and also prevent in Proc. 3rd Nordic Sem. Digital Land Mobile Radio Commun.,
unnecessary handover that may take place due to momentary Copenhagen, Denmark, 1988.
fading of any one of the parameter. Hastening the handover
ensures that a call is not dropped due to non availability of
resources. Handover delayed ensures that unnecessary
handover does not take place leading to loading of the base
station.

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AUTHORS PROFILE

Isha Thakur received her B.E. (Hons.) From 1997 to 2002, Dr. Manna has worked as Deputy General
degree in Electronics and Manager in a Telecommunication Training Centre of DoT. He was
Telecommunication Engineering from first to install live training node for Internet Service Provider (ISP),
Takshshila Institute of Engineering and designed training schedules and prepared handbook and lab practice
Technology Jabalpur (M. P.) in 2008. schedules. He had conducted training programs for 5 batches of
Currently, she is pursuing her M. E. participants deputed by Asia Pacific Telecomm unity (APT) and 3
from the Department of Electronics and more exclusive batches for Sri Lankan Telecom. He had also
Telecommunication Engineering, conducted several seminars with international experts through
Government Engineering College UNDP/ITU projects. In 2000, he had delivered distinguished speech
Jabalpur. Her research interest includes on ADSL in a seminar organized by ITU. During 1995 and 1996, Dr.
Computer networks and Future Manna was posted in Telecommunication Engineering Centre (TEC)
generation in mobile communication System. and developed Artificial Intelligence (AI) based software for E10B
telephone exchanges named E10B Maintenance Advisor
(E10BMAD).
Dr. Manna had worked as Development Officer in WEBEL
Bhavana Jharia received her B.E. (erstwhile PHILLIPS) Telecommunication Industries during 1983-
degree in Electronics and 1984 after which he joined DoT and worked in different executive
Telecommunication Engineering from capacities up to 1994.He was awarded National Scholarship in 1973
Govt. Engineering College Jabalpur (M. based on school level examination and silver medal for performance
P.) in 1987. She did her M.E. (Solid in college. He had both graduated and post graduated in Radio
State Electronics) from University of Physics and Electronics Engineering from University of Calcutta and
Roorkee, Roorkee in 1998 and Ph.D. undergone trainings at Beijing University of Post and Telecom China
(VLSI Technology) from I.I.T. Roorkee in 1990 and DARTEC, Montreal, Canada in 1999.
in 2005. She joined the Department of
Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering, Govt. Engineering College
Jabalpur (M. P.) as faculty in 1990, where at present she is working
as an Associate Professor. She has 25 publications in National,
International referred Journals and Conferences. Her research
interests are in Electronics Design and Simulation and Low Power
VLSI Technology. She is a member of IE (I), CSI, VLSI Society of
India, senior member of IACSIT and Life Member of ISTE.

Dr. Gopal Chandra Manna is

working as Senior General Manager
(Head Quarters), Inspection Circle,
BSNL, a wholly owned Company
under Department of
Telecommunications (DoT), Govt. of
India. Dr. Manna has carried out
extensive research on coverage issues
of GSM, CDMA, WCDMA and
WiMAX radio access. Study of
Wireless Traffic and QoS estimation of
Cognitive Radio are his current areas of
research. In Addition, he has written several articles on advanced
telecommunications which has been published in national and
international journals and symposiums. Dr. Manna is regularly
invited as a panel expert, invited speaker, session chair etc. in
seminars and conferences.
Dr. Manna has developed and conducted one week course on Quality
of Service Monitoring at Information and Communication
Technologies Authority, Mauritius as International Expert through
Commonwealth Telecom Organisation London during August 2010.
He had also delivered a speech on WiMAX coverage Evaluation at
International Conference on Advanced Communications Technology
2011 at Seoul, Korea and chaired a session on Network Management.
He had also delivered speech on ADSL at International
Telecommunication Union seminar in 2000 at Bangalore, India.

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APPENDIX
[1] SHEET 1

[2]SHEET2

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2D Image Morphing With Wrapping Using Vector

Quantization Based Colour Transition
Face Image morphing
Dr. H.B. Kekre Tanuja K. Sarode Suchitra M. Patil
Senior Professor, Computer Asst.Professor, Lecturer,
Engineering,MP’STME, Thadomal Shahani K.J.Somiaya College of
SVKM’S NMIMS University, Engineering College, Engineering,
Mumbai,India Mumbai, India Mumbai, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— There is inherent lack of the motion in the same sizes the faces in these images need not be of same size.
photographs and paintings so they convey limited information. Due to this there is misalignment in facial features like eyes
Using image morphing, it is now possible to add 2D motion to still and mouth which add double exposure and ghosting effect in
photographs by moving and blending image pixels in creative morphs generated during morphing process which spoils entire
ways. Image morphing is an image processing technique which
animation. Hence for effective image morphing wrap
seamlessly transforms one image into another image. Color
transition method used in morphing play an important role as it generation step is must. An effective image morphing is done
decides the quality of the intermediate images generated by using following three steps [1].
controlling the color blending rate. By blending colors uniformly
throughout the process of morphing good morph sequence is 1. Control points extraction
generated. This morph sequence is balanced and contains earlier 2. Wrap generation
morphs similar to source and last morphs similar to the target 3. Transition control
image. In case of face image morphing if features are not aligned
properly then double exposure is seen in the eyes and mouth The process of control point extraction defines the control
region and this spoils entire morph sequence. In this paper new
points or landmarks to be used for image wrapping for e.g. in
image wrapping and vector quantization based color transition
methods are proposed for 2D face image morphing. Wrapping face morphing the landmarks would be from eyebrows, eyes,
aligns the facial features and aids in generating good morphs and nose, and mouth and face edges. This is a difficult process and
color transition blends colors during morphing. in most of the cases is performed manually. Once these control
points have been extracted from the two original images, the
Keywords- image wrapping, colour transition, face images can be wrapped.
normalization vector quantization, codebook interpolation.
Image wrapping is defined as a method for deforming a
I. INTRODUCTION digital image to different shapes [4]. This process transforms
the images by moving the control point locations in one image
Image morphing is commonly referred to as the animated to match the ones in another. Only one i.e. either source or
transformation of one digital image to the other. It is a destination image is wrapped with respect to other image for
powerful tool and has widespread use for achieving special face normalization. For wrapping both the source and target
visual effect in the entertainment industry [1]. It is basically an images are made equal in size.
image processing technique used for the metamorphosis from
one image to another. The idea is to get a sequence of Once the pixels are in position the colour transition blends
intermediate images which when put together with the original the colours of wrapped image with other one and hence
images would represent the change from one image to the transforms one image into another [4]. In this method, the
other. colour of each pixel is interpolated over time from the first
image value to the corresponding second image value [6].
The process of image morphing is realized by coupling
image wrapping with colour interpolation. Image wrapping II. RELATED WORK
applies 2D geometric transformations on the images to retain
geometric alignment between their features, while colour Before the development of image wrapping and morphing,
interpolation blends their colour [1]. image transformations were generally achieved through the
cross-dissolve of images, where one image is faded out and
Image morphing can be done with or without wrapping. other image is faded in but this is not so effective in signifying
Basically for image morphing both the input images are the actual metamorphosis [1]. The results of this are poor;
required to be of same size. Even if the input images are of owing to the double-exposure and ghosting effect apparent in

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misaligned regions i.e. in face images generally it is most Proposed face image morphing here is defined as given
prominent in the eyes and the mouth regions. two input two face images, progressively transform one image
into the other as smoothly and as fast as possible. Three steps
Over the past few years many image morphing techniques used here are described below.
have been proposed. Effectiveness of the image morphing lies
in the feature point selections and wrap generation. One of the A. Control points selection
techniques used in wrap generations is triangles based
interpolation. In this based on the control points the image is First step is to select the control points or features. This is
tedious, time consuming but the most important step in
dissected into triangles and then each triangle is interpolated
morphing. In most of the cases selection of control points is
independently [2]. While using this method formation of
done manually. Also the selection of the control points is
problematic thin triangles can be avoided using Delaunay
directly related to the quality of the morphs generated hence
triangulation [3].
has to be done carefully.
Morphing human faces with automatic control point’s
Total 32 control points are used here for morphing. All
selection and color transition [4] discuses use of combination
these control point are selected from most sensitive parts of
of a face detection neural network [5], edge detection and
face like nose, eyes and mouth. Nine major Control points
smoothing filters. A triangulation method is used as the wrap
used here are centre of left eye, centre of right eye, tip of nose,
algorithm [6] while a method based on the one dimensional
both corners of mouth and all other points as shown in Fig. 1,
Gaussian function is applied in color transition control or
are selected manually.
blending of wrapped images.
For face normalization four major control point’s ling on
A prototypical Automatic Facial Image Manipulation the rectangular window covering the face in image are
system (AFIM) for face morphing and shape normalization selected. Remaining control points locations is decided based
(wraping) is proposed in [6]. In this AFIM system, the feature on the major control points and are shown in Fig 2. Control
points are extracted automatically by using active shape model points selection is done for both source and target images.
(ASM) [7] or extracted manually. Image wrapping is done
using mesh wrapping [8]. And then blending of the wrapped
image with other input image is based on cross dissolve.

Field morphing proposed by Beier and Nelly [9] is based

on control lines in the source and destination images. The
correspondence between the lines in the both the images
defines the coordinate mapping. Also two pass mesh wrapping
[1] followed by cross- dissolve generates quality morphs.

Image morphing based on the pixel transformation is Figure 1. Location of nine major Control points and image partitioning based
proposed in [10] and is mainly for blending two images on it
without wrapping. In this pixel based morphing is achieved by
the replacement of pixels values followed by a simple
neighboring operation. This method is restricted for the gray
scale (Portable Gray Map or PGM) images only.

III. PROPOSED ALGORITHMS

Simplest way to morph images is to cross dissolve the two

images. This is not so effective as is gives an effect of fading
out the source image and fading in destination image. Also the Figure 2. Image partitioned into 17 triangles and other 32 Control points
double exposure effect is visible in significant regions in location
image, for example in face image morphing it is visible in eyes B. Wrap generation
and mouth region [1].
Based on 32 control points source and target images are
Image morphing applications are everywhere. Hollywood partitioned into 17 rectangles as shown in Fig 2. Then
film makers use novel morphing technologies to generate rectangle to rectangle mapping from source and target images
special effects, Disney uses morphing to speed up the is performed. And finally by computing scale factor down or
production of cartoons and art and medical image processing up scaling of each rectangle in source image with respect to
also use morphing. Among so many image morphing the corresponding rectangle in the target image is performed
applications, face morphing is the popular one.

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using nearest neighbour interpolation and wrap of source the training set. In Fig. 3 two vectors v1 & v2 are generated by
image is generated. adding constant error to the code vector. Euclidean distances
of all the training vectors are computed with vectors v1 & v2
Face normalization with scaling makes faces in both source and two clusters are formed based on nearest of v1 or v2.
and target image of same size and helps to align the features of Procedure is repeated for these two clusters to generate four
source image according to the target image. new clusters. This procedure is repeated for every new cluster
until the required size of codebook is reached [14].
C. Colour transition

The colour transition method used in image morphing

decides the quality of the intermediate images generated by
controlling the colour blending rate. And this rate depends on
weight used by colour transition method. If the colour
blending is done uniformly throughout the morphing process,
good morph sequence is generated. Morph sequence has
earlier morphs similar to source and last morphs similar to the
target image. The middle image in the entire morph sequence
is neither source nor the target image. Hence the quality of Figure 3. LBG for 2 dimensional cases
morphs depends on the quality of middle images. If it look
good then entire sequence looks good. 2) Kekre’s Proportionate Error algorithm (KPE):

Generally pixel based colour transition like cross dissolve In this algorithm a proportionate error is added to the
[1] [12], averaging pixels [13] and by merging difference centroid to generate two vectors v1 & v2 [14]. The error ratio
between colour of source and target pixels [12] [13] is done. In is decided by magnitude of coordinates of the centroid. First
this paper totally new colour transition methods based on minimum element in centroid is obtained and then centroid is
vector quantization are implemented and discussed. divided throughout by this minimum and error vector is
obtained and instead of constant error now this error vector is
Vector Quantization (VQ) techniques employ the process added and subtracted from centroid to form cluster. Rest all
of clustering. Vector Quantization derives a set (codebook) of procedure is same as that of LBG. In this algorithm while
reference or prototype vectors (code words) from a data set. In adding proportionate error a safe guard is introduced so that
this manner each element of the data set is represented by only neither v1 nor v2 go beyond the training vector space. This
one codeword. Various VQ algorithms differ from one another overcomes the disadvantage of the LBG of inefficient
on the basis of the approach employed for cluster formations. clustering.
After the codebooks of desired size are generated for both
VQ is a technique in which a codebook is generated for input images are generated, these codebooks are interpolated
each image. A codebook is a representation of the entire image based on difference between them and then intermediate
containing a definite pixel pattern [14] which is computed image frames as source codebook reaches to target codebook
according to a specific VQ algorithm. The image is divided are generated by reconstructing the interpolated codebook.
into fixed sized blocks [14] that form the training vector. The Algorithm for codebook interpolation is given below.
generation of the training vector is the first step to cluster
formation. Vector Quantization VQ can be defined as a Codebook interpolation algorithm:
mapping function that maps k-dimensional vector space to a 1. For every training vector in the training set of source
finite set CB = {C1, C2, C3, ..…. , CN}. The set CB is called and target images find the closest code vector from
codebook consisting of N number of code vectors and each corresponding codebooks.
code vector Ci = {ci1, ci2, ci3,……, cik} is of dimension k. 2. Save indices of source and target code vector’s
The key to VQ is the good codebook. Codebook can be obtained in different arrays.
generated in by clustering algorithms [14]-[16]. Using this 3. For each index in two arrays obtained in step 2 get
codebook original image can be reconstructed with some code vectors form source codebook and target
imperceptible colour loss. codebook.
4. Compute difference in these code vectors and divide
Two different algorithms to generate codebooks are given it by number of intermediate frames.
below. 5. In every iteration to generate intermediate images add
1) Linde – Buzo – Gray algorithm (LBG): this difference vector from step 4 to source codebook.
For the purpose of explaining this algorithm, two 6. Reconstruct image using this codebook and display it
dimensional vector space as shown in Fig.3 is considered. In as new intermediate frame.
this figure each point represents two consecutive pixels. In this IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
algorithm centroid is computed as the first code vector C1 for

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Implementation of all these algorithms is done in
MATLAB 7.0 using a computer with Intel Core2 Duo
Processor T4400 (2.20 GHZ) and 2GB RAM. The algorithms
are tested on the face images of humans and animals. For both
LBG and KPE Codebook size is 512. For face image
morphing without wrapping number of intermediate frames
used are 5 and with wrapping number of intermediate frames
is 11.
As stated before double exposure and ghosting effect is
seen prominently when morphing is done without wrapping.
One such example of morphing one lady’s face with other
lady’s face where number of intermediate frames is 5 is shown
in Fig. 4. So to eliminate these unwanted effects wrapping is
introduced here.

(a) (g)

(b) (c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure. 4 Result of face image morphing without wrapping using KPE based
color transition, (a) original source, (b)-(f) intermediate images and (g)
original target. Figure. 5 Examples of wrapped source images (middle column) with respect
to target, source images (first column), target images(third column)
Some of the results of wrapping source image with
Second, forth and fifth cases are selected to show result of face
reference to target image are given below in Fig. 5. Fig. 5
image moprhing with wrapping and colour transition is done
shows six different cases of wrpping where in first case a
lady’s small face is wrapped with respect to the man’s big face using LBG and KPE and shown below.
and made large. In second case cat’s face is wrapped and made
equal to child’s face. In third case man’s big face is made Fig. 6 and Fig. 9 shows the results of morphing cat’s face
with child’s face using LBG and KPE based color transition.
small so as to match lady’s small face. In fourth case two
ladies faces are normalized. In fifth case cat’s big face is made
Fig. 7 and Fig.10 shows the result of morphing two ladies
small to suit face of dog and in last case a lady’s face is
wrapped and normalized to match cat’s face. In all these case faces using LBG and KPE based color transition.
eyes, mouth and nose like facial features of source image are
aligned with respect to the target image. Fig. 8 and Fig.11 shows the result of morphing two animal
faces using LBG and KPE based color transition.

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(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 6 Result of morphing cat face with child face using LBG color transition (a) original source,(b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped source,
(d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 7 Result of morphing one lady’s face with other lady’s face using LBG color transition (a) original source, (b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped
source, (d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

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(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 8 Result of morphing cat’s face with other dog’s face using LBG color transition (a) original source, (b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped source,
(d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 9 Result of morphing cat face with child face using KPE color transition (a) original source,(b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped source,
(d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

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(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 10 Result of morphing one lady’s face with other lady’s face using KPE color transition (a) original source, (b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped
source, (d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

(m) (n) (o) (p)

Figure. 11 Result of morphing cat’s face with other dog’s face using KPE color transition (a) original source, (b) wrapped source,(c) reconstructed wrapped
source, (d) to (n) intermediate 11 morphs, (o) reconstructed original target and (p) original target image

Vector quantization is a lossy image processing technique. V. CONCLUSIONS

Table I. gives the root mean squared error (RMSE) values
computed between the last frame generated by the proposed 2D face image morphing with wrap generation using
algorithms and the original target image. And from Table I it nearest neighbor interpolation scaling and new color transition
is clear that KPE reconstructs the image in better manner than methods based on vector quantization are proposed in this
the LBG so the transformation process looks good as natural paper. If morphing is done without wrap generation then
and better morphs are generated. There is little loss in color of generally misalignment is seen in eyes and mouth region in the
image during reconstruction but that error is imperceptible as face images, which spoils the quality of morphs and entire
in the animation of the transformation process it is not noticed. animation as shown in Fig. 4.

TABLE I. Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) computed using last frame Wrap generation aligns these facial features and makes
generated and the original target
animation seamless by generating natural morphs by
Source Image Target Image LBG KPE eliminating ghosting and double exposure effect. Vector
supri.bmp mb.jpg 7.55 6.92 quantization based color transition approach is implemented
14.98 12.22 successfully here and among the two VQ based techniques
cat1.jpg sagar.jpg
implemented i.e. LBG and KPE, KPE produces visually good
mb.jpg grishma.bmp 10.05 8.05
morphs as compare to LBG.
grishma.bmp supri.bmp 9.44 7.37

cat1.jpg p3.jpg 10.90 9.30

such.bmp cat1.jpg 8.96 7.69

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REFERENCES AUTHORS PROFILE

[1] G. Wolberg, “Recent Advances in Image Morphing”, Proc. of the Dr. H. B. Kekre has received B.E. (Hons.) in Telecomm. Engg. from
Computer Graphics International Korea, 1996. Jabalpur University in 1958, M.Tech (Industrial
Electronics) from IIT Bombay in 1960,
[2] A. Goshtasby, “Piecewise linear mapping functions for image
M.S.Engg. (Electrical Engg.) from University of
registration” Pattern Recognition, Vol. 19(6): pp. 459 466,1986.
Ottawa in 1965 and Ph.D. (System Identification)
[3] M. Berg, M. Kreveld, M. Overmars and O. Schwarzkorf, “Computation from IIT Bombay in 1970. He has worked
geometry- Algorithms and Applications”, Springer, 1997. Over 35 years as Faculty of Electrical
[4] Stephen Karungaru, Minoru Fukumi and Norio Akamatsu, ”Automatic Engineering and then HOD Computer Science
Human Faces Morphing Using Genetic Algorithms Based Control Points and Engg. at IIT Bombay. For last 13 years
Selection” International Journal of Innovative Computing, Information worked as a Professor in Department of
and Control vol.3, no. 2, pp. 247 - 256, 2007. Computer Engg. at Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai. He is
[5] S. Karungaru, M. Fukumi and N. Akamatsu, “Detection of human face currently Senior Professor working with Mukesh Patel School of Technology
in visual scenes.” Proc of ANZIIS, pp.165-170, 2001. Management and Engineering, SVKM’s NMIMS University, Vile Parle(w),
[6] Takuma Terada, Takayuki Fukui, Takanori Igarashi, “Automatic Facial Mumbai, INDIA. He has guided 17 Ph.D.s, 150 M.E./M.Tech Projects and
Image Manipulation system and Facial Texture Analysis”, Fifth several B.E./B.Tech Projects. His areas of interest are Digital Signal
international Conference on Natural Computation, ICNC, vol.6, pp. 8 - processing, Image Processing and Computer Networks. He has more than 300
12, 2009. papers in National / International Conferences / Journals to his credit.
Recently eleven students working under his guidance have received best paper
[7] M. Young, The Technical Writer's Handbook. Mill Valley, CA: awards. Two of his students have been awarded Ph. D. of NMIMS University.
University Science, 1989. Currently he is guiding ten Ph.D. students.
[8] T.F. Cootes, C.J. Taylor, “Statistical Models for Appearance for
ComputerVision”, http://www.isbe.man.ac.uk/~bim/refs.html, 2004.
[9] M.B. Stegmann, “Active Appearance Model”, MasterThesis, Technical Dr. Tanuja K. Sarode has received M.E. (Computer Engineering) degree
University of Denmark, 2000. from Mumbai University in 2004, Ph.D. from
[10] Beier, T. and S. Nelly, Feature-based image metamorphosis, Proc. of the Mukesh Patel School of Technology, Management
SIGGRAPH, pp.35-42, 1992. and Engg., SVKM’s NMIMS University, Vile-
Parle (W), Mumbai, INDIA. She has more than 11
[11] Rahman M.T., Al-Amin M.A., Bin Bakkre J., Chowdhury A.R., Bhuiyan
years of experience in teaching. Currently working
M.A.-A., “A Novel Approach of Image Morphing Based on Pixel
as Assistant Professor in Dept. of Computer
Transformation”,10th international conference on Computer and
Engineering at Thadomal Shahani Engineering
Information Technology, iccit, pp.1 – 5, 2007.
College, Mumbai. She is member of International
[12] H.B. Kekre, T. S. Sarode, S.M. Patil ,” A Novel Pixel Based Color Association of Engineers (IAENG) and
Transition Method for 2D Image Morphing” International conference International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology
and workshop on emerging trends in technology, ICWET 2011, vol. 1, (IACSIT). Her areas of interest are Image Processing, Signal Processing and
pp 357- 362, 2011. Computer Graphics. She has 75 papers in National /International
[13] H B Kekre, Tanuja Sarode and Suchitra M Patil. “2D Image Morphing Conferences/journal to her credit.
using Pixels based Color Transition Methods”. IJCA Proceedings on
International Conference and workshop on Emerging Trends in
Technology (ICWET) (4):6-13, 2011. Published by Foundation of Ms. Suchitra M. Patil has received B.E. ( Computer Science and Engineering
Computer Science. ) degree from Visveshwaraiah Technological
[14] Dr. H. B. Kekre, Tanuja K. Sarode, “New Clustering Algorithm for University, Belgaum in 2004. She is working as
Vector Quantization using Rotation of Error Vector”, (IJCSIS) lecturer in K. J. Somaiya College of Engineering,
International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security, Mumbai and has teaching experience of more than
vol. 7, no. 3, 2010. 4 years. She is currently pursuing M. E. from
[15] Kekre H.B., Sarode T.K., “An Efficient Fast Algorithm to Generate Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, Mumbai.
Codebook for Vector Quantization”,First international conference on Her areas of interest are Image processing,
Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology, pp. 62-67, ICETET, Database Systems and Web Engineering.
2008.
[16] Dr. H. B. Kekre, Tanuja K. Sarode, “Two-level Vector Quantization
Method for Codebook Generation using Kekre’s Proportionate Error
Algorithm”, International Journal of Image Processing, vol. 4, issue 1.

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ENHANCED FAST AND SECURE HYBRID

ENCRYPTION ALGORITHM FOR MESSAGE
COMMUNICATION

Shaik Rasool Md. Ateeq-ur-Rahman G.Sridhar K. Hemanth Kunar

Asst. Professor Professor Associate Professor Asst. Professor
S.C.E.T. S.C.E.T. S.C.E.T. S.C.E.T.
Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India Hyderabad, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—This paper puts forward a safe mechanism of data miscellaneous methods. However, each of them has its strength
transmission to tackle the security problem of information which is and weakness in terms of security level, speed, and resulting
transmitted in Internet. The encryption standards such as DES stream size metrics. We hence proposed the new encryption
(Data Encryption Standard), AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) method to overcome these problems [1].
and EES (Escrowed Encryption Standard) are widely used to solve
the problem of communication over an insecure channel. With This paper discusses a new technique of Hybrid encryption
advanced technologies in computer hardware and software, these algorithm which combines a symmetric algorithm FSET (Fast
standards seem not to be as secure and fast as one would like. In and Secure Encryption Technique) proposed by Varghese Paul
this paper we propose a hybrid encryption technique which provides [2] and asymmetric algorithm RSA. The FSET algorithm is a
security to both the message and the secret key. The Symmetric direct mapping poly alphabetic Symmetric-key encryption
algorithm used has two advantages over traditional schemes. First, algorithm. Here, direct substitution mapping and subsequent
the encryption and decryption procedures are much simpler, and translation and transposition operations using X-OR logic and
consequently, much faster. Second, the security level is higher due circular shifts that results in higher conversion speed are used.
to the inherent poly-alphabetic nature of the substitution mapping The block size is 128 bits (16 characters) and the key size is
method used here, together with the translation and transposition also 128 bits (16 characters). A comparison of the proposed
operations performed in the algorithm. Asymmetric algorithm RSA encryption method with DES and AES is shown in table. 2.
is worldwide known for its high security. In this paper a detailed
The asymmetric RSA algorithm is developed by MIT
report of the process is presented and analysis is done comparing
professors: Ronald L. Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard M.
our proposed technique with familiar techniques
Adleman in 1977 [5]. RSA gets its security from factorization
Keywords-component; Cipher text, Encryption, Decryption, problem. Difficulty of factoring large numbers is the basis of
Substitution, Translation. security of RSA.
In this Paper the actual message to be sent is encrypted and
I. INTRODUCTION decrypted using the FSET algorithm which has been modified
In open networked systems, information is being received accordingly for higher efficiency. RSA is used for encryption
and misused by adversaries by means of facilitating attacks at and decryption of the secret key which is used in the encryption
various levels in the communication. The encryption standards (FSET) of the actual data to be transmitted. All the limitations
such as DES (Data Encryption Standard) [6], AES (Advanced in FSET are overcome in this implementation. The security of
Encryption Standard) [7], and EES (Escrowed Encryption the secret key is handled by the by the RSA. Here the FSET
Standard) [8] are used in Government and public domains. can handle multimedia data also. Multimedia files like images,
With today’s advanced technologies these standards seem not videos, audios etc. can be effectively encrypted. Also other
to be as secure and fast as one would like. High throughput files like MS word, PDF, almost all files can be transmitted
encryption and decryption are becoming increasingly important securely using the FSET proposed. The detailed
in the area of high-speed networking [9].With the ever- implementation is explained in the later sections..
increasing growth of multimedia applications, security is an
important issue in communication and storage of images, and II. THE HYBRID ENCRYPTION ALGORITHM
encryption is one the ways to ensure security. Image encryption A hybrid encryption algorithm has the advantages of both
has applications in inter-net communication, multimedia the symmetric and asymmetric algorithms. The complete
systems, medical imaging, telemedicine, and military process can be viewed in the figure 1. This process involves the
communication. There already exist several image encryption fallowing steps
methods. They include SCAN-based methods, chaos-based
methods, tree structure-based methods, and other

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Step 1:- Generate Public key PU= {e, n} value and Private Key 3. Compute the totient: f (n)=(p-1)(q-1).
PR= {d, n} using RSA key generation
4. Choose an integer e such that 1 < e <f (n) , and share no
Step 2:- Using RSA Encrypting the secret key with Public key factors other than 1 (i.e. e and φ(n) are co-prime) e is
PU= {e, n}. released as the public key exponent
Step 3:-Encryption of data file using FSET Encryption 5. Compute d to satisfy the congruence relation de=1(mod f
Algorithm (n)); i.e. de=1+kf (n) for some integer. d is kept as the
private key exponent
Step 4:-Using RSA, Decryption of encrypted secret key using
Private Key PR= {d, n} The public key consists of the modulus and the public (or
encryption) exponent. The private key consists of the modulus
Step 5:-Decryption of Encrypted data file by using FSET and the private (or decryption) exponent which must be kept
Decryption Algorithm. This template has been tailored for secret. Recipient after calculating public key PU= {e , n} and
output on the US-letter paper size. If you are using A4-sized private key PR= {d, n} sends the public key value i.e., PU= {e
paper, please close this file and download the file for “MSW ,n} value to sender.
A4 format”.
B. Secret Key Encryption using RSA
Receiver B transmits his public key to Sender and keeps the
private key secret. Sender then wishes to send message M to
Sender. He first turns M into a number m<n by using an
agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme.
He then computes the cipher text corresponding to:
c=me mod n
This can be done quickly using the method of
exponentiation by squaring. Sender then transmits to Receiver.

C. FSET Encryption Algorithm

The encryption, C = E(K,P), using the proposed encryption
Figure 1: Implementation of the Hybrid Encryption Technique algorithm consists of three steps.

III. THE ENCRYPTION PROCESS 1. The first step involves initialization of a matrix with
The encryption process starts with the key generation ASCII code of characters, shuffled using a secret key, K.
process at the receiver side. The receiver generates two keys This initialization is required only once before the
public and private key. The public key is sent to the sender and beginning of conversion of a plaintext message into
it is not necessarily to be kept secret. The sender then uses the corresponding cipher text message.
public key and encrypts the secret key using RSA that will be 2. The second step involves mapping, by substitution using
used in FSET. The secret key is used by the sender to encrypt the matrix, each character in every block of 16 characters
the original message. He then sends both the encrypted into level-one cipher text character.
message and the encrypted secret key to the receiver. The 3. The third step involves translation and transposition of
receiver first decrypts the secret key using RSA and the private level-one cipher text characters within a block, by X-OR
key. The secret key must be decrypted first as the encrypted and circular shift operations, using arrays, in 8 rounds.
message can only be decrypted with the original secret key.
After the secret key is decrypted it is then used in the FSET Figure 2 shows simplified block diagram of the encryption and
algorithm to get back the original message using the FSET decryption scheme.
decryption algorithm. All the procedure is explained clearly in
the fallowing sub sections. a) Matrix for substitution mapping
A matrix M with 16 rows and 256 columns initialized
A. The Key Generation Process
with ASCII codes of characters using secret key is used for
RSA involves a public key and a private key. The public mapping the plaintext characters into level one cipher text
key can be known to everyone and is used for encrypting characters. During encryption, a block of 16 plaintext
messages. Messages encrypted with the public key can only be characters in the message is taken into a buffer. The ASCII
decrypted using the private key [3]. The keys for the RSA
code of the character P(i) is obtained. The resulting integer is
algorithm are generated the following way:
used as column number j of ith row of the matrix M. The
1. Choose two distinct large random prime numbers and element contained in this cell which is an ASCII code of a
2. Compute n=p*q n is used as the modulus for both the character, is taken as the level-one cipher text character CL1(i)
public and private keys corresponding to the plaintext character P(i).

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Figure 2: Block Diagram of Encryption & Decryption

In this way all the characters in a block are mapped into level- K(0). The row 1 of the matrix M is given a right circular shift
one cipher text characters and all plaintext character blocks are as many number of times as equal to the ASCII value of the
mapped into level one cipher text blocks. key character K(1) and so on.
b) Matrix initialization c) Substitution mapping procedure
A matrix M with sixteen rows and two hundred fifty six A given message is broken into blocks of sixteen plaintext
columns is defined. Columns in every row of the matrix is characters P(0) through P(15). Plaintext character P(i) is
filled with ASCII codes of characters starting from NULL taken and a number j is calculated such that j = ( ASCII code
(ASCII = 0) in column zero to BLANK (ASCII = 255) in of plaintext character P(i)). This number, j, is used as column
column two hundred fifty five representing elements of the number of the matrix M. Using j as column number we
matrix. A 16 character (128 bits) secret key K, with key proceed to find the element in the ith row of the matrix M.
characters K(0) through K(15), is used for encryption and This element (ASCII code of a character) is used as level-one
decryption. The ith row of the matrix is given an initial right cipher text character CL1(i) for a given plaintext character
circular shift, as many number of times as equal to the ASCII P(i). For example, for the plaintext character P(0) in a block, i
code of (i+1)th key character to shuffle the contents of the = 0, j = ( ASCII code of plaintext character P(0)) is used as
matrix M, for i = 0 to 14. For example, if K(1), is .a. whose column number of row 0 of the matrix M to obtain level-one
ASCII code is 97, row 0 of the matrix M is right circular cipher text character corresponding to P(0). Similarly for
shifted 97 times. If K(2) is .h. whose ASCII code is 104, the character P(1) in the plaintext character block, i = 1 and j = (
second row of the matrix M is right circular shifted 104 times ASCII code of plaintext character P(1)) where j is used as
and so on. The row 15 of matrix M is right circular shifted as column number of the row 1 of the matrix to obtain level-one
many number of times as equal to ASCII value of the key cipher text character corresponding to P(1). In this way, all the
character K(0). 16 plaintext characters in a block are mapped into 16 level one
cipher text characters denoted by CL1(i), i = 0 to 15. The
Further, the ith row of the matrix is given a second right
characters of level 1 cipher text character block (CL1(0)
circular shift as many number of times as equal to ASCII
through CL1(15)) are transferred to a 16 element array A1.
(K(i)) to shuffle the contents of the matrix M, for i = 0 to 15.
For example, the row 0 of M is right circular shifted as many
d) Sub-key set generation
number of times as equal to the ASCII value of key character

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One set of eight sub-keys Kts_0, Kts_1, Kts_2, .. Kts_7 M=C^d mod n.
are generated using the secret key K such that: Kts_n =
Given m, he can recover the original message key M.
characters in columns 0 through column 15 in row n of matrix
M concatenated. These keys are used in translation rounds. E. The Decryption process
Another set of sub-keys Ktp_n0, Kps_n1, Ktp_n2 and Ktp_n3 The decryption algorithm performs the reverse operations
are generated such that Ktp_n0 = character of matrix M with of encryption such that P = D(K,C). This is done in three
row number n and column number 0. Here, each key is a steps. Here, cipher text character C(i), in blocks of 16 are
character represented by the corresponding element in the processed using arrays and matrix. The first step involves
matrix M. These keys are used in transposition rounds. initialization of a matrix with ASCII codes of characters,
e) Translation and Transposing shuffled using the secret key. In the second step, the cipher
text characters are de-transposed using circular shift operation
Eight rounds of translation and transposition operations of array and de-translated by XOR logic using sub-keys in
are performed on the level 1 cipher text character block. The multiple rounds. With this operation we get back the level-one
translation operations are done using XOR operation cipher text characters. In the third step, these level-one cipher
performed on the cipher text character block using sub key, text characters are inverse-mapped into plaintext characters
Kts_n in the nth round. The translated cipher text character using the matrix. In the decryption algorithm, sub-keys are
block is transposed using four arrays whose elements are generated from the secret key in the same way as in the case of
circular shifted using sub-keys Ktp_n0, Ktp_n1, Ktp_n2, encryption algorithm.
Ktp_n3 used in that round. These operations make the
resulting output cipher text characters extremely difficult to a) Matrix initialization
decrypt by any adversary without having the secret key. The
An identical matrix M, used for mapping the plaintext
translation and transposition produce the effect of diffusion.
characters into level-one cipher text characters, is used here
 Translation of cipher text characters for inverse mapping of the level-one cipher text characters into
plaintext characters during decryption. At the decryption site,
The contents of array A1 is XOR with sub key Kts_n this matrix is created using the secret key K in the same way
in the nth round. The 16 characters of each block of as in the case of encryption.
cipher text are XOR with 16 characters of sub key
Ks_n b) De-transposing of cipher text characters
 Transposing of cipher text characters The cipher text character block from the cipher text file is
brought in to a 16 element array A1. For the nth round, array
The XOR level-one cipher text characters available in
A1 is left circular shifted as many number of times as equal to
array A1 are bifurcated and transposed using four
the integer value of Ktp_n3. After this operation, the first eight
arrays. For the nth round, array A1 is right circular
elements of A1 (left most elements) are transferred to another
shifted as many number of times as equal to the
array A2 having 8 element positions. Then, A2 is left circular
integer value of Ktp_n0. After this operation, the first
shifted as many number of times as equal to the integer value
eight elements of A1 (left most elements) are
of Ktp_n2. The other eight elements of the array A1
transferred to another array A2 having 8 element
(rightmost elements) are transferred to another 8 element array
positions. Then, A2 is right circular shifted as many
A3 which is right circular shifted as many number of times as
number of times as equal to the integer value of
equal to integer value of Ktp_n1. Then A2 and A3 are
Ktp_n1. The other eight elements of the array A1
concatenated and transferred to the 16 element array A1. This
(rightmost elements) are transferred to another 8
array is left circular shifted as many number of times as equal
element array A3 which is left circular shifted as
to the integer value of Ktp_n0.
many number of times as equal to integer value of
Ktp_n2. Then A2 and A3 are concatenated and c) De-translation of cipher text characters
transferred to the 16 element array A1. This 16
element array, A1, is right circular shifted as many The contents of array A1 is X-ORed with the bits of sub
number of times as equal to the integer value of key Kts_n in the nth round. After this operation, the contents
Ktp_n3. After this operation, the contents of A1 of the array A corresponds to the level one cipher text
represent the cipher text characters in a given block. character block corresponding to the one obtained after the
The elements of array A1 are moved to the cipher mapping operation done at the encryption side using the
text block C(0) through C(15). The cipher text blocks matrix. The contents of array A1 is moved to level 1 cipher
are used to create the output cipher text message file. text block, CL1.
d) Inverse mapping using matrix
D. Secret Key decryption using RSA Algorithm
If CL1(i) is the level-one cipher text character in a block,
Receiver b can recover m from C by using her private key the inverse mapping is such that P(i) = char((column number j
exponents d by the following computation: of ith row of matrix M where CL1(i) is the element)). For

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example, let the 1st level-one cipher text character, CL1(1), in Performance comparison of various popular secret key
a block be .#.. We proceed to search. #. in the matrix M to find algorithms, such as DES, AES and Blowfish running on a
the column number j in the 1st row where CL1(1) = M[1][j]. Pentium-4, 2.4 GHz machine, discussed in the literature [9]
Then we determine the character whose ASCII = (j) which shows that Blowfish is the fastest among these algorithms. The
gives the plaintext character P(1) corresponding to CL1(1). throughputs of these algorithms are respectively 4,980
Let the 2nd level-one cipher text character, CL1(2), in a block bytes/sec, 2,306 bytes/sec and 5,167 bytes/sec. The proposed
be .%.. We proceed to search .%. in the matrix M to find the FSET Symmetric-key Encryption algorithm is subjected to
column number j in the 2nd row where CL1(2) = M[2][j]. performance evaluation using a Pentium-4, 2.4 GHz machine.
Then we determine the character whose ASCII = (j) which Execution time taken by the algorithm was measured using a
image file and the throughput calculated. The time between
gives the plaintext character P(2) corresponding to CL1(2). In
two test points in the algorithm during execution was measured
this way we can inverse map every cipher text character in with the help of system clock.
every block into plaintext characters to get back the original
message file. The number of bytes (in the plaintext file) required for an
execution time of one second during encryption was
IV. SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ascertained. The comparison of performance of this encryption
The key generation process can be seen in the figure 3. It algorithm with the performance of popular secret key
shows the selected prime numbers and generated public and algorithms given in [4] is made. The throughput of Blowfish
private key values. A secret key is chosen “encryption algorithm is only 5,167 bytes per second whereas FSET
algorithm” which can be seen in the figure 4. encryption algorithm provides 70,684 bytes per second. Thus
this Encryption algorithm is 8 times faster than Blowfish
algorithm.

V. CONCLUSION
The proposed hybrid encryption technique has the
advantages of both symmetric and asymmetric algorithms.
Symmetric algorithm is used for encryption of messages rather
than asymmetric because the asymmetric algorithms are slower
compared to symmetric algorithms. Thus Asymmetric
algorithm RSA is used here to safeguard the secret key which
solves the problem of key exchange as the secret key can be
sent securely. The secret key can’t be decrypted unless a
private key is obtained and since it is at receiver side it is
highly secured.
The FSET Encryption algorithm, presented above, is a
simple, direct mapping algorithm using matrix and arrays.
Figure 3: Key Generation process
Consequently, it is very fast and suitable for high speed
encryption applications. The matrix based substitution resulting
in poly alphabetic cipher text generation followed by multiple
round arrays based transposing and XOR logic based
translations give strength to this encryption algorithm. The
combination of poly alphabetic substitution, translation and
transposition makes the decryption extremely difficult without
having the secret key. Decryption of cipher text messages
created using this encryption is practically impossible by
exhaustive key search as in the case of other algorithms using
128 bits secret key. The cipher text generated by this algorithm
does not have one to one correspondence in terms of position
of the characters in plaintext and cipher text. This feature also
makes decryption extremely difficult by brute force. The
performance test shows that this encryption is a fast algorithm
compared to the popular Symmetric-key algorithms. The
Figure 4: Secret key algorithm is enhanced so that it can handle various kinds of
The public key is used in RSA algorithm to encrypt the data like images, videos, PDF etc.
secret key file. The encrypted secret key can be seen in figure
4. The secret key is used for encrypting the image file suing
FSET algorithm. The original image and encrypted image are
shown in the figure (5a) and figure (5b). The encrypted image
cannot be opened. It’s highly secure.

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REFERENCES
[1] Chao-Shen Chen, and Rong-Jian Chen, (2006) “Image Encryption and K. Hemanth Kumar received the Bachelor of
Decryption Using SCAN Methodology”, Proceedings of the Seventh Technology in Computer Science & Engineering
International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing, from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Applications and Technologies (PDCAT'06)J. Hyderabad, India in 2005 and Master of Technology
[2] Paul. A.J, Varghese Paul, P. Mythili, (2007) “A Fast and Secure in Computer Science & Engineering from Jawaharlal
Encryption Algorithm For Message Communication”, IET-UK Nehru Technological University, Kakinada, India in
International Conference on Information and Communication 2010 and also working as Assistant Professor at the
Technology in Electrical Sciences (ICTES 2007), Dr. M.G.R. Department of Computer Science & Engineering in
University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. pp. 629-634. S.C.E.T., Hyderabad, India. His main research areas
[3] Hung-Min Sun, Mu-En Wu, Wei-Chi Ting, and M. Jason Hinek, (2007) are Information Security and Computer Networks.
“Dual RSA and Its Security Analysis”, IEEE Transactions on
Information Theory, VOL. 53, NO. 8, pp. 2922-2933
[4] R. Aameer Nadeem, Dr. M. Younus Javed, (2005) “A Performance
Comparison of Data Encryption Algorithms”., 0-7803-9421-6 / IEEE
[5] William Stallings, .Network Security Essentials (Applications and
Standards). Pearson Education, 2004, pp. 2.80.
[6] Data Encryption Standard: http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips 46-
3/fips- 46-3.pdf
[7] Advanced Encryption Standard
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips197/fips-197.pdf
[8] Escrowed Encryption Standard
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips1185/fips-185.txt
[9] Adam J. Elbirt, Christof Paar, (2005)”An Instruction-Level Distributed
Processor for Symmetric-Key Cryptography”, IEEE Transactions on
Parallel and distributed Systems, Vol. 16, No. 5

AUTHORS PROFILE
Shaik Rasool received the Bachelor of Technology
in Computer Science & Engineering from Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, India in
2008. He is currently pursuing Master of Technology
in Computer Science & Engineering from Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University and also working as
Assistant Professor at the Department of Computer
Science & Engineering in S.C.E.T., Hyderabad,
India. His main research interest includes Network
Security, Biometrics, Data Mining, Information Security, Programming
Language and security and Artificial Intelligence.

Mr Md Ateeq ur Rahman received his Bachelor of

Engineering Degree from Gulbarga University,
Karnataka, India in 2000. In 2004, he obtained
M.Tech degree in Computer Science & Engineering
from Visvesvaraya Technological University,
karnataka, India. He is currently pursuing Ph.D. from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University,
Hyderabad, India. Presently he is working as
Professor in Department of Computer Science &
Engineering, S.C.E.T Hyderabad. His areas of interest include Data mining,
Remote Sensing, Image Processing, etc.

G. Sridhar received his B.S. in Computer Science &

Information Technology and M.S. in Computer
Science and Information Technology from State
Engineering University of Armenia, Yerevan,
Armenia. He is currently working as Associate
Professor at the Department of Computer Science &
Engineering in S.C.E.T., Hyderabad, India. His main
research interest includes Information Security,
Software Testing Methodologies and Software Models.

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Effective Classification Algorithms to Predict the

Accuracy of Tuberculosis-A Machine Learning
Approach
Asha.T S. Natarajan K.N.B. Murthy
Dept. of Info.Science & Engg., Dept. of Info. Science & Engg. Dept.of Info. Science & Engg.
Bangalore Institute of Technology P.E.S. Institute of Technology P.E.S.Institute of Technology
Bangalore, INDIA Bangalore,INDIA Bangalore,INDIA

Abstract— Tuberculosis is a disease caused by mycobacterium medical knowledge as has been proved in a number of medical
which can affect virtually all organs, not sparing even the data mining applications.
relatively inaccessible sites. India has the world’s highest burden
of tuberculosis (TB) with million estimated incident cases per Data classification process using knowledge obtained from
year. Studies suggest that active tuberculosis accelerates the known historical data has been one of the most intensively
progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection. studied subjects in statistics, decision science and computer
Tuberculosis is much more likely to be a fatal disease among science. Data mining techniques have been applied to medical
HIV-infected persons than persons without HIV infection. services in several areas, including prediction of effectiveness
Diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis has always been a problem. of surgical procedures, medical tests, medication, and the
Classification of medical data is an important task in the discovery of relationships among clinical and diagnosis data.
prediction of any disease. It even helps doctors in their diagnosis In order to help the clinicians in diagnosing the type of disease
decisions. In this paper we propose a machine learning approach computerized data mining and decision support tools are used
to compare the performance of both basic learning classifiers and which are able to help clinicians to process a huge amount of
ensemble of classifiers on Tuberculosis data. The classification data available from solving previous cases and suggest the
models were trained using the real data collected from a city probable diagnosis based on the values of several important
hospital. The trained models were then used for predicting the attributes. There have been numerous comparisons of the
Tuberculosis as two categories Pulmonary Tuberculosis(PTB)
different classification and prediction methods, and the matter
and Retroviral PTB(RPTB) i.e. TB along with Acquired Immune
remains a research topic. No single method has been found to
Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS). The prediction accuracy of the
classifiers was evaluated using 10-fold Cross Validation and the
be superior over all others for all data sets.
results have been compared to obtain the best prediction India has the world’s highest burden of tuberculosis (TB) with
accuracy. The results indicate that Support Vector Machine million estimated incident cases per year. It also ranks[20]
(SVM) performs well among basic learning classifiers and among the world’s highest HIV burden with an estimated 2.3
Random forest from ensemble with the accuracy of 99.14% from million persons living with HIV/AIDS. Tuberculosis is much
both classifiers respectively. Various other measures like more likely to be a fatal disease among HIV-infected persons
Specificity, Sensitivity, F-measure and ROC area have been used
than persons without HIV infection. It is a disease caused by
in comparison.
mycobacterium which can affect virtually all organs, not
sparing even the relatively inaccessible sites. The
Keywords-component; Machine learning; Tuberculosis; microorganisms usually enter the body by inhalation through
Classification, PTB, Retroviral PTB the lungs. They spread from the initial location in the lungs to
other parts of the body via the blood stream. They present a
diagnostic dilemma even for physicians with a great deal of
I. INTRODUCTION experience in this disease.
There is an explosive growth of bio-medical data, ranging
from those collected in pharmaceutical studies and cancer II. RELATED WORK
therapy investigations to those identified in genomics and Orhan Er. And Temuritus[1] present a study on tuberculosis
proteomics research. The rapid progress in data mining diagnosis, carried out with the help of Multilayer Neural
research has led to the development of efficient and scalable Networks (MLNNs). For this purpose, an MLNN with two
methods to discover knowledge from these data. Medical data hidden layers and a genetic algorithm for training algorithm
mining is an active research area under data mining since has been used. Data mining approach was adopted to classify
medical databases have accumulated large quantities of
genotype of mycobacterium tuberculosis using c4.5
information about patients and their clinical conditions.
algorithm[2].Rethabile Khutlang et.al. present methods for the
Relationships and patterns hidden in this data can provide new

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automated identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in III. DATA SOURCE
images of Ziehl–Neelsen (ZN) stained sputum smears obtained The medical dataset we are classifying includes 700 real
using a bright-field microscope.They segment candidate records of patients suffering from TB obtained from a city
bacillus objects using a combination of two-class pixel hospital. The entire dataset is put in one file having many
classifiers[3]. records. Each record corresponds to most relevant information
Sejong Yoon, Saejoon Kim [4] proposes a mutual of one patient. Initial queries by doctor as symptoms and some
information-based Support Vector Machine Recursive Feature required test details of patients have been considered as main
Elimination (SVM-RFE) as the classification method with attributes. Totally there are 11 attributes(symptoms) and one
feature selection in this paper.Diagnosis of breast cancer class attribute. The symptoms of each patient such as age,
using different classification techniques was carried chroniccough(weeks), loss of weight, intermittent fever(days),
out[5,6,7,8]. A new constrained-syntax genetic programming night sweats, Sputum, Bloodcough, chestpain, HIV,
algorithm[9] was developed to discover classification rules radiographic findings, wheezing and class are considered as
for diagnosing certain pathologies.Kwokleung Chan et.al. [10] attributes.
used several machine learning and traditional calssifiers in the Table I shows names of 12 attributes considered along with
classification of glaucoma disease and compared the their Data Types (DT). Type N-indicates numerical and C is
performance using ROC. Various classification algorithms categorical.
based on statistical and neural network methods were
presented and tested for quantitative tissue characterization of Table I. List of Attributes and their Datatypes
diffuse liver disease from ultrasound images[11] and No Name DT
comparison of classifiers in sleep apnea[18]. Ranjit Abraham
1 Age N
et.al.[19] propose a new feature selection algorithm CHI-WSS
to improve the classification accuracy of Naïve Bayes with 2 Chroniccough(weeks) N
respect to medical datasets. 3 WeightLoss C
Minou Rabiei et.al.[12] use tree based ensemble classifiers for 4 Intermittentfever N
the diagnosis of excess water production. Their results
5 Nightsweats C
demonstrate the applicability of this technique in successful
diagnosis of water production problems. Hongqi Li, Haifeng 6 Bloodcough C
Guo et.al. present[13] a comprehensive comparative study on 7 Chestpain C
petroleum exploration and production using five feature
selection methods including expert judgment, CFS, LVF, 8 HIV C
Relief-F, and SVM-RFE, and fourteen algorithms from five 9 Radiographicfindings C
distinct kinds of classification methods including decision tree,
10 Sputum C
artificial neural network, support vector machines(SVM),
Bayesian network and ensemble learning. 11 Wheezing C

Paper on “Mining Several Data Bases with an Ensemble of 12 Class C

Classifiers”[14] analyze the two types of conflicts, one created
by data inconsistency within the area of the intersection of the
data bases and the second is created when the meta method
IV. CLASSIFICATION ALGORITHMS
selects different data mining methods with inconsistent
competence maps for the objects of the intersected part and SVM (SMO)
their combinations and suggest ways to handle them. The original SVM algorithm was invented by Vladimir
Referenced paper[15] studies medical data classification Vapnik. The standard SVM takes a set of input data, and
methods, comparing decision tree and system reconstruction predicts, for each given input, which of two possible classes
analysis as applied to heart disease medical data mining. the input is a member of, which makes the SVM a non-
Under most circumstances, single classifiers, such as neural probabilistic binary linear classifier.
networks, support vector machines and decision trees, exhibit A support vector machine constructs a hyperplane or set of
worst performance. In order to further enhance performance hyperplanes in a high or infinite dimensional space, which can
combination of these methods in a multi-level combination be used for classification, regression or other tasks. Intuitively,
scheme was proposed that improves efficiency[16]. paper[17] a good separation is achieved by the hyperplane that has the
demonstrates the use of adductive network classifier largest distance to the nearest training data points of any class
committees trained on different features for improving (so-called functional margin), since in general the larger the
classification accuracy in medical diagnosis. margin the lower the generalization error of the classifier.
K-Nearest Neighbors(IBK)
The k-nearest neighbors algorithm (k-NN) is a method for[22]
classifying objects based on closest training examples in the

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feature space. k-NN is a type of instance-based learning., or individual trees. It is a popular algorithm which builds a
lazy learning where the function is only approximated locally randomized decision tree in each iteration of the bagging
and all computation is deferred until classification. Here an algorithm and often produces excellent predictors.
object is classified by a majority vote of its neighbors, with the
object being assigned to the class most common amongst its k
nearest neighbors (k is a positive, typically small). V. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The open source tool Weka was used in different phases of the
Naive Bayesian Classifier (Naive Bayes)
experiment. Weka is a collection of state-of-the-art machine
It is Bayes classifier which is a simple probabilistic classifier
learning algorithms[26] for a wide range of data mining tasks
based on applying Baye’s theorem(from Bayesian statistics)
such as data preprocessing, attribute selection, clustering, and
with strong (naive) independence[23] assumptions. In
classification. Weka has been used in prior research both in the
probability theory Bayes theorem shows how one conditional
field of clinical data mining and in bioinformatics.
probability (such as the probability of a hypothesis given
observed evidence) depends on its inverse (in this case, the Weka has four main graphical user interfaces(GUI).The main
probability of that evidence given the hypothesis). In more graphical user interface are Explorer and Experimenter. Our
technical terms, the theorem expresses the posterior Experiment has been tried under both Explorer and
probability (i.e. after evidence E is observed) of a hypothesis Experimenter GUI of weka. In the Explorer we can flip back
H in terms of the prior probabilities of H and E, and the and forth between the results we have obtained,evaluate the
probability of E given H. It implies that evidence has a models that have been built on different datasets, and visualize
stronger confirming effect if it was more unlikely before being graphically both the models and the datasets themselves-
observed. including any classification errors the models make.
Experimenter on the other side allows us to automate the
C4.5 Decision Tree(J48 in weka)
process by making it easy to run classifiers and filters with
Perhaps C4.5 algorithm which was developed by Quinlan is
different parameter settings on a corpus of datasets, collect
the most popular tree classifier[21]. It is a decision support
performance statistics, and perform significance tests.
tool that uses a tree-like graph or model of decisions and their
Advanced users can employ the Experimenter to distribute the
possible consequences, including chance event outcomes,
computing load across multiple machines using java remote
resource costs, and utility. Weka classifier package has its own
method invocation.
version of C4.5 known as J48. J48 is an optimized
implementation of C4.5 rev. 8.
A. Cross-Validation
Bagging(bagging) Cross validation with 10 folds has been used for evaluating the
Bagging (Bootstrap aggregating) was proposed by Leo classifier models. Cross-Validation (CV) is the standard Data
Breiman in 1994 to improve the classification by combining Mining method for evaluating performance of classification
classifications of randomly generated training sets. The algorithms mainly, to evaluate the Error Rate of a learning
concept of bagging (voting for classification, averaging for technique. In CV a dataset is partitioned in n folds, where each
regression-type problems with continuous dependent variables is used for testing and the remainder used for training. The
of interest) applies to the area of predictive data mining to procedure of testing and training is repeated n times so that
combine the predicted classifications (prediction) from each partition or fold is used once for testing. The standard
multiple models, or from the same type of model for different way of predicting the error rate of a learning technique given a
learning data. It is a technique generating multiple training single, fixed sample of data is to use a stratified 10-fold cross-
sets by sampling with replacement from the available training validation. Stratification implies making sure that when
data and assigns vote for each classification. sampling is done each class is properly represented in both
Adaboost(Adaboost M1) training and test datasets. This is achieved by randomly
AdaBoost is an algorithm for constructing a “strong” classifier sampling the dataset when doing the n fold partitions.
as linear combination of “simple” “weak” classifier. Instead of In a stratified 10-fold Cross-Validation the data is divided
resampling, Each training sample uses a weight to determine randomly into 10 parts in which the class is represented in
the probability of being selected for a training set. Final approximately the same proportions as in the full dataset. Each
classification is based on weighted vote of weak classifiers. part is held out in turn and the learning scheme trained on the
AdaBoost is sensitive to noisy data and outliers. However in remaining nine-tenths; then its error rate is calculated on the
some problems it can be less susceptible to the overfitting holdout set. The learning procedure is executed a total of 10
problem than most learning algorithms. times on different training sets, and finally the 10 error rates
are averaged to yield an overall error estimate. When seeking
Random forest (or random forests) an accurate error estimate, it is standard procedure to repeat
The algorithm for inducing a random forest was developed by the CV process 10 times. This means invoking the learning
leo-braiman[25]. The term came from random decision forests algorithm 100 times. Given two models M1 and M2 with
that was first proposed by Tin Kam Ho of Bell Labs in 1995. It different accuracies tested on different instances of a data set,
is an ensemble classifier that consists of many decision trees
and outputs the class that is the mode of the class's output by

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to say which model is best, we need to measure the confidence
level of each and perform significance tests.

VI. PERFORMANCE MEASURES

Supervised Machine Learning (ML) has several ways of
evaluating the performance of learning algorithms and the
classifiers they produce. Measures of the quality of
classification are built from a confusion matrix which records
correctly and incorrectly recognized examples for each class.
Table II presents a confusion matrix for binary classification,
where TP are true positive, FP false positive, FN false
negative, and TN true negative counts.

Table II. Confusion matrix

Predicted Label
Figure.1 Comparison of average F-measure and ROC area
Positive Negative

False
True Positive
Positive Negative
Known (TP)
(FN)
Label
False Positive True Negative
Negative
(FP) (TN)

The different measures used with the confusion matrix are:

True positive rate(TPR)/ Recall/ Sensitivity is the percentage
of positive labeled instances that were predicted as positive
given as TP / (TP + FN). False positive rate(FPR) is the
percentage of negative labeled instances that were predicted as
positive given as FP / (TN + FP).Precision is the percentage of
positive predictions that are correct given as TP / (TP +
Figure.2 Comparing the prediction accuracy of all classifiers
FP).Specificity is the percentage of negative labeled instances
that were predicted as negative given as TN / (TN + FP)
.Accuracy is the percentage of predictions that are correct Conclusions
given as (TP + TN) / (TP + TN + FP + FN).F-measure is the
Tuberculosis is an important health concern as it is also
Harmonic mean between precision and recall given as
associated with AIDS. Retrospective studies of tuberculosis
2xRecallxPrecision/ Recall+Precision.
suggest that active tuberculosis accelerates the progression of
HIV infection. Recently, intelligent methods such as Artificial
Neural Networks(ANN) have been intensively used for
VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS classification tasks. In this article we have proposed data
Results show that certain algorithms demonstrate superior mining approaches to classify tuberculosis using both basic
detection performance compared to others. Table III lists the and ensemble classifiers. Finally, two models for algorithm
evaluation measures used for various classification algorithms selection are proposed with great promise for performance
to predict the best accuracy. These measures will be the most improvement. Among the algorithms evaluated, SVM and
important criteria for the classifier to consider as the best Random Forest proved to be the best methods.
algorithm for the given category in bioinformatics. The
prediction accuracy of SVM and C4.5 decision trees among
Acknowledgment
single classifiers, Random Forest among ensemble are
considered to be the best. Our thanks to KIMS Hospital, Bangalore for providing the
valuable real Tuberculosis data and principal Dr. Sudharshan
Other measures such as F-measure and ROC area of above
for giving permission to collect data from the Hospital.
classifiers are graphically compared in figure 1. It displays the
average F-measure and ROC area of both the classes.
Prediction accuracy of these classifiers are shown in figure 2.

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Table III. Performance comparison of various classifiers

Classifier category Classifier model Various measures Disease categories(class)

PTB RPTB
Basic Learning classifiers SVM(SMO) TPR/ Sensitivity 98.9% 99.6%
FPR 0.004 0.011
Specificity 99.6% 98.9%
Prediction 99.14%
Accuracy
K-NN(IBK) TPR/ Sensitivity 99.1% 96.9%
FPR 0.03 0.008
Specificity 96.9% 99.1%
Prediction 98.4%
Accuracy
Naive Bayes TPR/ Sensitivity 96.4% 96.5%
FPR 0.035 0.037
Specificity 96.5% 96.4%
Prediction 96.4%
Accuracy
C4.5 Decision Trees(J48) TPR/ Sensitivity 98.5% 100%
FPR 0 0.015
Specificity 100% 98.5%
Prediction 99%
Accuracy
Ensemble classifiers Bagging TPR/ Sensitivity 98.5% 99.6%
FPR 0.004 0.015
Specificity 99.6% 98.5%
Prediction 98.85%
Accuracy

Adaboost(AdaboostM1) TPR/ Sensitivity 98.5% 100%

FPR 0 0.015
Specificity 100% 98.5%
Prediction 99%
Accuracy

Random Forest TPR/ Sensitivity 98.9% 99.6%

FPR 0.004 0.011
Specificity 99.6% 98.9%
Prediction 99.14%
Accuracy

[3] Rethabile Khutlang, Sriram Krishnan, Ronald Dendere, Andrew

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volume 42,issue 6, pp 1126 – 1132, june 2009. [23] Rish and Irina, “An empirical study of the naïve Bayes classifier”, IJCAI
2001, workshop on empirical methods in artificial intelligence,
[7] Abdelghani Bellaachia and Erhan Guven, “ Predicting breast cancer 2001(available online).
survivability using Data Mining Techniques” Artificial Intelligence in
Medicine, Elsevier, Volume 34, Issue 2, pp 113-127, june 2005. [24] R. J. Quinlan, "Bagging, boosting, and c4.5," in AAAI/IAAI: Proceedings
of the 13th National Conference on Artificial Intelligence and 8th
[8] Maria-Luiza Antonie, Osmar R Zaıane and Alexandru Coman, Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference. Portland,
“Application of data mining techniques for medical image classification” Oregon, AAAI Press / The MIT Press, Vol. 1, pp.725-730,1996.
In Proceedings of Second International Workshop on Multimedia Data
Mining (MDM/KDD’2001) in conjunction with Seventh ACM SIGKDD, [25] Breiman, Leo, "Random Forests". Machine Learning 45 (1): 5–
pp 94-101,2000. 32.,Doi:10.1023/A:1010933404324,2001.
[9] Celia C Bojarczuk, Heitor S Lopes and Alex A Freitas, “ Data Mining [26] Weka – Data Mining Machine Learning Software,
http://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/.
with Constrained-Syntax Genetic Programming: Applications in Medical
Data Set” Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Elsevier, volume 30, issue [27] J. Han and M. Kamber, Data mining: concepts and techniques: Morgan
1, pp. 27-48,2004. Kaufmann Publishers, 2006.
[10] Kwokleung Chan, Te-Won Lee, Associate Member, IEEE, Pamela A. [28] I. H. Witten and E. Frank, Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning
Sample, Michael H. Goldbaum, Robert N. Weinreb, and Terrence J. Tools and Techniques, Second Edition: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers,
Sejnowski, Fellow, IEEE ,“Comparison of Machine Learning and 2005.
Traditional Classifiers in Glaucoma Diagnosis”, IEEE Transactions On
Biomedical Engineering, volume 49, NO. 9, September 2002. AUTHORS PROFILE
[11] Yasser M. Kadah, Aly A. Farag, Member, IEEE, Jacek M. Zurada, Mrs.Asha.T obtained her Bachelors and Masters in Engg.,
Fellow, IEEE,Ahmed M. Badawi, and Abou-Bakr M. Youssef, from Bangalore University, Karnataka, India. She is
“Classification algorithms for Quantitative Tissue Characterization of pursuing her research leading to Ph.D in Visveswaraya
diffuse liver disease from ultrasound images”, IEEE Transactions On
Technological University under the guidance of Dr. S.
Medical Imaging, volume 15, NO. 4, August 1996.
Natarajan and Dr. K.N.B. Murthy. She has over 16 years
[12] Minou Rabiei and Ritu Gupta, “Excess Water Production Diagnosis in of teaching experience and currently working as Assistant
Oil Fields using Ensemble Classifiers”, in proc. of International professor in the Dept. of Information Science & Engg.,
Conference on Computational Intelligence and Software Engineering , B.I.T. Karnataka, India. Her Research interests are in Data
IEEE,pages:1-4,2009. Mining, Medical Applications, Pattern Recognition, and
[13] Hongqi Li, Haifeng Guo, Haimin Guo and Zhaoxu Meng, “ Data Mining Artificial Intelligence.
Techniques for Complex Formation Evaluation in Petroleum Exploration
and Production: A Comparison of Feature Selection and Classification Dr S.Natarajan holds Ph. D (Remote Sensing) from
Methods” in proc. 2008 IEEE Pacific-Asia Workshop on Computational JNTU Hyderabad India. His experience spans 33 years in
Intelligence and Industrial Application ,volume 01 Pages: 37-43,2008. R&D and 10 years in Teaching. He worked in Defence
[14] Seppo Puuronen, Vagan Terziyan and Alexander Logvinovsky, “Mining Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL),
several data bases with an Ensemble of classifiers” in proc. 10th Hyderabad, India for Five years and later worked for
International Conference on Database and Expert Systems Applications, Twenty Eight years in National Remote Sensing Agency,
Vol.1677 , pp: 882 – 891, 1999. Hyderabad, India. He has over 50 publications in peer
[15] Tzung-I Tang,Gang Zheng ,Yalou Huang and Guangfu Shu, “A reviewed Conferences and Journals His areas of interest
comparative study of medical data classification methods based on are Soft Computing, Data Mining and Geographical
Decision Tree and System Reconstruction Analysis” IEMS ,Vol. 4, issue Information System.
1, pp. 102-108, June 2005.
[16] Tsirogiannis, G.L. Frossyniotis, D. Stoitsis, J. Golemati Dr. K. N. B. Murthy holds Bachelors in Engineering
S. Stafylopatis and A. Nikita, K.S, “Classification of medical data with from University of Mysore, Masters from IISc,
a robust multi-level combination scheme” in proc. 2004 IEEE Bangalore and Ph.D. from IIT, Chennai India. He has
International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, volume 3, pp 2483- over 30 years of experience in Teaching, Training,
2487, 25-29 July 2004. Industry, Administration, and Research. He has authored
[17] R.E. Abdel-Aal, “Improved classification of medical data using abductive over 60 papers in national, international journals and
network committees trained on different feature subsets” Computer conferences, peer reviewer to journal and conference
Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, volume 80, Issue 2, pp. 141-153, papers of national & international repute and has
2005. authored book. He is the member of several academic
committees Executive Council, Academic Senate, University Publication
[18] Kemal polat,Sebnem Yosunkaya and Salih Guines, “Comparison of Committee, BOE & BOS, Local Inquiry Committee of VTU, Governing Body
different classifier algorithms on the Automated Detection of Obstructive Member of BITES, Founding Member of Creativity and Innovation Platform of
Sleep Apnea Syndrome”, Journal of Medical Systems,volume 32 ,Issue 3,
Karnataka. Currently he is the Principal & Director of P.E.S. Institute of
pp. 9129-9, June 2008.
Technology, Bangalore India. His research interest includes Parallel
[19] Ranjit Abraham, Jay B.Simha and Iyengar S.S “Medical datamining with Computing, Computer Networks and Artificial Intelligence.
a new algorithm for Feature Selection and Naïve Bayesian classifier”
proceedings of 10th International Conference on Information
Technology, IEEE, pp.44-49,2007.
[20] HIV Sentinel Surveillance and HIV Estimation, 2006. New Delhi, India:
National AIDS Control Organization, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India.

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Comparison study on AAMRP and

IODMRP in MANETS
Tanvir Kahlon Sukesha Sharma
Panjab University Panjab University
Chandigarh,India Chandigarh, India

Abstract— Mobile Ad-Hoc network is self configuring Sensor networks • Home applications: smart sensor
network of moving routers associated with wireless network. nodes and actuators embedded in
In these networks there is no fixed topology due to the mobility consumer electronics to allow end
of nodes, interference, multipath propagation and path loss. The users to manage home devices
mobile nodes co-operate with each other to perform a particular locally and remotely.
task. Since there is a lack of infrastructure and the node mobility • Environmental applications
is larger than in wired network and even larger in fixed wireless include tracking the movements of
networks, new routing protocols are proposed to handle the new animals chemical/biological
challenges. Each new protocol has its own advantages and detection, precision agriculture, etc.
disadvantages. This paper focuses on the comparison between
the two Multicast Routing Protocols AAMRP and IODMRP. Emergency services • Search and rescue operations.
• Disaster recovery.
Keywords— Multicast, Ad-Hoc wireless networks (MANETS) • Environmental disasters (e.g.,
, AAMRP, IODMRP,ODMRP earthquakes, hurricanes)
• Policing and fire fighting.
I. INTRODUCTION • Supporting doctors and nurses in
hospitals
A mobile ad hoc network is a wireless network that is based on
Commercial and • E-Commerce
mobile devices[1]. There is no need for existing infrastructure.
civilian • Business: mobile offices.
The node acts as a sender, receiver or relay. Every node will
environments • Vehicular Services: road or
discover the routing path by using route request and route
accident guidance
reply packets. The responsibilities for organizing and
•Local ad hoc network with nearby
controlling the network are distributed among the terminals
vehicles for road/accident guidance.
themselves. The entire network is mobile, and the individual
• Networks of visitors at airports.
terminals are allowed to move freely. . Route maintenance is
also required as the node changes its position so its route
also. The very useful characteristics of MANETS limited
bandwidth due to radio waves. Mobile ad-hoc network is
Home and • Home/Office Wireless Networking
presently applicable everywhere in real life like in business
enterprise (WLAN)
meetings outside the offices, Bluetooth , etc.
Networking • Personal Area Network
• Conferences
A. APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
• Networks at construction sites.
Educational • Setup virtual classrooms or
The following Table provides an overview of present and
Applications conference rooms.
future MANET applications [2].
• Setup ad hoc communication
during conferences, etc
Applications Possible scenarios/services
• Universities and campus settings.

• Multi-user games.
• Robotic pets. Table 1: Applications of mobile ad-hoc networks
Entertainment • Outdoor Internet access.
• Wireless P2P networking.
II. MANET MULTICAST ROUTING
• Theme parks.
Multicasting is the sending of network traffic to a group of
endpoints. The problems like scarcity of bandwidth, short
lifetime of the nodes due to power constraints, dynamic

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topology caused by the mobility of nodes put in force to III. OVERVIEW OF ODMR,ADMR,MAODV MULTICAST
design a simple, scalable, robust and energy efficient routing PROTOCOLS
protocols for multicast environment. Multicasting [3] can
defined as transmission of data packets to several A. ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
destinations at the same time. Transmitter may be a single or (ODMRP)
multiple nodes which are said to be “one to many” nodes or
“ many to many” nodes. A mesh-based demand-driven multicast protocol namely On-
In general multicast routing is achieved using either Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) [4, 5] which
• Source based-when no. of multicast senders in a group is, similar to Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol in
are small( e.g.-video on demand application) wired network is considered. In this protocol, at first step we
have a JOIN QUERY ie. A source floods this query message
• Core based trees-uses a multicast tree shared by all
throughout the network. A multicast tree is build by a source
members of a group.
by periodically flooding the control packets throughout the
Multicast forwarding is based on nodes rather than on links. network. Nodes that are members of the group respond to the
flood and join the tree. Each node receiving this message
A. MULTICAST TOPOLOGY stores the previous hop from which it received the message.
Following the previous hop stored at each node, the group
Topology[1] is defined as how multicast session's nodes are member responds by sending the JOIN REPLY to the source
arranged in a known topology shape. Considering the type of when it receives the JOIN QUERY. A soft forwarding state is
topology created by the routing protocol, multicast protocols created for a group of nodes that forward a JOIN REPLY is to
are often categorized in the following groups: be renewed by subsequent JOIN REPLY messages. If the
node is already an established forwarding member for that
• Tree-based multicast routing protocol group, then it suppresses any further JOIN REPLY
• Mesh-based multicast routing protocol forwarding in order to reduce channel overhead. Figure 2
• Hybrid approaches shows the on demand route and Mesh creation.

Tree-based proposals are also divided into two subcategories:

• In source-based tree approaches, each source builds

its single tree.
• In shared-based tree approaches, all sources share
only a single tree that is controlled only by one or
more specific nodes. Join Query

Join Reply
The following is the multicast routing protocols under
topology viewpoint:
Figure 2: On Demand Route and Mesh Creation
The above process constructs (or updates) the routes from
sources to receivers and builds a mesh of nodes, the
“forwarding group”. Figure 3 visualizes the concept of
forwarding group.

Figure 3: Concept of forwarding group

The forwarding group (FG) is a set of nodes which is in charge
of forwarding multicast packets. All nodes inside the “bubble”
Fig 1: Multicast routing protocol topology (multicast members and forwarding group nodes) forward
multicast data packets. Note that a multicast receiver also can

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be a forwarding group node if it is on the path between a either PASSIVE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (if a downstream
multicast source and another receiver. The mesh provides node forwards the packet) or an EXPLICIT
richer connectivity among multicast members compared with ACKNOWLEDGMENT. Forwarding node expires its state if
trees. Route redundancy among forwarding group helps defined thresholds of consecutive acknowledgments are
overcome node displacements and channel fading. Hence, missed.
unlike trees, frequent reconfigurations are not required.
C. MULTICAST AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE
The basic trade-off in ODMRP is between throughput and
VECTOR(MAODV) ROUTING PROTOCOL
overhead. Throughput can be increased by source by sending
more frequent JOIN QUERY messages. Each message
rebuilds the multicast mesh, repairing any breaks that have MAODV protocol [7,8] is an extension of the AODV unicast
occurred since the last query, thus increasing the chance for protocol. This protocol uses a broadcast route discovery
subsequent packets to be delivered correctly. Increasing the mechanism employing the route request (RREQ) and route
query rate also increases the overhead of the protocol because reply (RREP) messages for discovering the multicast routes on
each query is flooded. demand. A mobile node originates a RREQ message when it
wishes to join a multicast group, or has data to send to a
B. ADAPTIVE DEMAND DRIVEN MULTCAST ROUTING multicast group but does not have a route to that group. Only
PROTOCOL(ADMR) multicast group member may respond to a join RREQ. If the
RREQ is not a join request, any node with a fresh enough
route (based on group sequence number) to the multicast
ADMR [6] also creates a source specific multicast trees , group may respond. If an intermediate node receives a join
using an on-demand mechanism that only creates a tree if RREQ for a multicast group of which it is not a member, or it
there is minimum one source and one receiver active for the receives a RREQ and does not have a route to that group, it
group. There is a periodical network-wide flood by the source rebroadcasts the RREQ to its neighbours. As the RREQ is
at a very low rate in order to recover from network partitions. broadcast across the network, nodes set up pointers to
In addition, monitoring of the packet forwarding rate by the establish the reverse route in their route tables. A node
forwarding nodes in the multicast tree is very important in receiving an RREQ first updates its route table to record the
order to determine when the tree has broken or the source has sequence number and the next hop information for the source
become silent. If a link has broken, a node can initiate a node. This reverse route entry may later be used to relay a
repair on its own, and if the source has stopped sending, then response back to the source. For join RREQs, an additional
any forwarding state is silently removed. Receivers also entry is added to the multicast route table and is not activated
monitor the packet reception rate and can re-join the unless the route is selected to be part of the multicast tree. If a
multicast tree if intermediate nodes have been unable to node receives a join RREQ for a multicast group, it may reply
reconnect the tree. if it is a member of the multicast group’s tree and its recorded
MULTICAST SOLICITATION message is flooded by the sequence number for the multicast group is at least as great as
receiver throughout the network to join a multicast group. that contained in the RREQ. The responding node updates its
When a source receives this message, KEEP-ALIVE message route and multicast route tables by placing the requesting
is sent to that receiver confirming that the receiver can join node’s next hop information in the tables and then unicasts an
that source. The receiver responds to the KEEP-ALIVE by RREP back to the source. As nodes along the path to the
sending a RECEIVER JOIN along the reverse path. In source receive the RREP, they add both a route table and a
addition to the receiver’s join mechanism, a source multicast route table entry for the node from which they
periodically sends a network-wide flood of a RECEIVER received the RREP thereby creating the forward path. When a
DISCOVERY message. Receivers that get this message source node broadcasts an RREQ for a multicast group, it
respond to it with a RECEIVER JOIN if they are not already often receives more than one reply. The source node keeps the
connected to the multicast tree. If a node misses a defined received route with the greatest sequence number and shortest
threshold of consecutive packets it begins a repair process. hop count to the nearest member of the multicast tree for a
Receivers do a repair by broadcasting a new MULTICAST specified period of time, and disregards other routes. At the
SOLICITATION message. Nodes on the multicast tree send a end of this period, it enables the selected next hop in its
REPAIR NOTIFICATION message down its sub tree to multicast route table, and unicasts an activation message
cancel the repair of downstream nodes. The most upstream (MACT) to this selected next hop. The next hop, on receiving
node transmits a hop-limited flood of a RECONNECT this message, enables the entry for the source node in its
message. Any forwarder receiving this message forwards the multicast routing table. If this node is a member of the
RECONNECT up the multicast tree to the source. The source multicast tree, it does not propagate the message any further.
in return responds to the RECONNECT by sending a However, if this node is not a member of the multicast tree, it
RECONNECT REPLY as a unicast message that follows the would have received one or more RREPs from its neighbours.
path of the RECONNECT back to the repairing node. It keeps the best next hop for its route to the multicast group,
Forwarding state is maintained by nodes on the multicast tree. unicasts MACT to that next hop, and enables the
If it is a last hop router in the tree it is expected to receive corresponding entry in its multicast route table. This process

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continues until the node that originated the chosen RREP forwarders and N2 be the old ones.
(member of tree) is reached. The first member of the multicast
group becomes the leader for that group, which also becomes Definiton2: let p be the probability based on forwarder
responsible for maintaining the multicast group sequence density, it is calculated by the formula below as (1) or (2)
number and broadcasting this number to the multicast group.
This update is done through a Group Hello message. If a 1 N1 ≤ 4 ……..(1)
member terminates its membership with the group, the P={
multicast tree requires pruning. Links in the tree are monitored 0.7 N1 > 4 or (N1 + N2 * 0.5) > 5
to detect link breakages, and the node that is farther from the
multicast group leader (downstream of the break) takes the 1 N1 ≤ 4
responsibility to repair the broken link. If the tree cannot be P={ 0.5 4<N1 ≤ 7 ………(2)
reconnected, a new leader for the disconnected downstream 0.4 N1 >7
node is chosen as follows. If the node that initiated the route
rebuilding is a multicast group member, it becomes the new Definition3: denote the power state as ps,
multicast group leader. On the other hand, if it was not a group pnow
member and has only one next hop for the tree, it prunes itself ps= --------- ………(3)
from the tree by sending its next hop a prune message. This pini
continues until a group member is reached. Once separate Where,
partitions reconnect, a node eventually receives a Group Hello pnow represents the current power that is available for
message for the multicast group that contains group leader use; pini is the initial power the node possesses. This index
information different from the information it already has. If indicates the energy conditions.
this node is a member of the multicast group and if it is a
member of the partition whose group leader has the lower IP Definition4: let N represent the total number and Nf is
address, it can initiate reconnection of the multicast tree. the eventual number of forwarding nodes,
IV. IMPROVED ODMRP N = N1+N2,
IODMR is an improved ad-hoc routing protocol which is Nf = N* p.
based on ODMRP (On Demand Multicast Routing Protocol).
In IODMRP [9], few nodes are selected as partial nodes in So the idea of IODMRP is choosing Nf forwarding
forwarding group that relay packets, the number of which is nodes whose power state are largest to relay packets.
decided by probabilistic forwarding algorithm which are
dynamic. ODMRP[4] is a mesh based protocol for group A. DATA STRUCTURE AND IMPLEMENTATION
communication in ad-hoc network. Here, group membership
and multicast routes are established and updated by the source The establishing and updating of the forward structure in
“on Demand”. IODMRP is the same as ODMRP [9] . But in order to obtain
the forwarder density of the neighborhood the data
IODMRP OVERVIEW structure needs expanding and the algorithm of data
It chooses partial forwarding nodes to relay packets, the forwarding also needs modifying.
number of which is decided by probabilistic forwarding (1) Neighbor forwarding table in IODMRP
algorithm based on forwarder's density and the nodes are
selected according to energy state. The enhanced protocols is The relaying probability is decided via the number of the
implemented through simple modifications to existing neighbor forwarder, therefore add neighbor forwarding table
ODMRP, but reduce redundant data transmissions and save in each forwarder to keep information. The structure is shown
energy significantly through decreasing the forwarding as table 2.
packets.

In ODMRP, the refresh intervals of the forwarding nodes is FGA NFA PS AGE
3s, the lifetime is 9s, based on these two parameters, we
define the maximum age of the neighbour forwarding node Table 2: Neighbor forwarding table
is 9s and categorized the forwarder and neighbour forwarder
into two types: the ones refreshed in 3s are new, otherwise FGA means neighbor forwarder’s multicast address, NFA
are old whose renewal time surpass 3s but not reach 9s. represents neighbor forwarder’s self address, FGA and NFA
Considering that the new ones are more valid than old ones, ascertain the neighbor forwarder's density, and PS as
hence we assign a bigger probability than old ones. definition3 is the power state. AGE is the table item’s lifetime,
So we make definitions in our algorithm as follows. which judges the item’s validity.
The acquiring and updating of the neighbor forwarding table
needs no extra control overhead, it makes use of local
Definiton1: Let N1 denote the number of new neighbour broadcast characteristic of “Join reply” packet. After

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forwarder has sent “join reply” packets, all the neighbors can • They establish a sparse multicast structure among
receive. The relaying nodes received the packets build or themselves and the source, and
update the neighbor forwarding table based on IP head • They use broadcasting (with adaptive scope) to
information. deliver the packets to other group members in their
cluster.
(2) Forwarding algorithm in IODMRP
B. ALGORITHM DESCRIPTION
Input: neighbor forwarding table of N
nodes. It constructs a 2-tier hierarchical structure, where the upper
Output: Nf nodes that relay packets. tier is formed by a multicast source and cluster leaders that
Sort all items by "PS" field in table item represent groups of multicast members that form a cluster,
for i=1 to N do and the lower tier consists of the members in a cluster. Since
check "AGE" field in table item each cluster demonstrates a high density of group
members, a cluster leader simply invokes an adaptive
if AGE>9s localized broadcast within its cluster to disseminate
discard multicast packets received from the source. This would
; elseif 0s<AGE<3s N1++; reduce the consumed overhead while ensuring efficient data
else N2++; delivery.
endif
end for C. CONSTRUCTION OF MULTICAST STRUCTURE
p=Probability(N1,N2)
; Nf = (N1+N2)*p;
Choose previous Nf forwarding nodes to relay packets

V. ANT BASED ADAPTIVE MULTICAST ROUTING

PROTOCOL(AAMRP)
Ant agent based adaptive, multicast protocol exploits group
member’s desire to simplify multicast routing and invoke
broadcast operations in appropriate localized regimes has
been proposed [10]. By reducing the number of group
members that participate in the construction of the
multicast structure and by providing robustness to mobility
by performing broadcasts in densely clustered local regions,
the proposed protocol achieves packet delivery statistics
that are comparable to that with a pure multicast protocol but
with significantly lower overheads. A simple broadcast
scheme can significantly reduce the control overhead in
scenarios wherein the density of group members is high. The
protocol exploits the advantages of broadcasting in high Fig 4: Multicast Structure
densities and provides localized flexibility in response to
changing network conditions. DETERMINATION OF GROUP
MEMBERS
A. A A MR P OV E R VI E W
Each group member in AAMRP can be in 3 states[10]. It
First, a simple broadcast scheme can significantly reduce the can be in a temporary mode wherein it is JOINING the
control overhead in scenarios wherein the density of group session, it can be a cluster LEADER, or it can simply be the
members is high. Second, many current protocols cannot adapt MEMBER of a cluster leader. Two tables are maintained:
to local variations in network properties. Most of these
protocols have static, globally predefined parameters that Group Member Table (GMTable): Each node maintains
cannot be adjusted dynamically within localized regimes. this table which contains the information of the joining group
members. The information maintained in this table is
AAMRP dynamically identifies and organizes the group obtained by means of the ADVERTISE and the LEADER
members into clusters which correspond to areas of high group messages.
member affinity. In each of these “dense” neighborhoods, one Cluster Member Table (CMTable): Each cluster leader
of the group members is selected to be a cluster leader. Cluster maintains this table which contains information of all the
leaders have two main functions: cluster group members that are associated with the cluster

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leader. The information maintained in this table is obtained cluster leader to join as described in previous section. If the
via the reception of MEMBER messages that are sent out by joining node has no cluster leader present in its vicinity and its
each cluster member. connectivity is the highest as compared to its k-hop neighbors,
it will become a cluster leader and serve a cluster.
1. Discovery Phase: In this phase, the joining node
discovers the other joining group members and cluster Leaving a Multicast Group
leaders in its vicinity. When a node decides to join a Group members could leave a multicast group at any time. A
multicast group, it enters this phase and informs its presence group member that has the state of MEMBER simply stops
to its k-hop neighborhood by broadcasting a JOIN message. sending the MEMBER message to its cluster leader.
The JOIN message contains the address, multicast address,
hopcount information and on receiving this message each node When a cluster leader decides to leave the multicast group, it
updates its GMTable as per the contents of the message. Then simply stops transmitting the LEADER message. Cluster
each joining node would have obtained the k-hop local members, upon discovering the absence of a leader, will first
topology information in their GMTables, which may be used try to quickly rejoin another cluster by looking for other
to determine the cluster leaders in the decision phase. When leaders in their GMTable. If no cluster leader is present in a
the connection to the cluster leader is lost, this phase is member’s vicinity, the cluster member will switch its role to
executed again. JOINING and invoke the discovery and decision phases to
find another cluster or to become a cluster leader as described
2. Leader Election Phase: If the joining node cannot find any in section determination of group members.
cluster leader in its vicinity, after the discovery phase, it elects
itself as the cluster leader for its k-hop neighborhood. If the D. CHARACTERISTICS OF ANT BASED ALGORITHM
inter-connectivity of a node is highest when compared to its k-
hop neighbors, it will elect itself as a cluster leader and serve a Ant-based routing algorithms [11] have several characteristics
cluster. It then changes its role to LEADER and broadcasts a that make them an appropriate choice for peer-to-peer
LEADER message containing its address, multicast-address, networks. They are:
connectivity and hop count information. Nodes that are within
the broadcast range of the LEADER message, update their • It provide network adaptive feature and generates multiple
GMTable to reflect the contents of the message. A cluster path for routing. SI algorithms are capable of adapting for
leader is considered to be best, when it has the shortest change in network topology and traffic while giving
distance, highest connectivity and highest node Id. equivalent performance.
• It relays on both passive and active information for gathering
The joining node selects the best cluster leader among several and monitoring. They collect non local information about the
LEADER messages received, by sending a MEMBER characteristics of solution set, like – all possible paths.
message containing its address, multicast-address and hop • It makes use of stochastic components. It uses stochastic
count information to the selected cluster leader. This is to component like pheromone table for user agents. User agents
inform the cluster leader that it is going to join the cluster. are autonomous and communicate each other through
Then the CMTable is updated by the cluster leader stigmergy
accordingly. After the completion of the above phases, a • It sets path favoring load balancing rather than pure shortest
joining node must either become a cluster leader or a child of a path. The algorithm also supports for multiple paths, so that
cluster leader. From then on, each cluster formed becomes a load balancing can be achieved.
single routing entity as represented by its cluster leader. Only
the relatively small number of cluster leaders will then VI. METHODOLOGY
participate in the construction and maintenance of the
multicast structure. A. SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT

JOINING AND LEAVING A MULTICAST GROUP

The network simulator NS2 is a discrete event network
Joining a Multicast Group simulator developed at UC Berkeley that focuses on the
simulation of IP networks on the packet level NS2 is used to
To join a multicast group, the state of the node should be simulate the proposed algorithm. It has the functionality to
either a cluster leader or cluster member. When a node notify the network layer about link breakage. The trace files
decides to join a multicast group, it simply changes its role to and nam files are to be generated according to the need. Nodes
JOINING and enters the discovery and leader election phase in simulation move according to "random way mobility
as described in the previous section. If the joining node has model".
cluster leaders in its k-hop vicinity, it would possibly receive
LEADER messages before entering the leader election The Simulation Parameters which are used are shown in table
phase. In this case, the joining node will simply pick the best 3.

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Table 3: Simulation Parameters

B. RESULTS
Parameter Value
EFFECT OF NETWORK SIZE

Simulation Time 200 sec In this experiment, we vary the network size by varying the
number of nodes as 25,50,75 and 100.

No. of Nodes 25,50,75,100

Transmission Range 250m

Traffic Type CBR( Constant Bit Rate)

MAC Protocol IEEE 802.11

Mobility Model Random Waypoint

Routing Protocols IODMR and AAMR

Observation Parameters Packet Delivery Ratio and

End To End Delay

The evaluation is mainly based on performance according to

the following metrics:

Packet Delivery Ratio: The ratio of the data packets

delivered to the destinations to those generated by the CBR
sources. It specifies the packet loss rate, which limits the
maximum throughput of the network. The better the delivery Figure 5: Packet Delivery Ratio vs Nodes
ratio, the more complete and correct the routing protocol. This
reflects the effectiveness of the protocol. Figure 5 shows the PDR of the two protocols AAMRP and
IODMR. The figure shows that in IODMR, as the node
Packet Delivery Ratio = (Received Packets/Sent Packets) increases, the scenarios become more challenging since data
forwarding paths become longer, and the number of link and
End to End Delay: Average end-to-end delay is the average route changes. The likelihood of packet loss is higher. As the
time it takes a data packet to reach to destination in seconds. It number of nodes increases, the group members will be more
is calculated by subtracting “time at which first packet was sparsely distributed in the network as compared to less number
transmitted by source” from “time at which first data packet of nodes, which leads to more creation of forwarding state,
arrived to destination. It includes all possible delays caused by though there is less redundant forwarding state and as a result
buffering during latency, queuing at the interface queue, Packet Loss has a stronger impact on the PDR. Other reason is
retransmission delays at MAC, Propagation and transfer times. that in Mesh network there are more repairs, more packets are
It is the metric significant in understanding the delay lost which are more frequent in large networks.
introduced by path discovery.
In AAMRP, with increase in nodes, the scenario becomes
Various applications require different levels of packet delay. challenging. The mobility induced errors in AAMRP reduces
These cause the delay in the network to increase. The End-to- the packet delivery ratio. The connection to cluster leader may
End delay is therefore a measure of how well a routing lost in large networks.
protocol adapts to the various constraints in the network and
represents the reliability of the routing protocol.

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Table 4 : Effect of varying nodes

Packet Delivery Ratio End to End Delay

Nodes (in sec)

IODMR AAMRP IODMR AAMRP

25 0.9956 0.9843 0.028075 0.101432

50 0.9934 0.9749 0.029931 0.144750

75 0.9923 0.9497 0.043625 0.240489

100 0.9898 0.9220 0.052437 0.296297

In the above Table 4, For node 25, the packet delivery ratio for
Figure 6: End to End Delay vs Nodes IODMR is 0.9956 and for AAMR, the packet delivery Ratio is
0.9843.As the number of nodes increases, the packet delivery
Figure 6 shows the end to end delay of the two protocols for IODMR and AAMR decreases but still IODMR shows a
AAMRP and IODMRP. better performance. Also, the end to end delay of IODMR is
significantly less as compared to AAMR.
The end to end delay for IODMRP is very low as it performs
the frequent periodic state discovery floods. These floods also
VII. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
result in large amount of forwarding state within the network
i.e large number of relay nodes. Which improves the
robustness of the protocol against mesh disconnects or packet This paper describes about the AAMRP and IODMRP
loss, but at the cost of significantly increasing network load multicast protocols. The performance of the protocols is
whereas, measured with respect to metrics: Packet delivery ratio and
end to end delay. Simulations are carried out running these
The delay of AAMRP is large as compared to IODMRP i.e as two protocols with varying nodes. The results of the
the number of node increases the delay also increases since the simulation indicate that performance of the IODMR protocol
multicast tree formation involves more overhead. The Figure 6 is superior to AAMRP. With the increase in network size i.e.
shows that increasing the number of nodes results in an when numbers of nodes are increased Packet delivery reduces
increase in the delay for AAMRP, because each hop can but the delivery ratio of IODMR is more i.e around 99% as
contribute a substantial amount of delay in forwarding compared to AAMRP that is around 95%. It is also true that
traffic. Furthermore, the more nodes, the more congestion any of the single protocol does not supersede the other one.
and the longer it takes to discover routes. There performance depends upon the different scenarios.

Table 4, compares the performance of two protocols IODMR

and AAMRP when operating with varying nodes. Two REFERENCES
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[3] C. S. Ram Murthy and B. S. Manoj, “Ad hoc wireless networks

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An Improvement Study Report of Face Detection

Techniques using Adaboost and SVM
Prof. Alka Gulati
Rajeev Kumar Singh LNCT Bhopal,
LNCT Bhopal, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India

Harsh Vazirani
Anubhav Sharma Indian Institute of Information Technology and
RITS Bhopal, Management Gwalior,
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh-462042, India Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh-474010, India

Abstract— In this paper, we have proposed a survey report of Knowledge-based Methods Knowledge based methods [9]
face detection techniques using Adaboost and SVM. Face detect faces based on some roles which capture the
Detection in computer vision and pattern recognition technology relationships among facial features. It depends on using the
as an important subject has high academic value and commercial rules about human facial feature. It is easy to come up with
value. Face detection is a challenging and interesting problem.
Face detection is a very an active research topic in the field of
simple rules to describe the features of a face and their
computer vision and pattern recognition, which is widely applied relationships. But the difficulty of it is how to translate human
in the face recognition ,man-machine interface ,visual knowledge into well known rules in order to detect faces in
communication and so on. different poses. For example, a face often appears in an image
with two eyes that are symmetric to each other, a nose, and a
Keywords-component; formatting; style; styling; insert (key mouth. If try to define detailed rules then there may be a large
words) number of faces stratifying the rules. Few rules are unable to
describe the face exactly. This approach is good for frontal
I. INTRODUCTION face image.
Face Detection has received much more attention in recent Template matching methods: Template matching methods
years. It is the first step in many applications such as face [10] find the similarity between input image and the template.
recognition, facial expression analysis, content based image Template matching methods use the correlation between
retrieval, surveillance system and intelligent human computer pattern in the input image and stored standard patterns of a
interaction. Therefore, the performance of these systems whole face / non face features to determine the presence of a
depends on the efficiency of face detection technique. The face or non face features. If the window contains a pattern
comprehensive survey on face detection has been given out [1, which is close to the target pattern, then the window is judged
4] .These approaches utilize techniques such as Adaboost as containing a face.
Algorithm [ 2,3 ][ 26 ] ,Neural Networks [ 5,6 ] ,Skin Color
[7,8 ] and Support Vector Machine [24,25]. Feature based method: Feature-based methods use some
Face detection is a computer technology that determines the features (such as color [11], shape [12], and texture) to extract
locations and sizes of human faces in arbitrary (digital) images. facial features to obtain face locations. This approach depends
It detects facial features and ignores anything else, such as on extraction of facial features that are not affected by
buildings, trees and bodies. As a key problem in the person variations in lighting conditions, pose, and other factors. These
face information processing and management technology. methods classified according to the extracted features
Face detection has received much more attention in recent [1].Feature-based techniques depend on feature derivation and
years. It is the first step in many applications such as face analysis to gain the required knowledge about faces. Features
recognition, facial expression analysis, surveillance, security may be skin color, face shape, or facial features like eyes,
systems and human computer interface (HCI). Therefore, the nose, etc. Feature based methods are preferred for real time
performance of these systems depends on the efficiency of systems where the multi-resolution\window scanning used by
face detection process. image based methods are not applicable. Human skin color is
2. METHODS OF FACE DETECTION an effective feature used to detect faces, although different
Techniques for face detection in image are classified into four people have different skin color, several studies have shown
categories. that the basic difference based on their intensity rather than

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their chrominance. Texture of human faces has a special AdaBoost, short for Adaptive Boosting, is a machine learning
texture that used to separate them from different objects. algorithm, formulated by Yoav Freund and Robert Schapire. It
Facial Features method depends on detecting features of the is a meta-algorithm, and can be used in conjunction with many
face. Some users use the edges to detect the features of the other learning algorithms to improve their performance.
face, and then grouping the edges. Some others use the blocks AdaBoost is adaptive in the sense that subsequent classifiers
and the streaks instead of edges. For example, the face model
built are weakening in favor of those instances misclassified
consists of two dark blocks and three light blocks to represent
eyes, cheekbones, and nose. The model uses streaks to by previous classifiers. AdaBoost is sensitive to noisy data and
represent the outlines of the faces like, eyebrows, and lips. outliers. Otherwise, it is less susceptible to the over fitting
Multiple Features methods use several combined facial problem than most learning algorithms.
features to locate or detect faces. First, find the face by using Lang Li Yang [26], a new algorithm was presented combining
features like skin color, size and shape and then verifying effectively the optimizing rect-features and weak classifier
these candidates using detailed features such as eyebrows, learning algorithm, which can largely improve the hit-rate and
nose, and hair. decrease the train time. Optimized rect-feature means that
when searching rect-feature we can establish a growth step
Machine learning methods: Machine learning methods [13, length of the rect-feature and reduce its features. And the new
14] use techniques from statistical analysis and machine
classifier training method is seeking the weak classifier error
learning to find the relevant characteristics of faces and non
faces. We now give a definition of face detection given an rate directly which can avoid the iterative training, the statics
arbitrary image, the goal of face detection is to determine probability distribution and any other time consuming process.
whether or not there are any faces in the image and, if present, In this paper reduces training time cost and compared with
return the image location and extent of each face. The conventional Adaboost algorithm. It can improve the detection
challenges associated with face detection can be attributed to speed on the high detection accuracy.
the following factors:
Pose: The images of a face vary due to the relative Haar-like Features:
Camera: face pose (frontal, 45 degree, profile, upside down), A set of Haar-like features used as the input features to the
and some facial features such as an eye or the nose may cascade classifier, are shown in Fig. 1. Computation of Haar-
become partially or wholly occluded. like features can be accelerated using an intermediate image
Structural components: Facial features such as beards, representation called the integral image. An integral image
mustaches and glasses may or may not be present and there is was defined as the sum of all pixel values (in an image) above
a great deal of variability among these components including and to the left, including itself.
shape, color, and size.
Facial expression: The appearance of faces is directly
affected by a person’s facial expression.
Occlusion: Faces may be partially occluded by other objects.
In an image with a group of people, some faces may partially Figure.1. Example of Haar like features [19]
occlude other faces.
Image orientation: Face images directly vary for different
Adaboost Learning: AdaBoost is an algorithm for
rotations about the camera’s optical axis. constructing a composite classifier by sequentially training
Imaging conditions: When the image is formed, factors such classifiers while putting more and more emphasis on certain
as lighting (spectra, source distribution and intensity) and patterns. A weak classifier is defined by applying the feature
camera characteristics (sensor response, lenses) affect the to images in the training set, feature by feature. It can reduces
appearance of a face. There are many closely related problems the sizes of the feature set, it can be selected a limited number
of face detection. Face localization aims to determine the of best features that discriminate faces from non-faces and
image position of a single face, this is a simplified detection also complements each other. The Adaboost algorithm
problem with the assumption that an input image contains only changes the weights used in computing the classification error
one face [15], [16]. The goal of facial feature detection is to of weak classifier. A small error is now weighted more and
detect the presence and location of features, such as eyes, this ensures that the first best feature and any other feature
nose, nostrils, eyebrow, mouth, lips, ears, etc., with the similar to it will not be chosen as the second best feature. This
assumption that there is only one face in an image [17], [18]. second best feature ideally compliments the first best feature
Face Detection Using AdaBoost Viola and Jones proposed a in the sense that it is successful at classifying faces that the
first best feature e failed on. This process is repeated, T times
totally corrective face Detection algorithm in [2]. They used a
for example, to find as many best features as desired [1]. Each
set of Haar-like Features to construct a classifier. Every weak feature as a weak classifier votes on whether or not an input
classifier had a simple threshold on one of the extracted test image is likely to be a face. Each feature vote is weighted
features. AdaBoost classifier was then used to choose a small in log-inverse proportion to the error of that feature. So a
number of important features and combines them in a cascade feature with a smaller error gets a heavier weighted vote,
structure to decide whether an image is a face or a nonface.

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equivalent to high reliability. It can be summarized as follows: the window. So to be accepted, a window must pass through the
whole cascade, but rejection may happen at any stage. During
detection, most sub windows of the analyzed image are very
easy to reject, so they are rejected at early stage and do not have
to pass the whole cascade. Stages in cascade are constructed by
training classifiers using AdaBoost.
Face Detection Using Neural Network
Neural networks have been applied successfully in many
Pattern Recognition problems, such as optical character
Recognition, Object Recognition, and autonomous robot
driving. Since face detection can be treated as a two class
Pattern Recognition problem, various neural network
architectures have been proposed. The advantage of
using neural networks for face detection is the feasibility of
training a system to capture the complex class
conditional density of face patterns.
However, one drawback is that the network architecture has to
be extensively tuned (number of layers, number of nodes,
learning rates, etc.) to get exceptional performance. An
early method using hierarchical neural networks was proposed
by Agui et al. [20].
A Mohamed [ 13 ] proposes a robust schema for face
detection system via Gaussian mixture model to
segment image based on skin color. After skin and non
skin face candidates' selection, features are extracted directly
from discrete cosine transform (DCT) coefficients
computed from these candidates. The back-propagation neural
networks are used to train and classify faces based on DCT
feature coefficients in Cb and Cr color spaces. This schema
utilizes the skin color information, which is the main feature
of face detection. DCT feature values of faces, representing
the data set of skin / non-skin face candidates obtained from
Gaussian mixture model are fed into the back-propagation
neural networks to classify whether the original image
includes a face or not. Experimental results shows that the
proposed schema is reliable for face detection, and pattern
features are detected and classified accurately by the back
propagation neural networks.
Wang Zhanjie [21] paper describes a face detection system for
color images in presence of varying lighting conditions as well
Detection Cascade: In order to greatly improve the as complex background. Based on boosting technology, our
method discard majority of no-face pixel and then use neural
computational efficiency and to also reduce the false positive
network detect face rapidly. We have presented a face
rate, a sequence of increasingly more complex classifiers called
detection system for color image using skin color
a cascade is built. Fig. 2 shows the cascade.
segmentation and neural network. At present, detection rate of
no front face is not enough. We will continue our efforts in
order to detect various angles of human face quickly.
Lamiaa Mostafa [ 6 ] A novel face detection system is
presented in this paper. The system combines two algorithms
for face detection to achieve better detection rates. The two
algorithms are skin detection and neural networks. In the first
module of the system a skin color model based on normalized
RGB color space is built and used to detect skin regions. The
detected skin regions are the face candidate regions. In the
second module of the system, the neural network is created
Every stage of the cascade either rejects the analyzed window or and trained with training set of faces and non-faces. The
passes it to the next stage. Only the last stage may finally accept network used is a two layer feed-forward network. The new

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system was designed to detect upright frontal faces in color RBF) are based on of minimizing the training error , i.e.
images with simple or complex background. There is no empirical risk, SVMs operates on another induction principle
required a priori knowledge of the number of faces or the size , called structural risk minimization, which aims to minimize
of the faces to be able to detect the faces in a given image. The an upper bound on the expected generalization error. An SVM
system has acceptable results regarding the detection rate, classifier is a linear classifier where the separating hyper plane
false positives and average time needed to detect a face. is chosen to minimize the expected classification error of the
Face Detection Using Skin Detection unseen test patterns. This optimal hyperplane is defined by a
Human Skin color can be used in face detection to hand weighted combination of a small subset of the training vectors,
tracking, although different people have different skin color. called support vectors. Estimating the optimal hyperplane is
There are many color model such as RGB, HSV, YCbCr , YIQ equivalent to solving a linearly constrained quadratic
, CIE XYZ , CIE LUV. A robust skin detector is the primary programming problem. However, the computation is both time
need of many fields in boosting algorithm called "unbiased and memory intensive. In [ 24 ] , Osunaet al. developed an
voting" is used, computer vision, including face detection, efficient method to train an SVM for large scale problems ,
gesture Improving the performance, we introduce two and applied it to face detection. Based on two test sets of
structures recognition, and pornography filtering. Almost color 10,000,000 test patterns of 19x19 pixels, their system has
is which employ these methods together, but in different major slightly lower error rates and runs approximately 30 times
feature which has been used in skin detection orders. These faster than the system by Poggio. SVMs have also been used
structures use both the pixel and block methods. to detect faces and pedestrians in the wavelet domain [ 25 ].
Hedieh Sajedi [ 22 ] propose a skin detection approach which
combines a block-based skin detection classifier with a
boosted pixel - based one. The block - based scheme, they are II. CONCLUSION
useful only in the restricted environ-ment. Skin detector This paper presents a study of Face Detection method and
classifies image blocks based on both color. However, our to provide some methods in over 25 papers. Face detection is a
method is applicable to images in more and texture features. In challenging and interesting problem. In future Face Detection
this classifier, a k-means algorithm general situation, since it is Technique is very important in the face recognition and in the
capable of clustering similar clusters various training skin image processing. In the Face Detection Technique we can
samples. The boosted pixel- skin types and covers different determine the image is face or non-face.
skin colors based classifier combines some explicit boundary
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Identify applicable sponsor/s here. (sponsors)

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[15] K. Lam and H. Yan, “Fast Algorithm for Locating Head Boundaries,” J.
Electronic Imaging, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 351-359, 1994. 1. Mr. Rajeev Kumar singh He has obtained
B.Tech (IT) from MGCGV University (M.P.) in 2008.
[16] I. Craw, D. Tock, and A. Bennett, “Finding Face Features,” Proc. He’s pursuing M. Tech. (final year) Degree in
Second European Conf. Computer Vision, pp. 92-96, 1992. Computer Science branch from LNCT, Bhopal
[17] H.P. Graf, T. Chen, E. Petajan, and E. Cosatto, “Locating Faces and in 2011. His research area of interests is
Facial Parts,” Proc. First Int’l Workshop Automatic Face and Gesture Software Engineering, Ad-hoc Networks.
Recognition, pp. 41-46, 1995.
[18] C. Papageorgiou, M. Oren, and T. Popgio, “A general framework for
object detection,” International Conference on Computer Vision, 1998.
[19] T. Agui, Y. Kokubo, H. Nagashashi, and T. Nagao, “Extraction of Face
Recognition from Monochromatic Photographs Using Neural 2. Smti. Alka Gulati is the associate professor of department of computer
Networks,” Proc. Second Int’l Conf. Automation, Robotics, and science, LNCT, Bhopal. She has 14 years of teaching experience. Her areas of
Computer Vision, vol. 1, pp. 18.8.1-18.8.5, 1992. interest include cryptography, digital image processing and software
engineering .
[20] Wang Zhanjie, “A Face Detection system based skin color and neural
network,” International Conference on Computer Science and Software
Engineering, 2008.
[21] Hedieh Sajedi, “A Boosted Skin Detection Method based on Pixel and 3. Mr. Anubhav Sharma. He has obtained BE from JIT
Block Information,” 5th International Symposium on image and Signal Borawan (M.P.) in 2007. His one international
Processing and Analysis, 2007. Journal Paper has been published in Dec’2009.He’s
pursuing M. Tech. (final Sem.) Degree in Computer
[22] Douglas Chai, “ A Bayesian Approach to Skin Color Classification in Science branch from RITS-RGPV, Bhopal in 2011. His
Ycbcr Color Space,” In Proc. of British Machine Vision Conference,
research area of interest is Ad-hoc Network.
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[23] E. Osuna , R. Freund, and F.Girosi, “ Training Support Vector
Machines: An Application to Face Detection,” Proc. IEEE Conf.
Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, pp. 130-136, 1997.

4. Mr. Harsh Vazirani is working as Asst. Prof. in

Acropolis Institute of Technology & Research.
He has done Integrated Post Graduate Course
(BTech + MTech in IT) from Indian
Institute of Information Technology and
Management Gwalior. His areas of research are
artificial intelligence and soft computing.

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Clustering of Concept Drift Categorical Data using

POur-NIR Method
N.Sudhakar Reddy K.V.N. Sunitha  
Professor in CSE Prof. in CSE
SVCE, Tirupati GNITS, Hyderabad
India India
 

Abstract - Categorical data clustering is an on time called time evolving data. For example, the
interesting challenge for researchers in the data buying preferences of customers may change with
mining and machine learning, because of many time, depending on the current day of the week,
practical aspects associated with efficient availability of alternatives, discounting rate etc. Since
processing and concepts are often not stable but data evolve with time, the underlying clusters may
change with time. Typical examples of this are also change based on time by the data drifting
weather prediction rules and customer’s concept [11, 17]. The clustering time-evolving data in
preferences, intrusion detection in a network the numerical domain [1, 5, 6, 9] has been explored
traffic stream . Another example is the case of in the previous works, where as in categorical domain
text data points, such as that occurring in not that much. Still it is a challenging problem in the
Twitter/search engines. In this regard the sampling is an categorical domain.
important technique to improve the efficiency of As a result, our contribution in modifying
clustering. However, with sampling applied, those the frame work which is proposed by Ming-Syan
sampled points that are not having their labels after the Chen in 2009[8] utilizes any clustering algorithm to
normal process. Even though there is straight forward detect the drifting concepts. We adopted sliding
method for numerical domain and categorical data. But window technique and initial data (at time t=0) is
still it has a problem that is how to allocate those used in initial clustering. These clusters are
unlabeled data points into appropriate clusters in efficient represented by using POur-NIR [19], where each
manner. In this paper the concept-drift phenomenon is attribute value importance is measured. We find
studied, and we first propose an adaptive whether the data points in the next sliding window
threshold for outlier detection, which is a playing (current sliding window) belongs to appropriate
vital role detection of cluster. Second, we propose clusters of last clustering results or they are outliers.
a probabilistic approach for detection of cluster We call this clustering result as a temporal and
using POur-NIR method which is an alternative compare with last clustering result to drift the data
method points or not. If the concept drift is not detected to
update the POur-NIR otherwise dump attribute value
Keywords- clustering, NIR, POur-NIR, Concept based on importance and then reclustering using
Drift nd node. clustering techniques.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows.
I. INTRODUCTION In section II discussed related work, in section III
Extracting Knowledge from large amount of data is basic notations and concept drift, in section IV new
difficult which is known as data mining. Clustering is methods for node importance representative
a collection of similar objects from a given data set discussed and also contains results with comparison
and objects in different collection are dissimilar. of Ming-Syan Chen method and our method, in
Most of the algorithms developed for numerical data section V discussed distribution of clustering and
may be easy, but not in Categorical data [1, 2, 12, finally concluded with section VI.
13]. It is challenging in categorical domain, where
the distance between data points is not defined. It is
also not easy to find out the class label of unknown II. RELATED WORK
data point in categorical domain. Sampling
techniques improve the speed of clustering and we In this section, we discuss various clustering
consider the data points that are not sampled to algorithms on categorical data with cluster
allocate into proper clusters. The data which depends representatives and data labeling. We studied many
data clustering algorithms with time evolving.

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Cluster representative is used to summarize due to the complexity involved in it. A time-evolving
and characterize the clustering result, which is not categorical data is to be clustered within the due
fully discussed in categorical domain unlike course hence clustering data can be viewed as
numerical domain. follows: there are a series of categorical data points D
In K-modes which is an extension of K-means is given, where each data point is a vector of q
algorithm in categorical domain a cluster is attribute values, i.e., pj=(pj1,pj2,...,pjq). And A = {A1,
represented by ‘mode’ which is composed by the A2 ,..., Aq}, where Aa is the ath categorical attribute, 1
most frequent attribute value in each attribute domain ≤ a ≤ q. The window size N is to be given so that the
in that cluster. Although this cluster representative is data set D is separated into several continuous
simple, only use one attribute value in each attribute subsets St, where the number of data points in each St
domain to represent a cluster is questionable. It is N. The superscript number t is the identification
composed of the attribute values with high co- number of the sliding window and t is also called
occurrence. In the statistical categorical clustering time stamp. Here in we consider the first N data
algorithms [3,4] such as COOLCAT and LIMBO, points of data set D this makes the first data slide or
data points are grouped based on the statistics. In the first sliding window S0. Cij or Cij is representing
algorithm COOLCAT, data points are separated in for the cluster, in this the j indication of the cluster
such a way that the expected entropy of the whole number respect to sliding window i. Our intension is
arrangements is minimized. In algorithm LIMBO, the to cluster every data slide and relate the clusters of
information bottleneck method is applied to minimize every data slide with previous clusters formed by the
the information lost which resulted from previous data slides. Several notations and
summarizing data points into clusters. representations are used in our work to ease the
However, all of the above categorical process of presentation:
clustering algorithms focus on performing clustering
on the entire dataset and do not consider the time-
evolving trends and also the clustering III. CONCEPT DRIFT DETECTION 
representatives in these algorithms are not clearly Concept drift is an sudden substitution of
defined. one sliding window S1 (with an underlying
The new method is related to the idea of probability distribution ΠS1 ), with another
conceptual clustering [9], which creates a conceptual sliding window S2 (with distribution ΠS2 ). As
structure to represent a concept (cluster) during concept drift is assumed t o be unpredictable,
clustering. However, NIR only analyzes the periodic seasonality is usually not considered as a
conceptual structure and does not perform clustering, concept drift problem. As an exception, if
i.e., there is no objective function such as category seasonality is not known with certainty, it might
utility (CU) [12] in conceptual clustering to lead the be regarded as a concept drift problem. The core
clustering procedure. In this aspect our method can assumption, when dealing with the concept drift
provide in better manner for the clustering of data problem, is uncertainty about the future - we
points on time based. assume that the source of the target instance is
The main reason is that in concept drifting not known with certainty. For successful
scenarios, geometrically close items in the automatic clustering data points we are not only
conventional vector space might belong to different looking for fast and accurate clustering algorithms,
classes. This is because of a concept change (drift) but also for complete methodologies that can detect
that occurred at some time point. and quickly adapt to time varying concepts. This
Our previous work [19] addresses the node problem is usually called “concept drift” and
importance in the categorical data with the help of describes the change of concept of a target class with
sliding window. That is new approach to the best of the passing of time.
our knowledge that proposes these advanced As said earlier in this section that means
techniques for concept drift detection and clustering detects the difference of cluster distribution between
of data points. In this regard the concept drifts the current data subset St ( i.e. sliding window 2)and
handling by the headings such as node importance the last clustering result C[tr,t-1] (sliding window
and resemblance. In this paper, the main objective of 1)and to decide whether the resulting is required or
the idea of representing the clusters by above not in St . Hence the upcoming data points in the slide
headings. This representation is more efficient than St should be able to be allocated into the
using the representative points. corresponding proper cluster at the last clustering
After scanning the literature, it is clear that result. Such process of allocating the data points to
clustering categorical data is untouched many ties the proper cluster is named as “labeled data”. Labeled

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data in our work even detects the outlier data points the POur-NIR of the cluster ci. This just gives the
as few data points may not be assigned to the cluster, measurement of the resemblance of the node with
“outlier detection”. cluster. And now these measurements are used to find
If the comparison between the last clusters the maximal resemblance. i.e, if data point pj has
and the temporal clusters availed from the new maximum resemblance R (Pj,Cx),towards a cluster
sliding window data labeling, produce the enough Cx, then the data point is labeled to that cluster.
differences in the cluster distributions, then the latest If any data point is not similar or has any
sliding window is considered as a concept-drifting resemblance to any of the cluster
window. A re-clustering is done on the latest sliding then that data point is considered to be the outlier.
window. This includes the consideration of the We even introduce the threshold to simplify the
outliers that are obtained in the latest sliding window, outlier detection. With the threshold value the data
and forming new clusters which are the new concepts points with small resemblance towards many clusters
that help in the new decisions. The above process can can be considered as the outlier if the resemblance is
be handled by the following headings such Node less than the threshold.
selection, POur-NIR, Resemble method and threshold
value. This is new scenario because of we introduced IV. VALUE OF THRESHOLD
the POur-NIR method compared with existing  
method and also published in
 

In this section, we introduce the decision

[19] function that is to find out the threshold, which
decides the quality of the cluster and the number of
3.1 Node selection: In this category, proposed the clusters. Here we have to calculate the threshold
systems try to select the most appropriate set of past (λ) for every cluster can be set identical, i.e.,
cases in order to make future clustering. The work λ1=λ2=…=λn=λ. Even then we have a problem to find
related to representatives of the categorical data with the main λ(threshold) that can be find with comparing
sliding window technique based on time. In sliding all the clusters. Hence an intermediate solution is
window technique, older points are useless for chosen to identify the threshold (λi) the smallest
clustering of new data and therefore, adapting to resemblance value of the last clustering result is used
concept drift is synonym to successfully forgetting as the new threshold for the new clustering. After
old instances /knowledge. Examples of this group data labeling we obtain clustering results which are
can be found in [10, 15] compared to the clusters formed at the last clustering
3.2 Node Importance: In this group, we assume that result which are base for the formation of the new
old knowledge becomes less important as time goes clusters. This leads to the “Cluster Distribution
by. All data points are taken under consideration for Comparison” step.
building clusters, but this time, new coming points
have larger effect in the model than the older ones. 4.1 Labeling and Outlier Detection using adaptive
To achieve this goal, we introduced a new threshold
weighting scheme for the finding of the node The data point is identified as an outlier if it is outside
importance and also published in [15, 19]. the radius of all the data points in the resemblance
3.3 Resemblance Method: The main aim methods. Therefore, if the data point is outside the
of this method is to have a number of cluster of a data point, but very close to its cluster, it
clusters that are effective only on a certain will still be an outlier. However, this case might be
concept. It has importance that is to find frequent due to concept- drift or noise, As a result,
label for unlabeled data points and store detecting existing clusters as novel would be high.
into appropriate cluster. In order to solve this problem. Here we adapted the
3.3.1 Maximal resemblance threshold for detecting the outliers/labeling. The most
All the weights associated with a single data important step in the detection of the drift in the
point corresponding to the unique cluster forms the concept starts at the data labeling. The concept
resemblance. This can be given with the equation: formation from the raw data which is used for the
q
decision making is to be perfect to produce proper
R(Pj,Ci)= ∑W (Ci,N
r =1
[i, r] ) ------------------------- results after the decision, hence the formation of
clustering with the incoming data points is an
---- (1) important step.Comaprision of the incoming data
Here a data point pj of the new data slide and the point with the initial clusters generated with the
POur-NIR of the data point with all the clusters are previous data available gives rise to the new clusters.
calculated and are placed in the table. Hence If a data point pj is the next incoming data
resemblance R(pj,ci) can be obtained by summing up point in the current sliding window, this data point is

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checked with the initial cluster Ci, for doing so the

resemblance R (ci, pj) is measured, and the
appropriate cluster is the cluster to which the data
point has the maximum similarity or resemblance.
POur-NIR is used to measure the resemblance.
Maximal Resemblance was discussed in 3.3.1
section.

-
----- (2)

Fig 2: Temporal clustering result C21 and C22 that

are obtained by data labeling

Fig 1 : Data set with sliding window size 6 where the

initial clustering is performed

Example 1: Consider the data set in fig 1 and the

POur-NIR of c1 in fig 2 now performing the labeling
based on second sliding window data points and the
thresholds λ1= λ2=1.58 and the first data point p7 =
{A, K, D} in s2 is decomposed into three nodes they
are { [A1 = A], [A2=K],[A3=D]} the resemblance of
p7 is c11 is 1.33 and in c21 is zero. Since the maximal
resemblance is less than or equal to threshold λ1, so
the data point is considered in outlier. The next data Fig 3: Temporal clustering result C21 and C22 that
point of current sliding window p8 {Y, K, P} is c11 is are obtained by data labeling
zero and in c21 is 1.33 and the maximal resemblance
value is less than or equal to threshold λ2, so the data The decision making here is difficult because of the
point is considered in outlier. Similarly for the calculating values for all the thresholds the simplest
remaining data points in the current sliding window solution to fix the constant identical threshold to all
that are p9 is in c12, and p10 is in c12, p11 in c11 and the clusters. However it is difficult still, to define a
p12 in c12 . All these values shown in figure 2 single value threshold that is applied on all clusters to
temporal clusters. Here the ratio of number of outliers determine the data point label. Due to this we use the
is 2/6 =0.33> 0.5 there the concept drift is not data points in last sliding window that construct the
occurred even though in this regard need to apply last clustering result to decide the threshold.
reclustering that is shown in same figure . .

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V.CLUSTER DISTRIBUTION COMPARISION  
 
To detect the concept drift by comparing # 
the last clustering result and current clustering result ,               
,
obtained by data points. The clustering results are ∑
,
, ′

said to be different according to the following two                           ,             , ,

criteria’s:
, ′
1. The clustering results are different if   ,
quite a large number of outliers are ,
found by the data labeling. 1,            
, , ,
∑ ∑
2. The clustering results are different if  
quite a large number of clusters are   
 
varied in the ratio of data points. 0, otherwise
  
In the previous section outliers detected
No, otherwise
during the data labeling/outlier detection ,but there
 
may be many outliers which are not able to be
   
allocated to any of the cluster, that means the existing
 
concepts are not applicable to these data points. But --(3)
these outliers may carry a concept within themselves
this gives the idea of generating new clusters on the Example 2: Consider the example shown in fig 2. The
base of the number of the outliers formed at the latest last clustering result c1 and current temporal
clustering. In this work we considered two types of clustering result c12 is compared with each other by
measures such outlier threshold and cluster difference the equation (3). Let us take the threshold OUTH is
threshold. 0.4, the cluster variation threshold (ϵ) point is 0.3 and
the cluster threshold difference is set to 0.5. In fig 2
Here we introduced the outlier threshold that is there are 2 outliers, in c12 , and the ratio of outliers in
OUTTH can be set so as to avoid the loss of existing s2 is 2/6=0.33>OUTH, so that the s2 is not
concepts. If the numbers of outlier are less it can considered as concept drift and even though it is
restricts the re-clustering by the OUTTH otherwise going to be reclustering better quality .
re-clustering can be done. If the ratio of outliers in Example 3: Suppose the result of performing
the current sliding window is larger than OUTTH reclustering on s2 and data labeling on s3 is shown in
then the clustering results are said to be different and fig 2. The equation (3) is applied on last clustering
re-clustering is to be performed on the new sliding result c2 and current temporal clustering result c13 .
window. The ratio of the data points in a cluster may There is four outliers in c13 , and the ratio of outliers
change very drastically following a concept drift, this in s3 is 4/6<=0.4 however the ratio of the data points
is another type of concept drift detection. The between clusters are satisfied as per the condition
difference of the data points in an existing cluster and given in equation (3) and the ratio of different
new temporal cluster is high that indicates the drastic clusters are also satisfied so therefore the s3 is
loss in the concept of the cluster, this can be considered as concept drift occurred. Finally,
disastrous when it comes to the decision making with reclustered the temporal clusters and updated POur-
new clusters available. Hence cluster variance NIR shown in fig 3.
threshold (ϵ) is introduced which can check the If the current sliding window t considered that the
amount of variation in the cluster data points, finally drifting concept happens, the data points in the
it helps to find the proper cluster. The cluster that current sliding window t will perform re-clustering.
exceeds the cluster variation threshold is seen as a On the contrary, the current temporal clustering result
different cluster and then the count the number is added into the last clustering result is added into
different clusters that number compared with other the last clustering result and the clustering
threshold --- named cluster difference threshold. It representative POur-NIR is updated.
the ratio of the different cluster is large than the
cluster difference threshold the concept is said to be
drift in the current sliding window .the cluster
process an shown in equation (3)

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Time complexity of DCD

All the clustering results are represented by POur-
NIR, which contains all the pairs of nodes and node
importance. inverted file structure and hashing for
better execution efficiency, among these two we
chosen the hashing can be applied on the represented
table, and the operation on querying the node
importance have a time complexity of 0(1). Therefore
the resemblance value of the specific cluster is
computed efficiently in data labeling shown in
algorithm 1 by the sum of the each node importance
through looking up the POur-NIR hash table only q
times and the entire time complexity of data labeling
is O(q*k*N) [7]. DCD may occur on the reclustering
step when the concept drifts on the updating POur-
NIR result step when the concept does not drift.
When updating the NIR results. We need to scan the
entire data hash table for the calculate their
importance reclustering performed on St. the time
complexity of most clustering algorithms is O(N2) .
 

VI. CONCLUSION 

In this paper, a frame work proposed by

Ming-Syan Chen in 2009[8] which is modified by
new method that is POur-NIR to find node
Fig 4: Final clustering results as per the data set of fig importance. We analyzed by taking same example in
1 and output POur-NIR Results. this find the differences in the node importance
values of attributes [19] in same cluster which plays
If the current sliding window t considered an important role in clustering. The representatives of
that the drifting concept happens, the re-clustering the clusters help improving the cluster accuracy and
process will be performed. The last clustering result purity and hence the POur-NIR method performs
C[te,t-1] represented in POur-NIR is first dumped out better than the CNIR method[8]. In this aspect the
with time stamp to show a steady clustering result class label of unclustered data point and therefore the
that is generated by a stable concept from the last result demonstrates that our method is accurate. The
concept-drifting time stamp t1 to t-1. After that, the future work cluster distribution based on Pour-NIR
data points in the current sliding window t will method [20], cluster relationship based on the vector
perform re-clustering, where the initial clustering representation model and also it improves the
algorithm is applied. The new clustering result Ct is performance of precision and recall of DCD by
also analyzed and represented by POur-NIR. And introducing the leaders-subleaders algorithm for
finally, the data points in the next sliding window S2 reclustering.
and the clustering result Ct are input to do the DCD
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ERP-Communication Framework: Aerospace Smart

factory & Smart R&D Campus

M. Asif Erol Sayin Hammad Muiz-ud-Din Nawar Khan Ibrahim H.

Rashid Karabuk Qureshi Shami Dept of Engineering Seyrek,
Dept of Engineering University SEECS, CAE, National Management Gaziantep
Management Turkey (NUST) University of (NUST) University.
National University Pakistan Science &
Pakistan
of Science & Technology
Technology (NUST)
Pakistan
(NUST) Pakistan

Abstract— The advancement in management information deliverables is the key to the success for an industry, which an
systems and business intelligence has changed the dynamics of ERP-suite offers to a complex industry like
knowledge management. The integration of ERP module for aerospace-industry. However, due to various reasons during
strategic-collaboration among industry-R&D departments with the process of ERP implementation intelligentsia and
university-wide “Smart-campus” has further reiterated the managers are unable to fully diffuse and deploy the
target focused team environment coupled with value-based
knowledge-areas[11-13]. It is considered to be a challenge for
corporate-culture. The integration of academia R&D units with
industrial-production-units for knowledge-management as well intelligentsia and field managers to jump start the ERP
as resource-management is becoming extremely multifaceted. implementation in a hybrid environment vis-à-vis
Efforts are now targeted at evolving a “dynamic knowledge academia-Industry collaborative-joint R&D ventures[14].
management model for higher education and for optimizing the
knowledge-diffusion of “University-R&D programs”. This Methodology:
indeed fosters the vision of E-Commerce to K-Commerce for
knowledge based economy. The philosophy of competitiveness In this paper the literature review based analysis would be
demands that the integrated framework for ERP adoption be
conducted to extract the communication system framework
planned for complex-structured organizations prior to its
deployment. This is meant so as to minimize ERP
strategy for ERP module. The best practices of national
deployment-span in terms of time and to curtail financial institute of aeronautics (NASA) [15]would be utilized to
overheads. This paper provides various dimensions of planning build up a framework of communication for effective
communication system-strategy for ERP in complex-structured diffusion of knowledge areas in the ERP-module. The
organization through mapping of activities for Aerospace methodology for planning and implementation would be
departments involved in R&D programs vis-à-vis proposed in light with technology diffusion theory [6].The
academia-Industry collaborative-joint ventures. 1 validation of the proposed model is undertaken based on a
case study at an aerospace industrial unit. The research work
is based on the best working practices and methodologies
Keywords: Aerospace smart factry, ERP communication extracted from the previous research-work in other industries.
strategy, Communication channels, Technology diffusion.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis are conducted based on
1. INTRODUCTION unstructured interviews coupled with case-study validated via
To gain access to realms of automation, the pre-eminence of FP-Growth algorithm in favor of the proposed
IT based decision support systems (DSS), Enterprise resource ERP-communication framework. The “what if” analysis for
planning systems (ERP) needs total alignment with total probabilistic communication framework conducted thorough
quality management (TQM)[1, 2] , organizational culture and heuristic, FP-growth-algorithm[16] becomes the basis for
business strategy [3-5]. The realization of adoption of this Scenario planning [17] [18]for aerospace smart factory[19].
very concept is yet another area which academic institutes
totally miss out during the campaign of successful
deployment and technology diffusion[6] of ERP[7].
2. LITERATURE REVIEW: ERP-DIFFUSION
Academic institutes are also handicapped to realize the
benefits of having corporate wide automated, competitive, Absorption capability of follower country & collaboration
informed and supportive (ACIS) leadership and management programs:
[8, 9]. Which reiterates the need of an integrated framework
The organizations and countries requiring advanced
to deploy ERP [10]. A total alignment of all projects
technologies absorbed technology-sources without
considering whether they were even capable of absorbing
1
A diminutive part of the research under the NUST R&D sponsorship those. It was observed [20] that absence of this capability
program was published in IAENG conference proceedings of the World made either the whole transfer to be a failure or led the
Congress on Engineering 2010 Vol I; WCE-2010, London, ISBN:
978-988-17012-9-9 on June 30-July-2010. recipient country to a perpetual dependency on the suppliers

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of technology. A larger degree of independence among logistics, inventory management and ware-house
collaborating-partners of technology transfer program added management.
to the complexity for technology diffusion [11, 21] . The
Deficiency in existing Literature and methodology of
diffusion of technology involved technical and non technical
research work to propose a integrated ERP framework
parameters among the participating organizations and
industries this process got more complex while diffusion was While there has been lot of research in other industries for
taking place from an advanced organization to a developing specific models in specialized fields, limited contribution has
country organization, where the organizational, informational been there for making a comprehensive framework for
and even the social environment might not be sufficient to ERP-communication module and its implementation in
adapt this process [20, 22, 23]. aviation industry. Primarily the complexity of aircraft
manufacturing industry and business challenges demand an
Competitiveness, Willingness through TQM
exhaustive planning hence present research work shall focus
Global competitiveness requirements and deregulatory to extract the best working practices, tools and research from
environment has added further dimensions to industries other industries. These elements shall then be aligned in
around the world. The will to survive in such environment major categories to build up an entry level framework for
demands a continuous effort by organizations to acquire aviation industry.
advanced technologies in spite of having discontinuities of
3. ROLE OF IT & ICT.
technology acquisitions in the past . Which emphasize change
management strategies[2, 24]. The leadership must strive for Organizational and Functional Aspects:
willingness of internal customers to adapt to a new
Management information systems (MIS) and information
technology for the purpose of diffusion in corporate culture;
technology can play a pivotal role for communication of
so as to satisfy external customers and to stay in business
technological knowledge and technovations. The MIS
through timely technological advances in terms of ERP
departments in any academic institute and
suites[8, 9] .
Aerospace-smart-factory typically provide decision support
Literature Review of non-classical DOI Model for CSFs for systems (DSS), industry specific CAD /CAM software,
deployment of IT techniques material resource planning software (MRP) and ERP systems.
“IT”, provides technology to support all the functions of MIS
The philosophy of, Non classical model [12] elucidated a
including hardware as well as software support. “IT” is a tool
number of additional critical success factors (CSFs) which
which can be utilized in various dimensions by leadership, top
can influence ERP, diffusion of technology (D.O.T.). The
management, operations, production, finance and
research work model argued that; for complex and multi user
administration. “IT” can provide a set of integrated system
technology (like IT); communication-channels and social
tools (software as well as hardware) for DSS, BI, project
system play a vital role. Whereas, social system is a product
management, SCM, MRP, CAD, CAM, financial analysis and
of leadership, management, administration, PEST {political,
HRM analysis. The system can attain the shape of ERP once
socio-economical, technological influences (opinion leaders
integrated across the corporate functions through single
& change agents)} [12]. The model of D.O.T., in IT-Industry
authoritative database management system. During D.O.T,
was used to determine factors or enablers responsible for
the security and flow of technovations would be managed
knowledge-communication to members of social systems in
through the state of art “IT” coupled with
an aerospace-academia-R&D-industry-environment.
optimized-communication-strategy. Conversely, D.O.T, for
Researcher provided a conceptual view of the classical & non
organization’s functions, processes and operations can also be
classical model and market situation relevant to industry. In a
managed and expedited through use of
high knowledge burden Industry or where there exist high
optimized-communication-strategy.
user interdependencies characterize D.O.T., is a functions of
variables of classical D.O.T., theory , managerial influences Information Distribution Network & Security of Information:
,critical-mass, absorptive capacity,
In a typical multi-national manufacturing industry, the
implementation-characteristics and national-institutions to
production and machine departments might be located
lower knowledge barriers. The utilization of same model
offshore. “IT” would provide World Wide Web networks to
helped in extracting relevant parameters for aircraft
distribute technological and business specific objectives to all
manufacturing industry. The parameters which were relevant
stakeholders through optimized-communication-circles [26].
to aerospace-academia-R&D-industry-environment for
“IT” utilizes satellite networks, earth stations and routing
diffusion of enterprise resource planning systems were
equipments to distribute industry specific information
extracted for utilization in this research-study.
through wide area networks (WAN), metropolitan networks
Literature Review of Canadian Aviation Cluster (MAN) and local area networks (LAN). The security of
information could be ensured by employing hardware and
Canadian aviation cluster [25] indicated that supply chain
software firewalls which can have integrated bulk encryption
management (SCM) would be a critical success factor for
and decryption units. All bulk encryption and decryption units
meeting in time production challenges supply of material and
may employs specific algorithms tailored to address the full
finished products from upstream source. These SCM
domain of organizational-specific security-polices.
activities could be augmented by ERP system for optimized
Intrusion-detection-systems could be employed to provide

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extensive-security for data-warehouse and sensitive implemented through defined mission & strategy.
manufacturing design and technology knowledge-areas. Communication success factors may depend on the following
factors in an “aerospace-academia-
Processes & Equipment Automation:
R&D-industry-environment”:
Typically an Aerospace department is implicated in R&D
(a) Clear vision to communicate.
programs vis-à-vis joint Industry collaborative ventures [23].
“IT/ICT” in the form of ERP can assist in providing state of (b) Customer focused attitude as well as Industry
the art software as well as hardware. Which can be employed specific focus.
for optimized and accurate calculation of computer aided
(c) Taking action as per defined strategy.
design (CAD), computer aided manufacturing (CAM),
computer simulations, automated wind tunnel testing, (d) Rapid deployment of communication channels
performance parameters evaluation, performance parameters through participative communication.
analysis, and computer assisted research & development for
The resultant output will be observed as in the form of goal
prototype-product-manufacturing. This is followed by
oriented behaviour. This communication concept for aircraft
subsequent serial batch production of product after exhaustive
manufacturing industry is elucidated in figure 1. The
interventions by quality control and quality assurance
departments.
4. ERP-Communication Medium

A main element in the diffusion of ERP technology is

communication channel. The manner in which information is
communicated is critical to the success or failure of an
ERP-DOT project. As technologies become more complex,
communicating those technologies to the marketplace and to
the users becomes more demanding.
Research has shown that NASA employed both informal and
formal communications to disseminate its research and
technology to the Aviation and space industries [15]. The
recommendations relevant to D.O.T, recommended following
two channels of communication for D.O.T:-
(a.) Informal communication channels: covering peer to
peer, collegial contacts, liaison among academia,
industry and government communication. gure: 1 Aircraft manufacturing industry Communication system
Framework
(b.) Formal communication channels: based on
publications, periodicals, policies standards operating
procedures and seminar-presentation. proposed building modules of the
D.O.T-communication-model are Vision, Policies,
As per NASA, [15] ,in one of the research-study “80% of the Communication mechanism, Communication channels, Goal
respondents used electronic networks in their professional oriented behaviour and a feed back mechanism. This model is
work, but half of the respondents considered the computer based on the research model presented by NASA [15], which
networks to be neither important nor unimportant. has been modified in light with diffusion .of innovation
Respondents used electronic networks more frequently for theory [6], commensurate to
internal rather than external communication. Libraries played “aerospace-academia-R&D-industry-environment” [11, 20,
a vital role in providing NASA and DOD technical reports to 21, 26] .
their intended aerospace users and collaborating partners”. 5. VITAL ARTIFACTS & POLICIES FOR
As per NASA [15], the informal system was not as efficient if ERP-COMMUNICATION
stakeholders had limited knowledge. On the other hand A typical set of “Technology Knowledge policies” and goals
formal communication was found to be difficult because it for distribution through communication circles to typical set
employed a one-way, source-to-user transmission and of departments could be following based on earlier research
because it relied heavily on information intermediaries and work “Fichman-Model” [12].There are a number of
mediators. Hence in this research, it is proposed that during modifications incorporated in Fichman-Model based on
D.O.T, process formal channels may be employed to enhance SWOT analysis specific to
the rate of knowledge acquisition and subsequent transfer. A aerospace-academia-R&D-industry-environment: The CSFs
generic model of communication may be used to highlights are as follows:
D.O.T, objectives and policies. These policies could be
derived through vision and relevant objectives that could be

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(a) Competitiveness of HRD, Capacity Building & Academia-R&D, PP&PC) a communication channels
Skill. employed was comprised of 231 channels of
(b) Academia & Industry joint collaboration communication. It was observed that one product had to flow
through various processes in different departments. All
(c) Economic factors (price)
departments were to keep a close liaison with each other and
(d) Supply chain factors augmented by ERP with academia R&D-department for final quality-verification
Goal oriented behaviour-module & mathematical modeling and Product-data–management (PDM) of finished products.
The integrated information sharing and information-scrutiny
The rate of absorption and skill enhancement is achieved among the production units and R&D departments became
through activation of goal oriented communication the basis for product life cycle management module(PLM) of
mechanism. The academia and industry conducts joint an ERP. For a controlled and managed activity a feedback
training session to impart and diffuse knowledge to HR and from all departments was managed by production planning
industry-resource-Pool. A feedback mechanism would be at and control department. The necessary changes in
place to refine and improve the D.O.T, process. The master-schedule were then processed through Business
information communication to project elements (staff, intelligence (BI) techniques and AI-algorithms for
managers) would be very vital for the success of Diffusion of implementation and feedback. The objectives and goals
technology. The communication channel in terms of achievement were documented for performance review. The
probability Mathematical model can be defined as follows: unaccomplished or carried-forward manufacturing was
traced-back and was included in subsequent master schedule.
Mathematic modeling for Industry Communication
channels (C.c) The frequent patterns of communication were analyzed using
FP-Growth / Apriori algorithm to predict future trend for
(1) communication channel growth for inter / intra department
C.c. = n (n-1) / 2 and for network-traffic management. In such a perplexed and
multilayered-scenario the requirement of a managed
communication-module powered by ERP-authoritative
database becomes an absolute necessity for timely and
efficient decision making. A typical set of communication
Where; in equation 1; “n” stands for number of channels of channels based on the aerospace case study is demonstrated in
communication among aerospace, academia and R&D figure-2. As per researcher [27-30] data mining tools play
departments for inter or intra departmental communication. pivotal and constructive role for discovering useful patterns
The mathematical model is used in conjunction with in commercial organizations data warehouse, which may be
FP-growth algorithm [16]to realize the objective of frequent in gigabytes for any engineering product data management
pattern recognition in a rational and logical way. (PDM) of a manufacturing industry. These patterns then
predict strategies for continuous improvement in line with
6. CASE STUDY FOR ERP-COMMUNICATION TQM for high performance manufacturing and to pinpoint
training requirements. In this research the focus is
Communication Circle in Production planning of an
communication channels hence FP-growth algorithms were
Aerospace MRO:
employed to predict the communication patterns within the
knowledge diffusion complicated manufacturing channels.
A SAAB aircraft manufacturing Plant was visited for
evaluating the proposed mathematical model. The Aerospace
Quantitative Analysis: Application of FP-Growth for Vital
enterprise was manufacturing aircraft at 5 concurrent Docks.
frequent pattern identification.
Out of which 02 were dedicated to MRO activities. The
SAAB aerospace plant was perusing actively the R&D
programs under a joint venture with a National level
The FP-growth algorithm is one of the fastest methodology to
University. The, Production planning department was having
frequent item set mining [16] and for “what if” analysis. It
four (4) sub departments which were involved in production
trims down multiple scans frequent patterns in a the
planning, capacity planning, aircraft work order scheduling
transactions, reduces number of unnecessary candidates and
and work-order-control. As per the above formula (equation
facilitate support counting for candidates. Thus, “improving
1) the number of channels employed for interdepartmental
Apriori-algorithm general perception” . FP-Growth
communication were Six (6). Another scenario was evaluated
advantage is in its objective to divide-and-conquer. It then
for production planning & production control (PP&PC)
proceeds to focused search of smaller databases along with
department for managing inter-departments manufacturing
other factors. A case for vital artifacts was explored for
channels. A master-schedule for production was
Vital-ERP communication transactions among inter
communicated to 20 departments and also to
departmental scenario. The Data-set was fetched after
Academia-R&D-department for quality control. All
analytical discussions and analysis from departments which
departments were required to manage, in such a situation
were typically having high communication circles and
concurrent production schedules. As per the algorithm
intranet data transfer with logistics and supply chain circles
(equation-1) for “22” departments (including
due to uncertain demand pattern. The PP&C was in touch

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with Logistics for pursuing comfortable parts availability for scenarios of frequent item set for communication circles for
Airframe-integration department, R&D-department and ERP policy artifacts could be mined as per results shown in
Aero-Engine department. The minimum support considered table 2.
was 30%. The FP growth algorithm [16]was deployed so as to
The “what if” analysis by FP growth algorithm provided the
predict all possible scenarios (frequent pattern) set for vital
probabilistic communication pattern for
artifacts for ERP-design considerations.
deterministic-planning, probabilistic-planning and Scenario
planning for aerospace smart factory. The scenario Planning
Algorithm: FP-growth: Version 4.18 by researcher [16] was Techniques could also predict BI-scorecards for futuristic
utilized for mining frequent patterns risks anaysis in aerospace technology-diffusion-projects. The
Input: A Vital Communication ERP dataset (table-1) Scnerio planning is beyond what national strategy and beyond
developed during analytical survey, and a minimum support what master planning can even think of. This hence, could go
threshold ξ (30%). a long way in further improving the design artifacts for
information integration framework for an aerospace smart
Output: The complete set of frequent pattern set (table 2).
factory ERP.

TABLE 1: Vital Communication circles dataset 7. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS
Transaction Logistics Airframe R&D Aero- A qualitative analysis was conducted through unstructured
(a) -integrati -department
Researcher Engine interview with experienced aerospace engineers with 18 years
on (b) (c ) (d)
or more experience of industry and R&D. The conclusive
T1 - PP&C Y Y Y Y outcome supported by theoretical references is discussed in
T2 - PP&C Y Y Y subsequent paras. .
T3 - PP&C Y Y Y
T4 - PP&C Y Y Y Systems Engineering Approach for ERP implementation &
change Management
T5 - PP&C Y Y
Results Assumptions & Limitations Most of the Aerospace Engineers preferred the System
thinking for ERP project’s planning. This is due to various
While more refined iterations and selection would have factors and mainly because ERP implementation projects are
fetched interesting patterns, however for ease of highly complex coupled with hundreds of concurrent
understanding only five transactions were considered (T1 to activities taking place at one given time. During ERP
T5). Since the focus was to indicate the viability and potential implementation process, one doesn’t buy Technology, in fact,
of FP-growth algorithm to explore frequent pattern-set for performance and knowledge elevation is acquired during
ERP vital artifacts necessary for design consideration and unfrozen to refrozen phase. In such a demanding scenario the
exhaustive scenario planning. The resultant plausible most preferred practice would demand management of
D.O.T., through system engineering approach. System
Table 2: FP growth data sets output; frequent datasets approach integrates fundamental parameters of system at
for exhaustive scenario-planning of ERP organizational level. The system engineering approach
Transaction selected (T1, T2, T3, T4 & T5) circumference all the issues and is expected to provide a
Item-IDs Support-count
holistic picture. The details about each parameter for system
a 5
engineering approach and parameters at figure 1 along with
b 5
their selection criteria have been worked out with complete
c 3
diligence, meticulousness and assiduousness, however, these
d 2
details intentionally not discussed at length and were “kept
FPG: Frequent Patterns of BSC out “in this diminutive paper.
Conditional-probability-Plausible-scenarios for ERP vital
artifacts With 30% support count Role of ICT based Communication channels for (DOI) for
abcd abc abd ab (100.0) ERP implementation
abcd abc abd (100.0)
abcd abc ab (100.0) Most of the Aerospace Engineers iterated the need for
abcd abc (100.0) planning ERP knowledge areas for effective diffusion of
abcd abd ab (100.0) technology within corporate culture. The ERP technology is
abcd abd (100.0) diffused to the social system through communication system.
abcd ab (100.0) The communication system may employ IT techniques
abcd (100.0) including broadband wireless access (IEEE 802.16 standards
abc abd ab (100.0)
for Wi-max termed as 4G network), LAN, WAN and MAN to
abc abd (100.0)
abc ab (100.0)
communicate ERP knowledge areas through triple play
abc (100.0) techniques (TV, internet and Phone). The previous research
abd ab (100.0) by NASA had confirmed the use of extensive communication
abd (100.0) channels including electronic media for D.O.I. The success of
ab (100.0)

(Algorithm Time to predict =0.03 Seconds )

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ERP would be greatly enhanced through effective utilization The elucidated application of Artificial Intelligence for
of communication strategies utilizing competitive mining frequent pattern for the interdepartmental
management-institute (CIS-L-GAMA-Consortium of communication can becomes basis for predicting futuristic
competitive, informed-and supportive (CIS), leadership, risks and conflicts for improving the work flow within
(federal) government, academia, management & logistics and production planning and control centers. This
administration (L-GAMA) the concept is abbreviated as research proposes that knowledge required to integrate
“CIS-L-GAMA”). This strategic-institute attains vigor aircraft manufacturing characteristics and constraints into the
through the social system. Such comprehensive structural design process is beyond the proficiency of a single
communication-strategies with feed-back mechanisms are the engineer hence Concurrent Engineering (CE) facilitates
hallmark of success in terms of continuous improvement to producibility and support right from design till
earn goal oriented behavior production-stage along life cycle of a product. However a
decision support system, or Knowledge-Based System, is
Leadership, Academia & industrial collaboration for ERP considered vital from design till manufacturing stage. While
implementation the objective of this research was not to describe the
development of a Knowledge-Based System (KBS) for the
The past research has confirmed the competitive advantage of
determination of manufacturing processes yet it elucidated the
operations management through the use of MRP in a
need for a concurrent object oriented communication system
manufacturing industry. Additionally the optimum
for KBS. Most of the Aerospace Engineers iterated the need
productivity could be earned through consortium of
for optimization of work flow within logistics and production
competitive, informed and supportive (CIS) industrial
planning and control centers utilizing BI and Knowledge
leadership, government, and academia. The power sharing
discovery algorithms as a complement to each other.
groups at strategic level (Leadership & Government) and at
tactical level (management & administration) i.e. 8. FINDINGS
CIS-L-GAMA-Consortium need reliable and competitive The research work is an ERP communication framework
DSS for monitoring ERP progress. It is proposed that after evolution for D.O.T., processes revealed the following:
planning the ERP the BI & MRP module could be
implemented in first stage so as to enable CIS-L-GAMA to (1) Aircraft manufacturing industry encompass highly
monitor productivity for rapid ROI [9]. The integration of complex production knowledge synchronized by strict
communication circles with a generic industrial national and international standards.
ERP-framework [9, 26]is elucidated in figure-2. Most of the
Aerospace Engineers iterated the need for CIS-L-GAMA for (2) These technology-knowledge-areas cannot be achieved
enhanced productivity within aerospace cluster[3, 4, 9, 23, unless the management systems and production
25] . processes are completely conversant with the depth of
knowledge required for execution of day to day
Artificial Intelligence & Data-mining analytics for assignments.
communicating BI in ERP Communication circles
(3) The ERP implementation is the key deliberation in any
The researchers [27-29] elucidated that data mining complex manufacturing industry. The ERP diffusion of
techniques are seen as facilitator to top management and shop knowledge adds perplexities due to parameters like
floor management for communication of precise information organizational size, centralization, formalization and
for timely decision support system and manufacturing. In a culture competitiveness and willingness.
global village perspective business is flooded with data
(scientific data, manufacturing data, product design data, (4) System engineering approach of Diffusion of
financial data, and marketing data). Human attention has technology in Aerospace-smart-factory resolves the
become the precious resource. Ways to automatically analyze complex issues leading to uncalled for delays in ERP
the data, to automatically classify it, to automatically implementation.
summarize it, to automatically discover and characterize
trends utilizing statistics, visualization, artificial intelligence, (5) In aviation industry the policies, rules, regulations and
and machine learning. The diffusion of innovation reiterates technical data are communicated through a state of the
that ERP business analytics module with BI capabilities art communication network strategy whereby. ERP
utilize data-mining & AI for communication of knowledge implementation is influenced by communication
(information). While the past research work argued that Data mechanism. The NASA research work has reiterated for
mining and knowledge discovery from data is important but state of the art communication network strategy for
did not stress for idea that communicating the knowledge automated management system to earn efficiency by
after data mining and uncovering interesting data patterns employing ERP systems with integrated business
hidden in large data sets through a object oriented intelligence and communication mechanism.
communicating strategy, which in itself is paramount for
competitive advantage for high performance manufacturing. (6) Communication system for ERP planning and
implementation demand goal oriented behaviors by
encompassing BI & social system (CIS-L-GAMA). The
previous research by NASA had confirmed the use of

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extensive communication channels including electronic AUTHORS PROFILE

media for Diffusion of innovation (DOI). M. Asif Rashid is a Aerospace Enterprise Systems Integration
Engineer working on Lockheed Martin Aerospace and
(7) Application of Artificial Intelligence for mining
Enterprise-systems. He is also perusing his PhD studies at
frequent pattern communication among varying actors
Dept of Engineering-Management NUST for ERP-systems.
can predict futuristic risks and growth of network
This paper was part of PhD research work under the
requiring improvement of work flow.
supervision of Dr Muiz-ud-din-Shami(NUST), Dr Nawar
9. CONCLUSION Khan(DEM-NUST), Dr Hammad Qureshi (SEECS NUST)
([email protected]) & in collaboration
This research made an effort to address artifacts of ERP with Dr Erol Sayin of Karabuk University Turkey
Communication policy and artifacts quality-enhancement via ([email protected]) and Dr. Ibrahim H. Seyrek, of
extraction of vital patterns of communication through Gaziantep University ([email protected]).
business analytics, business-intelligence (BI), and
data-mining techniques. The framework presented is REFERENCES
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Analysis of Educational web pattern using

Adaptive Markov Chain for Next page
Access Prediction
Harish Kumar, Dr. Anil Kumar Solanki
PhD scholar, Mewar University. MIET Meerut.
Chittorgarh.

ABSTRACT The IT revolution is the fastest emerging

revolution seen by the human race. The Internet
The Internet grows at an amazing rate as an
surpasses online education, Web based
information gateway and as a medium for
information and volume of click the web site has
business and education industry. Universities
reached at huge proportions. Internet and the
with web education rely on web usage analysis
common use of educational databases have
to obtain students behavior for web marketing.
formed huge need for KDD methodologies. The
Web Usage Mining (WUM) integrates the
Internet is an infinite source of data that can
techniques of two popular research fields - Data
come either from the Web content, represented
Mining and the Internet. Web usage mining
by the billions of pages publicly available, or
attempts to discover useful knowledge from the
from the Web usage, represented by the log
secondary data (Web logs). These useful data
information daily collected by all the servers
pattern are use to analyze visitors activities in
around the world[1][2]. The information
the web sites. So many servers manage their
collection through data mining has allowed E-
cookies for distinguishing server address. User
education Applications to make more revenues
Navigation pattern are in the form of web logs
by being able to better use of the internet that
.These Navigation patterns are refined and
helps students to make more decisions.
resized and modeled as a new format. This
Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD)
method is known as “Loginizing”. In this paper
is an interdisciplinary area focusing upon
we study the navigation pattern from web usage
methodologies for mining useful information or
and modeled as a Markov Chain. This chain
knowledge from data [1]. Users leave navigation
works on higher probability of usage .Markov
traces, which can be pulled up as a basis for a
chain is modeled for the collection of navigation
user behavior analysis. In the field of web
a pattern and used for finding the most likely
applications similar analyses have been
used navigation pattern for a web site.
successfully executed by methods of Web Usage
Keyword: Web mining, web usage, web logs, Mining [2] [3]. The challenge of extracting
Markov Chain. knowledge from data draws upon research in
statistics, databases, pattern recognition,
INTRODUCTION:
machine learning, data visualization,
optimization, web user behavior and high-

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performance computing, to deliver advanced web site we need to assign different threshold
business intelligence and web discovery value.
solutions[3][4]. It is a powerful technology with Important properties of Markov Chain:
great potential to help various industries focus 1. Markov Chain is successful in sequence
on the most important information in their data matching generation.
warehouses. Data mining can be viewed as a 2. Markov model is depending on previous state.
result of the natural evolution of information 3. Markov Chain model is Generative.
technology. In Web usage analysis, these data 4. Markov Chain is a discrete – time stochastic
are the sessions of the site visitors: the activities process
performed by a user from the moment he enters
the site until the moment he leaves it. Web Due to the generative nature of Markov chain,
usage mining consists on applying data mining navigation tours can automatically derived.
techniques for analyzing web user’s activity. In Sarukkai proposed a technique ho Markov
educational contexts, it has been used for model predict the next page accessed page by
personalizing e-learning and adapting the user[4][2]. Pitkow and Deshpande
educational hypermedia, discovering potential ,Dongshan and Junyi proposed various
browsing problems, automatic recognition of techniques for log mining using Makov
learner groups in exploratory learning Model[5][2]
environments or predicting student performance.
The discovered patterns are usually represented METHODOLOGY:
as collection of web pages, objects or resources This Markov model is an easiest way of
that are frequently accessed by groups of users representing navigation patterns and navigation
with common needs or interests [10][11]. tree. Suppose we have an e web site of a
Generally user visit a web site in sequential university.
nature means user visit first home page then Navigation pattern sequences are
second page and then third and then finish his 1. ABCDEF
work with this user leaves his navigation marks 2. ACF
on a server. These navigation marks are called 3. ACE
navigation pattern that can be used to decide the 4. BCD
next likely web page request based on Navigation Pattern Frequency
of visit
significantly statistical correlations. If that
SABCDEFT 3
sequence is occurring very frequently then this SACFT 2
sequence indicated most likely traversal pattern. SACET 3
SBCDT 2
If this pattern occurs sequentially, Makov chains Total No of web 10
have been used to represent navigation pattern site navigate
of the web site. This is because in Markov chain
Table 1: Navigation pattern table
present state is depending on previous state. If a
web site contains more navigation pattern
(“Interesting Pattern”) high supporting threshold
is assign to it and less interesting patterns are
ignored. So we can say that at different level of

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So we can identify that total probability of visit

of A is 8/39, B is 5/39, C is 10/39, D is 5/39, E
is 6/39 and F is 5/39.Here NPi j is a navigation
probability matrix where NP is the probability
where next stage will be j. Navigation
probability is defined as

NPi j 0,1

And for all j NPi j =1. The initial probability of a

state is estimated as the how many number of
The probability of transition is calculated by the times a page was requested by user so we can
ratio of the number of times the corresponding say that every state has a positive probability.
sequence of pages was traversed and the number The Traditional Markov model has some
of times a hyperlink page was visited. A state of limitations which are as follows.
a page is composed by two other states Start
state(S) and Terminal State (F). 1. Low order Markov Models has good
coverage but less accurate due to poor
history.
2. High order Markov Models suffers
from high state space complexity.

In higher-order Markov model number of states

exponential increases as increase in the order of
model. The exponential increment in number of
states increases search space and complexity Higher-
Probability of hyperlink is based on the content
order Markov model also have low coverage
of page being viewed. Navigation matrix is as
follows: problem. In proposed model, each request with its
time-duration is considered as a state. A session is a
This Indicate navigation control can reach at
total 10 times at T. sequence of such states. The m-step Markov model
assumes that the next request depends only on last m
A B C D E F T
0 3 1 0 0 0 0 requests. Hence, the probability of the next request is
A
/ /
5 2
calculated by
B 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
/
2 P(r n+1|rn...r1) = P(r n+1|r n...r n− m +1),
C 0 0 0 1 1 2 0
/ /
2 5
D 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Where ri is the i th request in a session, i=1, 2... n, rn
/ /
2 5 is the current request, and r n+1 is the next request.
E 0 0 0 0 0 3 3
/ /
From this equation, if m=1 (the 1-step model), the
5 1 next request is determined only by the current
0
F 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 request [5]. The Matrix CM is of conditional
/
2 probability of previous occurrence. The state matrix
T 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
CM is a square matrix. So we need to be calculating
the probability of each page. So we need to design a
Table 2: frequency of each Node and their
model that is dynamic in nature means prediction is
probability.
based on the next incoming and outgoing node. The
Markov model construction starts with the first row
of table (first navigation pattern)

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leaving the control at a page or reaching at another

page. Now with this dynamic Markov model it is
possible to predict the most probable next web page
accessed by the user.

CONCLUSION:
This main goal of this paper is to analyzing hidden
information from large amount of log data. This
paper emphasizes on dynamic Makov chain model
among the different processes. I define a novel
Figure: First Order Dynamic Markov Model
approach for similar kind of web access pattern. This
(For pattern1)
approach serve as foundation for the web usage
Similarly we create patterns chain for all the clustering that were described and I conclude that
above pattern of table 1.
web mining methods and clustering technique are
used for self-adaptive websites and intelligent
websites to provide personalized service and
performance optimization.

REFERENCES:
[1] Ajith Abraham, “Business Intelligence from Web
Usage Mining” Journal of Information &
Knowledge Management, Vol. 2, No. 4 (2003) 375-
Figure: First Order Dynamic Markov Model
(For pattern2) 390
[2] Jos´e Borges, Mark Levene “An Average Linear
Summaries above pattern chain into one model and
Time Algorithm for Web Usage Mining” Sept 2003.
set the in link and out link. So each node contains
[3] Hengshan Wang, Cheng Yang, Hua Zeng “
name of web page, count of web page and an inlink
Design and Implementation of a Web Usage Mining
list and outlink list.
Model Based On Fpgrowth and Prefixspan,
Communications of the IIMA, Volume 6 Issue 2
[4] Jaideep Srivastava_ y , Robert Cooleyz , Mukund
Deshpande, Pang-Ning Tan ”Web Usage Mining:
Discovery and Applications of UsagePatterns from
Web Data” Volume 1 Issue 2-Page13
[5] Alice Marques, Orlando Belo “Discovering
Student web Usage Profiles Using Markov Chains”
The Electronic Journal of e-Learning Volume 9 Issue
Figure: Dynamic Makov Model Node 1 2011, (pp63-74)
Inlink list contains the list pointer of Inlink web [6] Ji He,Man Lan, Chew-Lim Tan,Sam-Yuan Sung,
pages and outlink list contains outlink web pages Hwee-BoonLow, “Initialization of Cluster
every node contains its frequency as well (as per refinement algorithms: a review and comparative
Table no 2).Frequency of every visited node will study”, Proceeding of International Joint Conference
change whenever number of inlink pointer is on Neural Networks[C].Budapest,2004.
increase means when a page is visited by any user.
So this helps us to predict the next web page before

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[7] Renata Ivancsy, Ferenc Kovacs “Clustering

Techniques Utilized in Web Usage Mining”
International Conference on Artificial Intelligence,
Knowledge Engineering and Data Bases, Madrid,
Spain, February 15-17, 2006 (pp237-242)
[8] Bradley P S, Fayyad U M. “Refining Initial
Points for Kmeans,Clustering Advances in
Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining”, MIT
Press.
[9] Ruoming Jin , Anjan Goswami and Gagan
Agrawal. “Fast and exact out-of-core and distributed
k-means clustering Knowledge and Information
Systems”, Volume 10, Number 1/July, 2006.
[10] Bhawna.N and Suresh. J “Generating a New
Model for Predicting the Next Accessed Web Page
in Web Usage Mining” Third International
Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and
Technology, ICETET.2010.56
[11] Bindu Madhuri, Dr. Anand Chandulal.J, Ramya.
K, Phanidra.M “Analysis of Users’ Web Navigation
Behavior using GRPA with Variable Length Markov
Chains” IJDKP.2011.1201.

AUTHORS PROFILE

Harish Kumar is has completed his

M.Tech (IT) in 2009 from Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, Delhi. He is currently
pursuing his PhD from Mewar University,
Chittorgarh.

Prof. A.K. Solanki, Director of the

Institute, has obtained his Ph.D. in Computer
Science & Engineering from Bundelkhand
University, Jhansi. He has published a good number
of International & National Research papers in the
area of Data warehousing and web mining and
always ready to teach the subjects to his students
which he does with great finesse.

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Advanced Routing Technology For Fast Internet

Protocol Network Recovery
1
S. Rajan, 2 Althaf Hussain H.B., 3 K. Jagannath, 4 G. Surendar Reddy, 5 K.N.Dharanidhar
1
Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of CSE, Kuppam Engg. College., Kuppam, Chittoor(Dt.), A.P.
2
Associate Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
3
Associate Professor, Dept .of IT, Kuppam Engg. College., Kuppam Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
4
Assistant Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.
5
Assistant Professor, Dept .of CSE, Kuppam Engg College., Kuppam, Chittoor (Dt.), A.P.

special purpose network to an ubiquitous platform for a wide

Abstract:
range of everyday communication services. The demands on
As the Internet takes an increasingly central role in our Internet reliability and availability have increased accordingly.
communications infrastructure, the slow convergence o
routing protocols after a network failure becomes a growing A disruption of a link in central parts of a network has the
problem. To assure RAPID recovery from link and node failures in IP potential to affect hundreds of thousands of phone conversations
networks, we present a new recovery scheme called or TCP connections, with obvious adverse effects. The ability to
numerous Routing Configurations (NRC). Our proposed scheme
guarantees recovery in all single failure scenarios, using a single recover from failures has always been a central design goal in
mechanism to handle both link and node failures, and without knowing the Internet [3]. IP networks are intrinsically robust, since IGP
the root cause of the failure. NRC is strictly connectionless, and routing protocols like OSPF are designed to update the
assumes only destination based hop-by-hop forwarding. NRC is
based on keeping additional routing information in the routers, and forwarding information based on the changed topology after a
allows packet forwarding to continue on an alternative output link failure. This re-convergence assumes full distribution of the new
immediately after the detection of a failure. It can be implemented link state to all routers in the network domain. When the new
with only minor changes to existing solutions. In this paper we
presenters, and analyze its performance with respect to scalability, state information is distributed, each router individually
endorsement path lengths, and load distribution after a calculates new valid routing tables.
failure. We also show how an estimate of the traffic demands in the
network can be used to improve the distribution of the recovered
This network-wide IP re-convergence is a time consuming
traffic, and thus reduce the chances of congestion when NRC
is used. process, and a link or node failure is typically followed by a
period of routing instability. During this period, packets may be
I.INTRODUCTION dropped due to invalid routes. This phenomenon has been
I recent years the Internet has been transformed from a special studied in both IGP [2] and BGP context [3], and has an adverse
purpose network to an ubiquitous platform for a wide range of effect on real-time applications [4]. Events leading to a re-
everyday communication services. The demands on Internet convergence have been shown to occur frequently [5]. Much
reliability and availability have increased accordingly. A effort has been devoted to optimizing the different steps of the
disruption of a link in central parts of a network has the convergence of IP routing, i.e., detection, dissemination of
potential to affect hundreds of thousands of phone information and shortest path calculation, but the convergence
conversations or TCP connections, with obvious adverse time is still too large for applications with real time demands
effects. The ability to recover from failures has always been a
central design goal in the Internet [1], IP networks are ANTICIPATED SYSTEM
intrinsically robust, since IGP routing protocols like OSPF are Our proposed scheme guarantees recovery in all single failure
designed to update the forwarding information based on the scenarios, using a single mechanism to handle both link and
changed topology after a failure. This re-convergence assumes node failures, and without knowing the root cause of the failure.
full distribution of the new link state to all routers in the NRC is strictly connectionless, and assumes only destination
network domain. When the new state information is distributed, based hop-by-hop forwarding. NRC is based on keeping
each router individually calculates new valid routing tables. additional routing information in the routers, and allows packet
VACANT SYSTEM forwarding to continue on an alternative output link
immediately after the detection of a failure.
In recent years the Internet has been transformed from a

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II. NRC OVERVIEW

NRC is based on building a small set of endorsement routing
configurations, that are used to route recovered traffic on
alternate paths after a failure Our NRC approach is threefold.
First, we create a set of endorsement configurations, so that
every network component is excluded from packet forwarding
in one the network topology as a graph , with a set of and the
associated link weight function configuration. Second, for each
configuration, a standard routing algorithm like OSPF issued to
calculate configuration specific shortest paths and create
forwarding tables in each router, based on the configurations.

The use of a standard routing algorithm guarantees loop-free

forwarding within one configuration. Finally, we design a Fig. 1. Left: node 5 is isolated (shaded color) by setting a high
forwarding process that takes advantage of the endorsement weight on all its connected links (stapled). Only traffic to and
configurations to provide rapid recovery from a component from the isolated node will use these restricted links. Right: a
failure. configuration where nodes 1, 4 and 5, and the links 1.2, 3.5 and
4.5 are isolated (dotted).
Using a standard shortest path calculation, each router creates a
set of configuration-specific forwarding tables. For simplicity, an isolated node to a non-isolated node, or it connects two
we say that a packet is forwarded according to a configuration, isolated nodes. Importantly, this means that a link is always
meaning that it is forwarded using the forwarding table isolated in the same configuration as at least one of its attached
calculated based on that configuration. In this paper we talk nodes. These two rules are required by the NRC forwarding
about building a separate forwarding table for each process described in Section IV in order to give correct
configuration, but we believe that more efficient solutions can forwarding without knowing the root cause of failure. When we
be found in a practical implementation. talk of a endorsement configuration
B. ALGORITHM
III. GENERATING ENDORSEMENT
The number and internal structure of endorsement
CONFIGURATIONS
configurations in a complete set for a given topology may vary
A. CONFIGURATIONS STRUCTURE depending on the construction model. If more configurations are
NRC configurations are defined by the network topology, created, fewer links and nodes need to be isolated per
which is the same in all configurations, and the associated link configuration, giving a richer (more connected) backbone in
weights, which differ among configurations. each configuration. On the other hand, if fewer configurations
are constructed, the state requirement for the endorsement
routing information storages reduced.

However, calculating the minimum number of configurations

for a given topology graph is computationally demanding. One
solution would be to find all valid configurations for the input
consisting of the topology graph and its associated normal link
weights , and then find the complete set of configurations with
lowest cardinality. Finding this set would involve solving the
Set Cover problem, which is known to be-complete [13].

This means that a restricted link always connects an isolated

node to a non-isolated node. An isolated link either
connects

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The algorithm can be implemented either in a network

management system, or in the routers. As long as all routers
have the same view of the network topology, they will compute
the same set of endorsement configurations. Description:
Algorithm 1 loops through all nodes in the topology, and tries to
isolate them one at a time, link is isolated in the same iteration as
one of its attached nodes. The algorithm terminates when either
all nodes and links in the network are isolated in exactly one Fig. 2. Packet forwarding state diagram.
configuration, or a node that cannot be

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the foiled component. We use its performances a reference

point and evaluate how closely NRC can approach it. It must be
noted that NRC yields the shown performance immediately
after a failure, while IP re-convergence can take seconds to
complete.

FEATURES :
NRC: STRENTH AND WEAKNESSESSTRENTH

100% coverage
Better control over recovery paths
Recovered traffic routed independently
WEAKNESSES

Needs a topology identifier

Packet marking or tunneling
Potentially large number of topologies required
No-END-to-END recovery
Only one switching
MULTIPULE ROUTING CONFIGARATION

IV. LOCAL FORWARDING PROCESS Relies on numerous logic topologies

Builds endorsement configuration so that all components are
When a packet reaches a point of failure, the node adjacent tithe protected
failure, called the detecting node, is responsible for finding Recovered traffic is routed the endorsement configuration
endorsement configuration where the failed component is Detecting and recovery is local Path protection to egress node
isolated. The detecting node marks the packet as belonging to
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network load and also the end-to-end delay. Full, global IGP re- Communications Review, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 106-114,
convergence determines shortest paths in the network without Aug. 1988.

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6) P. Francois, C. Filsfils, J. Evans, and 0. Bonaventure, 3. Mr. K. JAGANNATH, did his

"Achievingsub-second IGP convergence in large IP B.Tech (Information Technology) from
networks," ACM SIGCOMM Computer J.N.T.U Hyderabad and M.Tech
(computer science) in Dr.M.G.R.
Communication Review, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 35 - 44, University, Chennai. My research
July2005. interests in areas of Wireless Networks
7) P. Francois, O. Bonaventure, and M. Shand, and Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. he have
"Disruption free topology reconfiguration in OSPF more than 5 years of teaching
networks," in Proceedings INFOCOM, experience he attended so many
Anchorage,AK, USA, may 2007. workshops. Presently working in Kuppam Engineering
College, Kuppam. as a Associate Professor in Information
8) Fortz and M. Thorup, "Internet traffic engineering by
Technology Dept.
optimizing OSPF weights." in Proceedings
INFOCOM, 2000, pp. 519-528.[24] D. S. Johnson, 4.Mr. G.Surendra Reddy did his
"Approximation algorithms for combinatorial B.Sc(computer science) from
problems, "in Proc. of the 5. annual ACM symp. on S.V.University, M.Sc (computer
Theory of computing, 1973,pp. 38-49. science) from Dravidian University
and M.E from Sathyabama
9) M. R. Garey and D. S. Johnson, Computers and
University. My interest areas are Data
Intractability: A Guideto the Theory of NP- warehousing and Mining. I have 2
Completeness. W. H. Freeman & Co., 1979. years of industry experience and 4
10) S. Iyer, S. Bhattacharyya, N. Taft, and C. Diot, "An years of teaching experience.Presently he is working in
approach to alleviate link overload as observed on an kuppam engineering college as a Asst.Prof CSE
Department.
IP backbone," in.
5. Mr.K.N.Dharanidhar did his
AUTHORS PROFILES B.Tech (Information Technology)
from JNTU Anantapur, M.Tech
1. Mr. S. RAJAN, did his B. Tech (computer science) from JNTU
from JNTU Hyderabad, M. Tech Anantapur. My interest areas are Data
from Dr. M.G.R. University, warehousing and Mining & Mobile
Chennai and currently pursuing Computing.he attended so many
Ph. D from Rayalaseema University, workshops and National and
Kurnool. I have more than 7 years of International conferences. Presently he
teaching experience. Presently is working in kuppam engineering college as a Asst. Prof
working as Associate Professor & CSE Department.
Head in the Department of
Computer Science & Engineering in
Kuppam Engineering College, Kuppam. My research
interests are in the areas of Wireless Networks and Object
Oriented Programming.

2. Mr.ALTHAF HUSSAIN H B,
did his B.Sc (computer science) in
S.V.University and M.Sc (computer
science) in Dravidian University and
received M.E (computer science
and engineering) in Sathyabama
University, Chennai. My research
interests in areas of Computer
Networks, Wireless Networks and
Mobile Ad-hoc Networks. I attended
so many workshops and National and International
conferences. I have 7 years experience of teaching in
various colleges. Presently working in Kuppam Engineering
College, Kuppam. As a Associate Professor in Computer
Science and Engineering dept.

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Design and Implementation of Internet Protocol

Security Filtering Rules in a Network Environment
Alese B.K. Gabriel A.J. Adetunmbi A.O.
Department of Computer Science, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure,
(Nigeria)
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract communications among government-

sponsored researchers and grew steadily to
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) include educational institutions,
devices are essential elements in government agencies, and commercial
network security which provide traffic
filtering, integrity, confidentiality and organizations. Having experienced a great
authentication based on configured advance in the past decades, the Internet
security policies. The complexities has today, become the world’s largest
involved in the handling of these policies computer network, doubling in size each
can result in policy conflicts that may year. However, the Internet today, has
cause serious security breaches and become a popular target to attack. The
network vulnerabilities. This paper
number of security breaches is in fact fast
therefore presents a mathematical
model developed for IPSec filtering rising than the growth of the Internet as a
rules and policies using Boolean whole [9].
expressions. A comprehensive
classification of security policy conflicts A lot of methods which include;
that might potentially exist in a single access control techniques, password,
IPSec device (intra-policy conflicts) or physical protection and
between different network devices encryption/decryption methods, have been
(inter-policy conflicts) in enterprise used to ensure the overall security of
networks is also presented. All these are Computer Networks. However, as
implemented in user-friendly interfaces researchers kept researching and devising
that significantly simplify the various effective security measures, the
management and/or proper cryptanalysts (cyber-criminals) on the
configuration of IPSec policies written other hand, kept working out how these
as filtering rules, while minimizing security measures could be broken,
network vulnerability due to security bypassed, or penetrated. As a result, [1]
policy mis-configurations. reported that despite all efforts, finding a
Keywords: Anomalies, Conflicts, IPSec, concrete solution to network security
problems has been a mirage.
Policy, Protocols.
How painful it is to know that most
1. Introduction cybercrimes which may include identity
The emerging use of TCP/IP networking theft, child pornography, Spam, Fraud,
has led to global system of interconnected Hacking, Denial of Service attacks,
Computer Viruses, Intellectual property
hosts and networks that is commonly
theft and so on, take advantage of
referred to as the Internet [9]. The internet loopholes created by IPSec security policy
was created initially to help foster

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related problems[1]. Therefore, the A packet is protected or discarded, as

effectiveness of the IPSec technology with the case may be, by a specific rule if the
respect to the security of Computer packet header information matches all the
networks is dependent on (1) the thorough network fields of this rule. Otherwise, the
understanding of the sources of these next following rule is used to test the
conflicts, (2) providing policy matching with this packet again. Similarly,
management techniques/tools that enable this process is repeated until a matching
network administrators to analyze, purify rule is found. If no matching rule is found,
and verify the correctness of written IPSec the assumption here is that traffic is
rules/policies, with minimal human dropped /discarded.
intervention
2.1 The basic Filtering Rule Format
This paper, defines a formal model for
IPSec rule relations and their filtering The most commonly used matching fields
representation, and highlights the single- IPSec filtering rules are: protocol type,
trigger as well as the multi-trigger source IP address, source port, destination
semantics of IPSec policies. This paper IP address and destination port.[9] and [5].
also presents comprehensive classification Below is a common packet filtering rule
of conflicts that could exist in a single format in an IPSec policy;
IPSec gateway (intra-policy conflicts) or <order> <protocol> <src_ip> <src_port> <dst_ip>
<dst_port> <action>
between different IPSec gateways (inter-
policy conflicts) in enterprise networks Where,
with a view to enhancing the identification
- order of a rule determines its
of such conflicts. Finally, a brief
position relative to other filtering
description of the implementation is
rules.
presented.
- protocol specifies the transport
protocol of the packet, and can be
one of these values: IP, ICMP,
2. Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) IGMP, TCP or UDP.
Policy Background src_ip and dst_ip specify the IP
addresses of the source and
IPSec policy is a list of ordered filtering destination of the packet
rules that define the actions performed on respectively.
matching packets[9][10]. A rule is src_port and dst_port fields specify
composed of filtering fields (also called the port address of the source and
network fields) such as protocol type, destination of the packet
source IP address, destination IP address, respectively. The port can be a
source port and destination port, and a single specific port number or any
filter action field. Each network field could port number, indicated by “any”.
be a single value or range of values. - action specifies the action to be
Filtering actions are either of the taken when a packet matches a
following; rule.
- Protect: for secure transmission of
packets in and/or out of the secured The protocol, src_ip, src_port, dst_ip, and
network dst_port fields, can be referred to as
- Bypass: for insecure transmission “network fields” or 5-tuple filter.
- Discard: to drop the traffic (cause
the packets to be discarded).

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3. IPSec Policy Modelling

As an illustration, the following security In order to successfully enhance the

policy is to discard/block all UDP traffic effectiveness of any IPSec device, there is
coming from the network 130.192.36.∗ need to first model the relations and
except HTTP: representation of IPSec rules in the policy.
1: udp, 130.192.36.∗, any, ∗.∗.∗.∗, 80, protect Such a model should be complete and easy
to implement and use. Rule relation
2: udp, 130.192.36.∗, any, ∗.∗.∗.∗, any, discard
modelling is necessary for the analysis of
IPSec policies and designing management
techniques such as conflict detection and
2.2 Related Work rules editing. The rules or policy
representation modelling is important for
IPSec has been deployed for many years, implementing these management
none of the related research works have techniques and visualizing the IPSec
used formal methods to comprehensively policy structure. This section, describe
identify IPSec policy conflicts and as well formally the proposed model of IPSec rule
provide algorithms for the management relations and policies.
(detection and resolution) of these
conflicts. [11] is a related work that 3.1 Modelling IPSec Rule Relations
proposed a simulation technique in
detecting and reporting IPSec policy [3] asserted that, as rules are matched
violations. The technique considered just sequentially, the inter-rule relation or
one of the many forms of policy conflicts. dependency is critical for determining any
[3] studied the policy conflicts particular to conflict in the security policy. In other
firewalls that are limited to only “accept words, if the rules are disjoint (no inter-
"and ”deny” actions. [8] is a related work rule relation), then any rule ordering in the
that used a Query based approach to security policy is valid. Therefore,
analyze firewall policies. However, they classifying all types of possible relations
all have limited usability, as they require between filtering rules is a first step to
high user expertise to write the queries understanding the source of conflicts due
needed to identify different policy to policy mis-configuration. Although [6]
problems. Other work in this area did an extensive work on the rule relations
addresses general management policies that could exist in IPSec policies, this
rather than filtering policies. Although particular paper will go ahead to present a
this work is very useful as a general single model that captures all these rule
background, it cannot be directly used for relations.
IPSec conflict discovery. Another work,
worthy of recognition is that of [6]. The Definition 1: Rules Rulx and Ruly are
authors used Boolean expression and exactly matched if and only if every field
ordered binary Decision Diagrams for their in Rulx is equal to the corresponding field
modelling and representation and analysis in Ruly.
of policies. This however might not be
very comprehensive to every user. There is Definition 2: Rules Rulx and Ruly are
every need for a comprehensive conflict inclusively matched if they do not match
analysis framework for IPSec policies and if and only if every field in Rulx is a
using formal techniques. subset or equal to the corresponding Ruly.
In this relation, Rulx is called the subset
match while Ruly is called the superset
match.

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Definition 3: Rules Rulx and Ruly are Where;

correlated if and only if at least one field in
Rulx is a subset or partially intersects with - Rurelns denotes Rule relations
the corresponding field in Ruly, and the - i, j ∈ {protocol, src_ip, src_port,
rest of the fields are equal. This means that dst_ip, dst_port} and
there is an intersection between the address - ⊳⊲ , ⊳/⊲ ∈ {⊂, ⊃, = }.
space of the correlated rules, although - EXm = Exact match,
neither one is the subset of the other. - INm = Inclusive match
- COR = Correlation
Definition 4: Rules Rulx and Ruly are - PAD = Partial disjoint
partially disjoint if and only if there exist, - CAD= Complete disjoint
at least one field in Rulx that is a subset or
a superset or equal to the corresponding
field in Ruly, and there exist at least one
field in Rulx that is not a subset and not a 4. IPSec Policy Conflict Classification
superset and not equal to the
Using the rule relations mathematical
corresponding field in Ruly.
model presented above, the various types
of conflicts (anomalies) that could exist in
Definition 5: Rules Rulx and Ruly are
IP networks are identified and/or classified
completely disjoint if every field in Rulx is
as in figure 4.1
not a subset and not a superset and not
equal to the corresponding field in Ruly.

3.2 The proposed model for filtering rule

relations

From the definitions above, the following

mathematical model is developed. This
captures all the possible rule relations
and/or dependencies that exist in an IPSec
policy.

Figure 4.1. A classification chart showing IP

Security policy conflicts. (Adapted from Hamed et
al., 2004)

4.1 Access-List Conflict Types

As the name implies, access-list conflicts are
are conflicts that could exist between
access-list rules that are either within a sing
IPSec device (intra-policy conflicts) or in
different IPSec devices (inter-policy conflicts.

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4.1.1 Intra-Policy Access-List Conflicts - Ruly exactly or inclusively matches

Rulx
(i) Intra-policy shadowing: A rule is shadowed - Rulx and Ruly have similar actions.
i.e., Rulx(action) = Ruly(action).
when a previous rule with a different action
matches all the packets that match this rule, Redundancy is a critical conflict. Though a
such that, the shadowed rule will never be redundant rule may not contribute in the
activated or triggered. Typically, rule Ruly is packet filtering decision, it adds to the size
shadowed by rule Rulx if of the filtering rule, and this increases the
- Rulx precedes Ruly in the order search time as well as the space
requirement of the packet filtering process.
- Rulx is a superset match of Ruly
- Rulx and Ruly have different(iii) Intra-policy correlation: Two rules are
actions. i.e. Rulx(action) ≠ correlated if the first rule (based on the
Ruly(action) ordering) matches some packets that match
the second rule and the second rule
matches some packets that match the first
Shadowing is a critical error (conflict) in rule. In other words, a correlation conflict
the policy, as a shadowed rule never takes between two rules exists if the two rules
effect. This may result in a legitimate are, correlated and have different filtering
(desired) traffic being discarded (blocked) actions. A correlation conflict exist
and an illegitimate (undesired) one being between Rulx and Ruly if
permitted. This conflict as a matter of
- Rulx and Ruly are correlated
serious importance should be corrected by - Rulx (action) ≠ Ruly(action)
the network administrator. This can be
achieved by reordering the rules such that, A correlation conflict exists between Rul7
once there is an inclusive or exact match and Rul8 above. These two rules imply that
relationship between two rules, any all traffic coming from 130.192.36.10 and
superset (general) rule should come after going to 161.205.13.10 is protected. If
the subset (specific) rule. Alternatively, the however, the order is reversed, the same
shadowed rule should be removed from the traffic is discarded (blocked).
policy, if this leaves the policy semantics Correlation is considered a potential
unchanged. conflict (warning). The user (or network
administrator) should look into the
(ii) Intra-policy Redundancy: A rule is correlations between the filtering rules and
redundant, if it performs the same action decide the proper ordering that complies
on the same packets as another rule such with the security policy requirements as
that, if the redundant rule is removed, the otherwise, unexpected action might be
security policy will not be affected. (i.e., performed on the traffic that matches the
remains unchanged). In other words, a rule intersection of the correlated rules.
is redundant if all packets that could match
it are matched by some other rule that has
a similar action. Formally, rule Ruly is  (iv) Intra-policy exception: A rule is an
redundant to rule Rulx if the following exception of another rule, if the following
holds; rule is a superset match of the preceding
rule. That is the rule can match all the
- Rulx preceeds Ruly in the policy packets that the preceding rule could match.
order

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In other words, Rulx is said to be an instance is a situation where an upstream

exception of Ruly if; IPSec device discards (blocks) traffic that
- Rulx precedes Ruly in the order is permitted by its downstream
- Rulx is a subset match of Ruly counterpart, or vice-versa, causing the
- Rulx(action) ≠ Ruly(action) traffic to be dropped (hence, not reaching
its destination) at the upstream device or
It is worthy of note here that, if Rulx is an the downstream device respectively.
exception of Ruly, then, Ruly is a
generalization of Rulx. (i) Inter-policy shadowing: this is
similar to intra-policy shadowing except
Exception is desired most times, to for the fact that, it occurs between rules in
exclude a specific part of the traffic from a two different IPSec devices.
general filtering action. As a result,
exception is not a critical conflict. Inter policy shadowing conflict therefore
Nevertheless, it is important, to identify
refers to a scenario where, an upstream
exceptions because, exception rules
change the policy semantics, and this policy, ApolU, block or discard some
might cause desired traffic to be blocked, traffic that is permitted by the downstream
or, undesired traffic to be policy ApolD. Formally, we say, inter-
accepted/permitted. policy shadowing conflict occurs if

Irrelevance: A filtering rule in an IPSec

In a situation where the conflicting rules
policy is irrelevant if this rule cannot
are exactly matched, we have complete
match any traffic that might flow through
shadowing conflict, if however, they are
this IPSec device. This exists when both
inclusively matched, we have partial
the source address and the destination
shadowing. In any case, shadowing is a
address fields of the rule do not match any
critical conflict, since it prevents the traffic
domain reachable through this device. In
desired by some nodes from flowing to the
other words, the path between the source
end destination.
and destination addresses of this rule does
not pass through the IPSec device. Thus,
this rule has no effect on the filtering
outcome of this device. Formally, rule Rulx (ii) Inter-policy spuriousness: inter-
in a device DEV is irrelevant if: policy spuriousness is said to have
occurred in a situation where, the upstream
DEV {n : n is a node on a path from Rulx [src] to policy ApolU permits traffic blocked by the
Rulx [dst] }
downstream policy ApolD..
Irrelevance is considered an anomaly
because it adds unnecessary overhead to 4.2 Map-List Conflict Types.
the filtering process and it does not
The map-list, which is the part of the
contribute to the policy semantics. policy that specifies the security
requirements of each traffic, is also worthy
4.1.2 Inter-Policy Access-List Conflicts of mention here. The rule conflicts that
may exist in the crypto-map list of a single
Conflicts could also occur between
IPSec device (intra-policy) may exist
policies of different IPSec devices. An between the crypto-map list of different

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IPSec devices (i.e., inter-policy) are there

presented in this section. These conflicts
may result in security policy violation (i.e., 5.1 Hardware and Software
insecure transmission of traffic) redundant Requirements
or unnecessary traffic protection.
The implementation of the system was
4.2.1 Overlapping session conflicts carried out on an Intel(R) core(TM) 2 duo
Tunnel overlapping conflict occurs processor computer system, via the use of
because the rules were not ordered the following software packages;
correctly in the map-list such that the
priorities of IPSec sessions terminating at  NetBeans Java Development
further points from the source are higher Environment (JDE)
than the priorities of the ones with closer  Java Runtime Environment (JRE)
termination points. In general, by looking  MySQL database management
at any IPSec policy, this conflict exists if system
two rules match a common flow, and the
tunnel endpoint of the firstly applied rule While MySQL database management
comes before the tunnel endpoint of the system, served as the back-end, NetBeans
following rule in the path from source to Java Development Environment was used
destination. Notice that this conflict can for the front-end purpose.
only occur with two tunnelled transforms
The computer system on which the
or with a transport transform followed by a
implementation was done has a processor
tunnel.
speed of 2.00GHz, a 2.00GB RAM as well
4.2.2 Multi-transform conflicts as a 256GB hard disk capacity. Peripherals
The multi-transform conflict occurs when such as mouse and a printer were also
two rules match a common flow, and the used.
secondly applied rule uses a weaker
transform on top of a stronger one applied
by the other rule. For flexibility, the
strength of any transform can be user- 5.2 System Development
defined such that if a transformation has a
larger strength value, then it provides The developed system has the following
better protection, and vice versa. interfaces;

- The Rules Editor interface

- The IPSec gateway interface
5. Implementation and Documentation
- The Host System interface
Using MySQL database management
system, as the back-end, NetBeans and
Java Development Environment (JDE), a
number of user-friendly interfaces were
designed. These interfaces can be used by
network administrators as an aid in the
proper general management and/or
handling of security policies in a manner
that avoids conflicts, hence, security
breaches.

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introduce a conflict, but it might change

the semantics of the policy, and this is
worthy of note. To remove a rule, the user
enters the rule order number, the source
and destination ip addresses in order to
retrieve the rule from the rule list, and
then, clicks the remove button to remove
the selected rule.

(c) Rule modification

Rule modification can be achieved almost

the same way as rule removal, except that
in modification, the “Edit” button is
Figure 4.1 The Rules editor interface clicked instead. Modification is also a
critical operation, and should be done with
At the rule editor interface, the following utmost carefulness.
can be accomplished.

- New rule insertion

- Rule editing/modification
- Rule removal

(a) Rule Insertion

This interface can be used by the

administrator to insert (or add) a new rule
to the existing ones in a policy. The
ordering of rules in the filtering rule list
directly impacts the semantics of the IPSec
policy. The administrator must therefore
be careful to add/insert a new rule in the Figure 4.2 Rule Editor interface showing the
proper order in the policy such that, no available action types
conflict (e.g., shadowing, correlation, or
redundancy) is introduced. To add a new The IPSec_gateway Interface
rule, the user, enters the order, protocol
type, source ip, source port, destination ip On this interface, the network
address, destination port number, and then administrator can view the various
selects both the action type and the conflicts between rules in the security
particular gateway where the rule will policy at a particular gateway. The various
function. After these are done correctly, analyses that lead to the discovery of each
the user clicks the insert button to add the of the conflicts are hidden from the user.
rule. Once the user (network administrator)
clicks the “intra Policy” button, the intra-
(b) Rule Removal policy conflicts on that particular gateway
are displayed. This gives room for
In general, removing a rule has much less necessary actions to be taken by him. If the
impact on the IPSec policy than rule “inter policy” is clicked however, then, the
insertion. A removed rule does not inter-policy conflicts as well as their

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effects are shown clearly. Below is the

IPSec gateway interface.

Figure 4.6 The IPSec Gateway interface

Figure 4.4 The IPSec gateway interface showing inter-policy conflicts
and their effects.
Once the user (network administrator)
clicks the “intra Policy” button, the intra- 5.3 Conclusion and Recommendation
policy conflicts on that particular gateway
are displayed. In this paper, all possible IPSec rule
relations were highlighted. From these, a
single model that captures all these
relations was presented. Based on these, a
comprehensive classification of IPSec
policy conflicts (anomalies) that could
exist in enterprise network was also
presented. A comprehensive classification
of the conflicts in filtering-based network
security policies was presented. These
conflicts include improper traffic flow
control, like shadowing and spuriousness
conflicts, as well as incorrect traffic
protection, like conflicts between
nested/overlapping security sessions.
Easy-to-follow guidelines to identify and
rectify these conflicts were also presented.
Based on these, a number of user-friendly
Figure 4.5 The IPSec gateway interface interfaces were designed. These interfaces
showing intra-policy can be used by network administrators as
anomalies/conflicts between an aid in the proper general management
some sample rules. and/or handling of security policies in a
manner that avoids conflicts, hence,
security breaches.

The geometric increase in the number of

users of computer networks for various
important purposes, as well as the growing
importance attached to the security of such

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networks, mean that researchers must not [6] Hamed, H. Al-shaer, E. And
“rest on their oars” in the bid to finding Marrero, W. “Modelling and
solutions to the many network attack Verification of IPSec and VPN
threats facing our world today. Little, Security Policies”. Proceedings of
seemingly unimportant issues (like, the 13th IEEE International
configuration of security policies) must Conference on Network Protocols
also be noted, as such could render even (ICNP’05) 2005
the best of network security device
ineffective, and/or of no use. [7] Hari, B., Suri, S., and Parulkar, G.,
“Detecting and resolving packet
filter conflicts”. In IEEE
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[5] Frankel, S. Karen, K. Ryan, L.

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Design of a Secure Information Sharing System for

E-policing in Nigeria
ALESE B.K1 IYARE O1 FALAKI S.O1
1
Computer Science Department
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT The prevalent application of information technology

Problems of National concerns such as for the delivery of police services is the key next
kidnapping, ritual killings, prevention, detection step in reinventing police, in short in, fostering
and control of crimes, provision of security to
lives and properties and many more necessitate electronic policing. Electronic policing (E-policing)
information sharing, coordination and is termed as the transaction of services and
collaboration with members of the Police Force,
Businesses and Citizens within the country. A information between the police and citizens through
number of daunting challenges exist towards the the internet [9]. In another form, e-policing is the
development of an efficient information sharing
system. The principal challenge would be the use of information technology to provide citizens
development of a system that securely exchanges and organization with more convenient access to
information between members of the police,
businesses and the populace in other to police information and services. E-policing allows
restructure the police services. In this paper, a the public and businesses to file reports for some
means was devised to secure the information
sharing system for confidential sharing of secret incidents and crime related issues through the
information between members of the police internet anytime of the day. The reports when
force. The secure system which enforces access
control and information confidentiality was submitted are filed in the appropriate place to be
based on the principles of Bell LaPadula model accessed and acted upon by those assign to do so. E-
and the Rivest Shamir Adelman (RSA)
algorithm. The system assures secure and policing does not replace telephone or face-to-face
stream-lined information sharing among the contact, rather it expands the channels of
police to avoid intimidating activities.
communication through the internet. E-policing
Key words: Rank, Information, Information opens new ways of carrying out police services by
Sharing, E-policing, Access Control,
Confidentiality. creating a portal for the easy flow of information
between the parties involved, in this case the police,
1.0 Introduction
business and the citizens.
Police is a prime collector and provider of data and
Information in [7] is defined as processed data that
information, contributor of information-based
is useful in any organization. Information sharing
services and user of information technologies [5].

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on the other hand is a way of providing or passing to move from the traditional way of policing to a
information between members of a given modern way. Making information readily available
organization (for example the police force) or brings about the issue of confidentiality of
various organizations. Information sharing between information. Confidentiality is the assurance that
the police and the masses started with the use of bill information is shared only among authorized
boards through to that of radio and television, now persons or organizations. Confidentiality breach can
it has evolved to the use of a more advanced way occur when data is not handled in a manner
that is, the internet which is in line with the adequate to safeguard the confidentiality of the
technological trend. The use of the Internet is a fast information concerned.
way of getting information across to a large 1.1 Policing
audience within and outside a given geographical Traditionally, policing was the responsibility of all
location. adults in a community [3]. The emergence of the
The Internet (a network of networks) is a vast state as an entity with claim to the monopoly over
collection of computers where information are the means of legitimate violence in society [11]
provided, shared and communicated across the resulted into the creation of specialized agencies
globe. Due to the availability of the internet, the such as the police and the armed forces for
world is fast becoming a global village; individuals controlling the use of violence by other groups.
can now browse with their phones, laptops and at According to [6] Police work involves a variety of
homes. Through the application of Information tasks and responsibilities such as security to lives
Technology (IT) to its operations, police does not and properties, enforcement of law and maintenance
alter its functions or its obligations to remain useful, of order. Also, in a democratic society the police are
legitimate, transparent and accountable instead it more likely to provide services that will enhance
raises society’s expectations about its performance, development and democracy [2].
in all respect, to a higher level. The use of the 1.2 E-policing
internet by way of developing an information E-policing is a powerful web technology that makes
system for the police force will pave way for the available current and relevant information on crime,
increase use of IT facilities. An important aspect of missing items directly into the hands of the police,
government is the provision of security to the lives Businesses and Citizens. As part of efforts to
and properties of the people; this was catered for combat crime and meet up with world's standard of
through the establishment of the police force during policing, Nigeria Police announced its introduction
the colonial era. An easy way of doing this is to of electronic policing, to enable the average
embrace the use of information technology that is, policeman and Nigerians access its database from

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any part of the country [1]. Electronic policing in User Interface: It is an interactive page that enables
[4] is expected to reduce the crime rate in the the user to navigate through the different pages that
country to the barest minimum amongst other makes up the website.
things. Web Portals: A web portal provides a starting point
2.0 The Existing System or gateway to other resources on the Internet or
The Police Command in the nation has already Intranet. The portal includes:
started electronic policing. What is on ground is an P2C – Police to Citizens - This is aimed at
Information System that provides information on providing information and services to the citizens.
the various activities of the police force. The system P2B – Police to Business – aimed at providing
does not create an avenue for the citizens to report security to the business world.
their complaints. P2P – Police to Police – aimed at keeping officers
2.1 The Proposed System abreast of situations.
In accordance with the Federal Government of Database: That act as the store house.
Nigeria’s vision to be IT compliant in all her 3.0 Design of the Proposed Police Information
sectors, there is need for the NPF to rise up to the System (PIS)
task. The police command at the Federal level The Police Information System (PIS) is a collection
already have a site to their credit, the state of electronic files (database) which can be accessed
command should have a dynamic site that is through computer terminals linked to the central
accessible from the headquarters. This will solve the server. These data are supplied and maintained by
problems associated with the existing system. The member divisions scattered across the state. The
proposed system after implementation will provide system shows information about the police to
the following benefits: businesses, the general public and also act as a
i. Facilitates police services delivery to the reference material for members of the police force.
citizens
ii. Enhances information dissemination 3.1 Design of PIS
iii. Improve citizens access to up-to-date In the design of this system, the portals considered
NPF activities include the police to citizens (P2C), police to police
iv. Provide a platform for citizens” (P2P), and police to business (P2B) amongst others.
interaction with the police. This portal is the platform through which the users
2.2 Elements of the Proposed System interact with the system.
The proposed system will have the following The figure below shows the design of the home
elements: page.

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P2C
The wanted list menu displays the list of wanted
……
Home Page P2B persons for the notice of the general populace so as
to report such persons when seen.

P2P P2B: In the P2B interface, the user is expected to

sign up before access is granted into the system.
Figure 1: Homepage Design ……
Once access is granted, business registration with
P2C: The P2C is organized in the following way: the police force is done through the Register menu.
The Status menu checks if the request made at the
Missing Properties Register menu have been granted or not.

Missing Persons

Missing Vehicle Sign in Register

P2C P2B
Suggestion/Complains Status

Report Crime/Accident Figure 3: P2B Design To database

Wanted List
To database P2P: When the P2P link is clicked, the officer is
Figure 2: P2C Design presented with an interface that requires the officer
to sign in. The page displayed depends on the
After login, the user is presented with the above six
provided login details.
menus. The missing property, missing person and
S1
missing vehicle provides the user with an interface P2P Sign in
S2
to report their case concerning anything missing. It
also provides a link for the individual to check any S3

of the reported missing items that have been found. S4

The suggestion and complaint menu allow the user
to give suggestions on different issues and present
Database
Figure 4: P2P Design
any complaints that may arise.
Report crime or accident menu gives room to the 3.2 The Access Control Rules
user to report any case of crime or security breaches Access Control: An integral part of security
in form of rioting, robbery, violence attack, and management involves restricting access of specified
accident if any. resources to certain entities or objects [8]. This
entails the classification of such objects into levels
and arranging the Subjects into classes. A subject of

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a particular class can only view the object that the The different subject category can be grouped
class has been given clearance for. Clearance is together to form a general class given as: S= {S1, S2
given when the password of the subject matches the S3, S4}, and
corresponding subject ID. On the basis of S4> S3> S2> S1. This shows that S4 is the highest
confidentiality of information security, the subject level in the categorization, followed by S3 down to
and the object is grouped into the following classes, S1 which is the least.
from which the overall security class is formed. Object Class: The object which is the information
Subject class: The subject class is based on the to be protected is grouped into the following class:
ranks obtainable in the police force, starting from O= {Ots, Os, Oc, Op} where O stands for object and
the Commissioner of Police (CP) as the head of the the subscripts is information classification level
state command down to the Police Constable who is ranging from top secret down to public.
a trainee in the police college. The subject class is Security Class: The security classes are formed
grouped into four categories. Group 1is in charge of from the subject and the object class, they are of the
the police officers, that is, they act as administrator. form ScpOt, and comprises of the following:
The next group is the one in charge of crime SO = {S1Ot-p, S2Os, S3Oc, S4Op}. Any subject not in
management; they act on the information provided a particular class cannot view objects meant for that
by the citizens and verified with the one given by class. In other words, for a subject to be able to
the intelligent agent, if there is a match the case is view an object, the subject must belong to the class
reported otherwise it is discarded. The third group is that has clearance for that object.
in charge of Business management, they work on Let Sr (where r Є {1,…, 4}) denotes all the subject
the information provided by the Business personnel. class,
The last group has to do with the any missing items Ox (x Є {ts, s, c, p}) denotes all the object class
reported by the citizens. Assuming there is a direct mapping between the
elements of r and x, this implies that every element
3.3 Definition of terms of r takes a corresponding element of x.
Let S1 to S4 represent group 1 to 4 (where S stands Sr combines with Ox to give the following instances:
for subject and the subscripts is the rank obtainable Sr : Ox S1Ots
in the police force) and Sr : Ox S2Os
S1 = {Scp,, Sacp,, Sdcp,, Sc/sp,} Sr : Ox S3Oc
S2= {Sdsp} Sr : Ox S4Op
S3= {Sasp1, Sasp11} while
S4= {Scins, Sins, Ssgt,m, Ssgt, Scpl, Scl}.

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Therefore, figure 4.2 below. The page opens with various

1 iff S  SxOx Є {1ts, 2s,3c,4p} options for the user to make a choice depending on
A= what he/she wants at that particular time.

0 iff S  SxOx
Where A = Access
S = Subject
Sx = Subject Class
Ox = Object Class.
4.0 System Implementation
Systems development could be seen as the simple
process of writing programs to solve the needs of
Figure 6: Police to Citizen Interface
the user. The system is implemented using the
P2B: The second link is for the business owners.
apache2triad. Apache2triad is a software
When the link is clicked on, the user is presented
distribution of the most popular open source servers
with a login window requesting for username and
(Apache, MySQL etc) for developing and providing
password for those that have already sign up while
web contents using windows.
those that have not would have to sign up. After
Homepage: this is the index of the page where a
user is provided with options to choose from login, the user is presented with the page shown in
depending on the user’s category. The homepage is
figure 4.3 where the user can register or check the
shown in the figure below:
status of their registration.

Figure 5: Homepage

P2C: From the homepage above, the P2C (i.e. Figure 7: Police to Business Interface
police to citizen) is mainly for the citizens to lodge
P2P: The third link which is for the police produce a
their complaints or to report any form of theft. The
secure login window when clicked. It requires the
P2C link when clicked will open the page shown in
officers to enter their username and password in
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conjunction with their rank. If the username and clicked the user is taken to a page where inquiries
password corresponds with the rank, a window can be made and information that will be of help to
assign to that rank is displayed for the officer the police is supplied. In the security subsystem,
otherwise the officer will not gain access into the access is restricted and only those with the correct
system. logon details can make use of the subsystem. The
security requirement defined by this subsystem is
seen in the P2P login interface where the user is
required to supply the username and the password
together with the corresponding rank. The system
was tested using some assumed username and
password in conjunction with a rank. It was
observed that for every correct username, password
and rank access was granted but for wrong
username, password and rank access was denied.
Figure 8: Police to Police (S1) This means prevent users that are not police officers
from entering the secured subsystem.
The Figure above opens when the rank of CP
5.0 Conclusion
(Commissioner of Police), DCP (Deputy
For effectiveness and efficiency to be achieved, it
Commissioner of Police), ACP (Assistant
was gathered that without commitment and
Commissioner of Police), CSP (Chief
investment of time, money and human resources we
Superintendent of Police) or SP (Superintendent of
cannot achieve a secure, open and inclusive
Police) is chosen and the corresponding username
information society that will benefit all categories of
and password is entered correctly.
people. The citizens of a nation can be made to
4.1 Discussion
achieve their full potential in promoting sustainable
The police information sharing system is a system
development and improving the quality of life when
of programs designed to work together. The
an information society where everyone can access,
program contains various files that can be assessed
use and share information and knowledge is put in
from any of the three entry point. The system is
place. The development of a secure information
divided into non security and security subsystem. In
sharing portal for e-policing will go a long way in
the non-security subsystem access is not restricted
realizing these goals.
this implies that information can be viewed and
For any nation to move forward, there are always
shared by anybody. The P2C and the P2B falls into
problems and difficulties involved, the success of
this category. When the P2C or the P2B link is

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the nation then depends on the ability of the leaders [6] Martin, S. E. (1990). On the Move: The
to look past the challenges and concentrate on the Status of Women in Policing (Washington,
outcome of the plan why putting in place measures D.C.: Police Foundation).
to tackle the problems. Moving to a reduced paper [7] Mbam B.C.E (2002). Information
society will receive criticism from different classes Technology and Management Information
of people, from highly placed members who will System. Our Saviour Press limited, Enugu,
want to jettison the effort of the government. Nigeria.
Government must be able to look past such [8] Osuagwu, O.E and Uwadia, C. (2002).
criticism for its projects to be successful. Development of Free Space Optical
Technology. A Cost Effective and
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introduces E-policing. Thisday Newspaper. Conference proceeding 15-25.
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(2000). Police-Community Violence in Policing in police services. Source at
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Education, Lagos and the National Human spcca/e-policing-police-eng.htm
Rights Commission, Abuja, Nigeria) [10] Schellenberg K (1997). Police Information
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Chukwuma I.C. (2003). Analysis of police Individual Privacy. Canadian Public Policy,
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[4] Fagbohun O.O.E (2007). Improving the University of California Press.
Policing system in Nigeria using electronic
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[5] Headayetullah M.D and Pradhan G.K
(2009). A Novel Trust-Based Information
Sharing Protocol for Secure Communication
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A Security Generated Approach towards Mass Elections using Voting

Software

Aradhana Goutam Ankit Kandoi Manish Wagh

Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College
of Engineering, of Engineering, of Engineering,
Bandstand, Bandra (W), Bandstand, Bandra (W), Bandstand, Bandra (W),
Mumbai 400050, Mumbai 400050, Mumbai 400050,
Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Kashyap Shah Prathamesh Tarkar

Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College
of Engineering, of Engineering,
Bandstand, Bandra (W), Bandstand, Bandra (W),
Mumbai 400050, Mumbai 400050,
Maharashtra, India Maharashtra, India
[email protected] [email protected]

ABSTRACT right to cast one, and only one, vote in the election
violates the fundamental principle of democracy.
Elections form the core of democratic society and, as
such, are of monumental importance in democratic Keywords—online voting, Encryption, CAPTCHA,
world. . In order for an election to remain truly Bio-Metric, Graphs/Charts
democratic, it must uphold four critical properties:
privacy, incoercibility, accuracy and verifiability. In I. INTRODUCTION
this paper we analyze threats against these properties A. Purpose:
during the three phases of an election (voter
registration, casting votes, and tabulating votes), The main objective of this project is to illustrate the
highlight specific ways voting systems have been requirement of project Voting Software for mass
compromised, summarize the weaknesses of current elections. It gives detailed description of functional &
voting techniques, and give assurance to voters to non – functional requirements of the intended system.
ensure their votes are handled properly in upcoming It is meant to delineate the features of intended
elections. system, so as to serve as guide to developers on one
hand and software validation documents for the
For an election to serve its purpose in a democracy, perspective clients on the other. The final product of
it must guarantee four properties: the team will be meeting requirements of this
• Privacy — voters have the right to keep their ballots document.
secret.
B. Scope:
• Incoercibility — voters cannot reveal the contents of
We describe what features are in scope and what are
their cast ballots.
not in the scope of the software to be developed.
• Accuracy — the final tally is the actual sum of all
a) WITHIN THE SCOPE:-
cast ballots.
• Pre – election processing where users are
• Verifiability — voters can prove to themselves that
required to fill an online form, take its print
their ballots were cast as intended and counted, and
out and submit it to centre’s along with the
anyone can prove that the final tally is accurate.
required documents for validation.
Violations of any of these properties, particularly in
the form of security breaches, can disrupt the • Information about different parties, their
representatives and their recent work is
outcome of an election or discourage potential voters
made available on the respective website.
from participating. This can allow small groups of
people to compromise the robustness and fairness of • Voter Authentication.
the election. Any failure to guarantee each citizen the
• Alerting voter if already voted once.

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• Secured transmission of count of votes of Officer is authenticated with the help of fingerprint
each representatives using recognition.
encryption/decryption/algorithm.
Voter:
• Administrator/ Chief Election Officer The Voter can register himself in different languages
Authentication. as per his choice. The Voter is assigned an Unique
b) BEYOND THE SCOPE:- Identifier after his identity is confirmed. The Voter
can also browse through the website to gain
• All the information in the forms collected at knowledge of different candidates and parties. The
the centre’s are stored and maintained in the Voter is authenticated with the help of his Unique
voter’s database. Identifier, Date of Birth and age. Eventually, the
• Any client related prediction. Voter can give a vote which gets recorded in the
database.
C. Overview:
The rest of Software Requirement Specification
(SRS) is organized as follows: Section 2 gives overall C. Performance Characteristics:
description of software. It gives what level of a) Language Translation
proficiency is expected of the user, some general
constraints while making software and some Voter can submit the registration form in English,
assumptions and dependencies that are assumed. Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Telugu and Bengali.

Section 3 gives specific requirements which software b) UIDs

is expected to deliver. Functional requirements are Voter is assigned an Unique Identifier (UID) once
given by various UML diagrams. Some performance his/her identity is confirmed.
and design requirements are also specified in the
document. c) Reliability

II. DESCRIPTION The Voting System does not fail even if thousands of
users are trying to access it at the same time.
A. Product Perspective: d) Exclusive Access To Results
The system will prompt the voter to enter his user id
Only the Chief Election Officer is allowed to access
and DOB. These details will be checked against the
the results of the election via fingerprint
database decentralized according to the
authentication.
locality/postal code. Further, the voter will be
permitted to select one of the representatives e) Human Verification
displayed on the GUI screen.
It is generated during the voter registration which is
The system will alert the user: used to distinguish human voters from web spiders
and computer programs.
1. For vote confirmation
f) Charts
2. If he has voted earlier.
Results of the election can be viewed in the form of
The system will have admin who has fully fledged
table and charts like Pie chart, Bar chart and Line
rights with regards to managing resources across
graph.
centers such as transferring voters information to the
centre’s, decrypting and counting the votes received g) Denial of copy
by each representative, displaying results on the
The website developed has right click, select,
website
highlighting and back button disabled.
B. User Characteristics:
D. Behavioral Description:
Features of entities involved in the system:
• Response time should not be more than one
Chief Election Officer (CEO): second.
The Chief Election Officer has the exclusive right to • Transferring a vote should not take more than
view the results of the election. He can view the three seconds.
results with respect to a ward or country in the form
of charts. After viewing the results, he would then • There should be proper synchronization and
display the results on the website. The Chief Election accurate time interval.

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E. Design Constraints: b) Server Site:

• The Exit button cannot be disabled. • Windows XP/Vista/ 7 or Linux Operating
System
• The Menu button cannot be disabled.
• Java2 Software Development Kit 1.6
F. General Constraints
• Java Runtime Environment
• Full working of the system requires Internet
connection. • NetBeans 6.8
• The system is single-user software decentralized • Glassfish V3 Domain
according to postal code or locality.
• TomCat
G. Assumptions & Dependencies: • Java DB
Assumptions:
• Web browser
• The system assumes that the users have a bit
J. Validation criteria:
knowledge regarding how to use a
mouse/keyboard of a computer. Software should provide following validations:
• Full working of the system is dependent on the • If the input is incorrect or empty then an error is
availability of Internet connection. thrown and the control is redirected to the home
page.
Dependencies:
The system needs following 3rd party products: • The voter is allowed to see only those sections
which are permitted by the CEO.
• NetBeans
III. INVESTIGATION HISTORY
• Glassfish Application Server
A. Overview of Swiss Voting:
• Tomcat Web Server
A study realized in 2001 by the Research and
• JavaDB Documentation Centre on Direct Democracy (c2d)
upon request by the Geneva State Chancellery states
H. Hardware Specifications: that the implementation of Internet voting could
a) Client site: increase turnout by as much as nine percentage point.
Minimum Requirements: Since its launch in the beginning of the current
decade, the eGov Trenbarometer realized by the Bern
• P4 2.4 GHz technical school shows that two thirds of Swiss
• 256 MB RAM citizens wish to be able to vote online. Studies
conducted in 2003 and 2004 by the GFS polling
• 20 GB Hard Disk institute at the request of the federal Chancellery
• Broadband connection (128 Kbps) have shown that most of the citizens aged 18 to 29
considered voting online. All these elements allow
b) Server site: thinking that Internet voting will indeed have a
positive impact on turnout.
Minimum Requirements:
The Swiss citizens living in the municipalities of
• Intel /AMD dual core/core 2duo laptop with in-
Anières, Avusy, Bernex, Chêne-Bourg, Collonge-
built fingerprint recognition system
Bellerive, Cologny, Grand-Saconnex, Onex, Plan-les-
• 4 GB RAM Ouates, Thônex and Vandoeuvres were able to vote
online for the federal and cantonal ballot of March
• 240 GB Hard Disk the 7th, 2010. The online voting site was opened
• Broadband connection(2Mbps) from Monday February the 8th at midday to Saturday
March the 6th at midday. Past this deadline, these
I. Software Specifications: citizens were able to vote in their polling station on
a) Client Site: March the 7th, from 10 am until midday.
Swiss citizens living abroad were also able to vote
• Windows 2000/XP/Vista/ 7 Operating System
online, providing they were registrred to vote in
• Web browser Geneva and have their residence in the European

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Union, in Andorra, North Cyprus, Lichtenstein, careful engineering, strong safeguards and rigorous
Monaco, San Marino Vatican City or in one of the testing in both design and operations. The actual
state parties to the Wassenaar Arrangement development, implementation and testing of the
(Argentina, Australia, Canada, Croatia, Japan, project will require about 5-6months.
Norway, New Zealand, Russia, South Africa, South
Korea, Turkey, Ukraine and United States of F. Other Significant factors:
America). On February the 8th 2009, the Geneva a) Market and real estate feasibility:
citizens approved with a 70.2% majority the
The main intention of the project is not to capture
inclusion of Internet voting in their Constitution.
markets or to earn large profits. But the main aim is
B. Overview of Estonian Internet voting: to provide the citizens with safe, easy, comfortable
and faster way for voting. It should also reduce the
Internet voting is available during an early voting complexity on the administrative side.
period (sixth day to fourth day prior to Election Day).
Voters can change their electronic votes an unlimited b) Cultural feasibility:
number of times, with the final vote being tabulated. This project takes into account the cultural and
It is also possible for anyone who votes using the linguistic characteristic of the demography. It allows
Internet to vote at a polling station during the early the voter to select the language in which he wants to
voting period, invalidating their Internet vote. It is vote thus overcoming language barriers.
not possible to change or annul the electronic vote on
the Election Day. V. SYSTEM ANALYSIS
IV. FEASIBILITY STUDY A. Drawbacks of Paper Ballot System:
A. Technological and System Feasibility: • There may be large magnitude of lost and
This project uses technologies like Enterprise Java uncounted votes.
Beans (EJB), Java Server Pages (JSP), Servlet and • Counting of votes is more time consuming and
databases like Java DB. Apart from EJB, these complex.
technologies do not require any special efforts from
the technical team to get used it. • Casted votes need to be transported.
B. Economic feasibility: • More dependence on human ability, hence more
This project is economically feasible. It requires the prone to errors.
use of NetBeans IDE. This software is easily
available and can be brought without any special
• Overall cost of voting is very high.
expenditure. • Third party may be obtain knowledge of casted
C. Legal feasibility: votes

Most of the projects on voting have been B. Drawbacks of Electronic Voting Machine
accomplished in hardware. NO COPYRIGHT has (EVM):
been imposed on such kind of project anywhere in
India or anywhere else in the world. Also the project • Can be hacked using modern hacking
complies with the Legal requirements laid down on algorithms.
by the Government of India. The project also takes • Susceptible to return oriented programming.
care of the democratic and moral values of the voting
system. • Machine can be replaced by identical malicious
machine.
D. Operational feasibility:
As this project involves commonly used and easily • Booth capturing is possible.
compatible software, it is robust, easily scalable and C. Drawbacks of Optical Scanners:
can be easily integrated with the existing system
without the loss of security. It provides higher The system uses polarized light transmitted from
efficiency at lower cost without any compromise. sources of illumination, such as Light Emitting
Diodes (LEDs), and is received at the photo detectors
E. Schedule feasibility: via cross-polarizer. Such systems, which require a
The software development team should be able to voter to use an ink pen for checking boxes,
learn the technologies to be used and enhance their connecting lines, or other techniques, can result in
skills within two months. This software requires questioned or uncounted ballots due to improper

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marking. l He will be prompted to enter his UID, age and

date of birth.
• With all optical systems, smudges or dirt on a
ballot corrupts the scanning process creating a l The system checks if he is a valid voter and
high possibility for error. whether he has voted earlier.

l The quality of the ink mark is important. l The system then lists the voting menu .

l An optical reader may miss light or inconsistent l The user just clicks on the desired party.
marks made by a voter. l Your vote is encrypted on your PC. It is then
l Optical readers are cumbersome to transport to stored in a file that has no connection with the
election sites and to store between elections. voters’ database. Votes are decrypted and
counted on the final ballot’s day using the key
l Sensitive to dirt and dust accumulation on the held by the vote controllers. Until then,
optical areas. nobody can know the content of the electronic
D. Features of Our Software: ballot box.

l Precise vote counting After the voting is over the Chief Election
Officer authenticates himself (using fingerprint
l Option to conduct in a centralized and recognition) to view the results. The Chief
decentralized manner Election Officer is the first person to see the
l Rapid availability of results in the form of tables, results
charts(line, pie, bar)
l Secure and reliable vote casting
l Lowers the cost of voting HTML HTML
BROWSER BROWSER
l Easily scalable
l Economical, robust and easy to integrate with
emerging technologies FIREWALL

l The system aims at boosting the voting

percentage drastically
SERVLET JSP
VI. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
A. WORKING:
HTML/XML PAGES
l The working of our system is as follows:
l The technology provides freedom to
RMI/IIOP
programmers to adept and adopts different
languages and techniques whenever they are
required to provide the best result. This enables EJB SESSION BEANS EJB entities JDBC
the voter to view the form and the result in his
own mother tongue.
l The voter must fill the pre-election form. MQ SERIES/JAVA
MESSAGING SERVICE (JMS)
l The system allows the voter to select the
l Language in which he wants to fill the form.
l The voter takes a print-out of it and submits it in DATABASE DATABASE
the local ward.
l The officer verifies the information filled by the Figure 6.1
candidate and gives him a UID (Unique B. TECHNICAL DETAILS:
Identification Number) and password .The UID
is to be kept secret. l The Voter enters the details through HTML web
browser. Now JSP allows the Voter to submit the
l On the day of elections, the user must go to details to the Server.
voting site.
l The Servlet accepts the request and sends

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response to the Client. The Servlet contains the VII. Output:

business logic.
l The Entity Beans represents tables in database.
The getter () and setter () methods are used to
read and write from the database. The Session
Beans accesses all the data from the database.
l Are translated and compiled into JAVA servlets
but are easier to develop than JAVA servlets.
l JSP uses simplified scripting language based
syntax for embedding HTML into JSP.
l JSP containers provide easy way for accessing
standard objects and actions.
l JSP reaps all the benefits provided by JAVA
servlets and web container environment, but they
have an added advantage of being simpler and
more natural program for web enabling Figure 7.1 Homepage (index.jsp)
enterprise developer
l JSP use HTTP as default request /response
communication paradigm and thus make JSP
ideal as Web Enabling Technology.
l JSP parsing

FRONT-END:

HTML/JSP/JAVSCRIPT

Figure 7.2 Description (webpage.html)

MIDDLEWARE:

PROCESSING AND
TRANSFERRING VOTES
THROUGH EJB

BACK-END:

JAVADB
Figure 7.3 User registration (user_reg.jsp)

Figure 6.2

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Figure 7.5 Voting page

Fig. 7.4 Voter’s Information form

Figure 7.6 Thank you page

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Figure 7.10 Results in TABULAR FORM

Figure 7.7 Admin login (admin_login.jsp)

Figure 7.11 Results in BAR CHART

Figure 7.8 Login successful (check_admin.jsp)

Figure 7.12 Results in LINE CHART

Figure 7.9 Results page (check_admin.jsp) of different ward

Figure 7.13 Results in PIE CHART

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VIII. CONCLUSION
A. SCOPE FOR FUTURE IMPROVEMENT:
l The authentication of user and administrator
can always be replaced by a finger print
recognition / authentication approach which
will definitely improve the security about
voters and administrators identity. Image
content retrieval algorithms will be required to
match the fingerprints of the voter while
voting and administrator while accessing any
database against those maintained within the
respective database.
l The encryption/decryption algorithm can be
changed if its secrecy is compromised.
B. Conclusion:
The project “Voting software for mass elections”
has been implemented successfully. This project is
user friendly, fast, efficient, tamper proof and has
good security features. It has all the pre-requisites of
good software. It will definitely revitalize the
common man's interest in voting. Thus, leading to
stronger democracy.

REFERENCES
1. www.projectparadise.com
2. www.beprojects.com
3. www.101projects.com
4. www.projecttopics.com
5. www.seminartopics.com
6. www.itproj.com
7. www.computer.org
8. www.ieee.org
9. www.google.com
10. ieee-security and privacy,issue-march/april2009
11. ieee-Internet computing,issue-jan/feb2009
12. ieee-network,issue-jan/feb09
13. Java2 ,2nd edition,by Herbert Schild
14. Master EJB 2.1-Gerald Brose,Rima
Patel,Sriganesh
15. Express Computer,issue-August/sept2009
16. Itprofessional,issue-may/june09
17. http://www.servesecurityreport.org/
18. http://www.serveusa.gov/
19. http://www.geneve.ch/evoting/english/welcome.a
sp
20. authorsATservesecurityreport.org

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Even Harmonious Graphs with Applications

P.B.SARASIJA R .BINTHIYA
Department of Mathematics, Department of Mathematics,
Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education, Noorul Islam Centre for Higher Education,
Kumaracoil,TamilNadu,India. Kumaracoil,TamilNadu,India.

Abstract— In this paper we plan to contribute an even

harmonious labeling of some well known graphs. Let G(V,E) be A function f is called the even harmonious labeling of
a graph with p vertices and q edges. A graph G(p,q) is said to be a graph G(V, E) if f : V → {0, 1, 2, ……., 2q} is injective and
even harmonious if there exists an injection f : V → { 0,1,…,2q}
the induced function f * : E → {0, 2,…,2(q– 1)} is defined as
such that the induced mapping f*(uv) = (f(u)+f(v)) (mod 2q) is a
bijection from E onto { 0,2,4,…,2(q-1)}.
f*(uv) = (f(u) + f(v)) (mod 2q ) is bijective, the resulting edge
labels should be distinct.
Keywords- Harmonious labeling, Path, Cycle, Complete A graph which admits even harmonious labeling is
bipartite graph, Bistar.
called an even harmonious graph.
Theorem 1.1. If a graph G (p,q) is even harmonious graph
I.INTRODUCTION then 2q and 0 are the maximal label and the minimal label of
vertices respectively .
Throughout this paper, by a graph we mean a finite,
undirected, simple graph. For notations and terminology we Theorem 1.2. In even harmonious labeling two
follow Bondy and Murthy [ 1 ]. Graph labeling where the consecutive integers cannot be the labels of any two vertices
vertices are assigned values subject to certain conditions have in G.
been motivated by practical problems. Labeled graphs serves
as models in a wide range of applications such as Coding II. MAIN RESULTS
theory, the x-ray crystallography , to design a communication
network addressing system etc. Theorem 2.1. A path Pn (n ≥ 2 ) is even harmonious.
We denoted the path on n vertices by Pn, the cycle on
Proof.
n vertices by Cn, the complete bipartite graph by Km,n and the
star graph by K1,n. In [ 3 ] Graham and Sloane have introduced Case (i): The number of vertices is even.
the harmonious labeling of a graph. Zhi – He Liang, Zhan – Let m = 2n
LiBai [ 4 ] have introduced the odd harmonious labeling of a
graph. For a detailed survey on graph labeling we refer to Let Pm be the path with vertices vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ m
Gallian [2 ]. We refer [ 5] also. Define f(vi) = 2( i – 1 ), 1 ≤ i ≤ m .
Let G(V,E) be a graph with p vertices and q edges. Then f is an even harmonious labeling of Pm.
A graph G with q edges is harmonious if there is an
injection ‘f’ from the vertices of G to the group of integers Case (ii): The number of vertices is odd.
modulo q such that when each edge xy is assigned the label Let m = 2n + 1
(f(x) + f(y)) (mod q), the resulting edge labels should be
distinct. Let Pm be the path with vertices vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ m
Define f(v2i - 1) = 2( i – 1 ), i = 1,2,…,  m/2.
A graph G(p,q) is said to be odd harmonious if there
exists an injection f : V → {0, 1, 2, …., 2q – 1 } such that f(v2i) = m+ ( 2i – 1 ), i = 1,2,…, m/2
induced mapping f*(uv) = (f(u) + f(v)) is bijection from E on Then f is an even harmonious labeling of Pm.
to {1, 3, 5, …., 2q - 1}. Then f is said to become an odd
harmonious labeling of G. Theorem 2.2. The complete bipartite graph Km,n is even
harmonious.
The floor function assigns to the real number x the
largest integer that is less than or equal x. The value of the Proof.
Let the vertices sets U and V be the bipartition of Km,n,
floor function at x is denoted by  x .
where U = { uj, 1 ≤ j ≤ m} and V = { vi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n}.
The ceiling function assigns to the real number x the Define f(uj) = 2( j – 1 ), 1 ≤ j ≤ m and
smallest integer that is greater than or equal x. The value of f(vi) = 2mi, 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
the ceiling function at x is denoted by  x . Then f is an even harmonious labeling of Km,n.

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Corollary 2.3. The star graph K1,n is even harmonious.

10 0
Proof. 10
Replaced m by 1 in Theorem 2.2 the result followed.
14
6
12
Theorem 2.4. Any cycle of odd length is even harmonious.
2 8
4
Proof. 16 0
Let C2n+1 ( n ≥ 1) be the cycle of odd length with vertices v1,v2,
…,v2n+1. Define f(vi) = 2( i – 1 ), 1 ≤ i ≤ 2n+ 1. 2 4 6 8
Then f is an even harmonious labeling of odd cycles.
Figure 2 : K2 + K4 c
Definition 2.5. The Bistar graph Bm,n is the graph obtained
k
from K2 by joining m pendant edges to one end of K2 and n Definition 2.8. Pn , the kth power of Pn, is the graph
pendant edges to the other end of K2. obtained from the path Pn by adding edges that join all vertices
u and v with distance (u,v) = k.
Theorem 2.6. The Bistar graph Bm,n is an even harmonious.
2
Theorem 2.9. The graph Pn is an even harmonious.
Proof .
Let u, v be the vertices of K2 in Bistar graph Bm,n and
U = { uj, 1 ≤ j ≤ m} and V = { v i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n} be the vertices Proof.
2
adjacent to u and v respectively. Let v1,v2,…,vn be the vertices of Pn .
Define f(u) = 0, f(v) = 2q, f(uj) = 2n+2j, 1 ≤ j ≤ m and Define f(vi) = 2( i – 1), 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
f(vi) = 2i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then f is even harmonious.
Then f becomes an even harmonious labeling of Bistar graph 2
For example, Figure 3 is an even harmonious graph of Pn .

For example, even harmonious labeling of the Bistar graph

Definition 2.10. [3] The friendship graph Fn ( n ≥ 1 )
B3,4 is shown in Figure 1. consists of n triangles with a common vertex.

Theorem 2.7. The graph K2 + Knc is even harmonious. Theorem 2.11. The friendship graph F2n +1 is even
harmonious.
Proof.
Let V(K2) = {u1,u2} and V(Knc) = { v1, v2,…, vn} . Proof.
Define f(u1) = 2(n + 1) , f(u2) = 0 and f(vi) = 2i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n The friendship graph F 2n+1 consists of 2n + 1 triangle
Then f becomes an even harmonious labeling of K2 + Knc. with 4n + 3 vertices and 6n + 3 edges. Let v 1 be the common
For example, even harmonious labeling of the graph K2 + Knc. vertex and v1,vi,vi+1 , i= 2,4,…,2(2n+1) be the vertices of each
is shown in Figure 2. triangle. Define f(v1) = 0, f( v2i +2) = 2(3i +1), i = 0, 1,…, 2n
and f(v2j+1) = 2(3j -1), j = 1, 2,…, 2n + 1.
Then f becomes an even harmonious graph.
2
14 4 8 12
14 2 4
4

12 12 0
2 6 0
10 6 10
16 0 6
0 2 4 6 8
Figure 1:B3,4 8 2
10
8 Figure 3 : Pn

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REFERENCES

[1] J.A.Bondy and U.S.R.Murthy, Graph Theory with

Applications, Macmillan, London, 1976.

[2] J.A.Gallian, A dynamic survey of graph labeling, The

electronics J. of Combinatorics, 16, 2009.

[3] R.L.,Graham and N.J.A.,Sloane, On additive bases

and harmonious graphs, SIAM J. Alg. Discrete
Meth., 1,1980, pp. 382-404.

[4] Z-H Liang and Z-L Bai , On the odd harmonious

graphs with applications, J. Appl. Math. Comput., 29,
2009, pp. 105-116.

[5] B.Liu and X.Zhang, On harmonious labeling of

graphs, Ars. Combin.,36 ,1993, pp. 315 – 326.

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Development of enhanced token using picture

password and public key infrastructure mechanism
for digital signature
1 4
Oghenerukevwe E. Oyinloye /Achievers University Akinbohun Folake/ Rufus Giwa Polytechnic,Owo
4
Owo Department of Computer Science, Rufus Giwa
1
Department of Computer and Information Systems, Polytechnic, Owo
Achievers University, Owo Rufus Giwa Polythenic, Owo
Achievers University, Owo, AUO Ondo, Nigeria.
Ondo, Nigeria. [email protected]
[email protected]

3
Ayodeji .I. Fasiku, 2Boniface K.Alese (PhD)
2,3
Department of Computer Science, Federal University
of Technology, Akure
Federal University of Technology, Akure, FUTA
Akure, Nigeria.
3
[email protected], 2 [email protected]

Abstract— the recent advances in actualizing a highly networked integrity, confidentiality and security. Steven [1999] stated
environment where data is been exchanged from one person to that the exchange of information range from telephone
another electronically has given great concern for data integrity, conversation, computer files, signals e.t.c.
confidentiality and security. It is stated that the exchange of As LAN Technology continues to spread across organization,
information range from telephone conversation, computer files, the security of documents as well as its integrity and
signals e.t.c. The vulnerability of networks makes data exchange
confidentiality is essential due to the high rate at which
prone to a high level of security threats. Security mechanisms are
been employed in the transport layer but there is a need to extend networks are prone to several security attacks called threats.
security mechanisms to the information/data been exchanged. Several These threats range from objects, persons e.t.c.
security measures have been deployed so far Which include PINS, The vulnerability of documents exchange across networks
textual passwords (which are vulnerable to brute force, dictionary makes security threats easy. Mark [1997] stated that security
attack, complex meaningless password), graphical passwords and threats are threats that break through security mechanism of an
PKIs to reduce the risk of loss which can be valued at great amounts, organization’s network due to the vulnerability of the network.
but all of these have not provided the user the convenience and As security mechanisms are been employed in the transport
interest required to achieve full human capabilities in securing data. layer, it is important to extend these security mechanisms to
This paper proffers an improved solution for data security, integrity
the information been exchanged.
and confidentiality via the development of enhanced token for data
signature using the underlining technologies of picture password It has been observed that despite the security measures
algorithm and public key infrastructure. employed so far ranging from PINS, textual passwords has
resulted in ease to generate PINs as they are mostly four-digit
entry with pas 0-9digits which are vulnerable to brute force
Keyw ords- Digital Signature, Enhanced Token Private Key, attacks, textual passwords are vulnerable to dictionary attacks,
Enhanced Token Public Key, Secure Hash Algorithm, Public Key and the use of meaningless “strong” passwords thereby
Infrastructure, Picture Password algorithm, RSA defeating the purpose of strong passwords and the use of
passwords in general, graphical passwords have been
I. INTRODUCTION employed but do not ascertain the integrity, confidentiality of
The recent advances in actualizing a highly networked the data, Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) (symmetric and
environment where data is been exchanged from one person to asymmetric) Public Key Infrastructure was developed to
another electronically has given great concern for data manage security, confidentiality and integrity of data but it use

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creates high cost overhead and leaves the user out of the data
security, confidentiality and integrity process.
RELATED WORKS
In the present day, information handling is moving from the era
of hardcopies to the use of electronic devices (computer Pass-face was developed in 2000, it uses objects for password,
system) for the processing of data, storage and are mostly user determines their pass-face either male or female pictures
exchanged or accessed by users in a network. Most information during enrolment. User’s use four faces for password selected
are termed critical and are of great relevance that a change in from, the database. During enrolment a trial version is shown
the original content of the information can result in great to the user to learn the steps to authenticating using pass-face.
disaster or loss. Enrolment will be completed by correctly identifying their
four pass faces twice in a row with no prompting. During the
Mark [1997] has described security threat as not only theft or
login a grid that contains 9 pictures (pass-face) is shown to the
burglary but anything that poses danger to the network. It holds
user, each grid, the order of faces is randomized at each grid
that every organization has information as a high-level priority
asset and mostly kept electronically with the advances in protecting the pass-face combination against detection through
technology. shoulder surfing and packet-sniffing. The algorithm is prone to
guessing attack as users selected attractive faces of their own
Most of the systems that are autonomously interconnected race gender. The method is resistant to shoulder surfing with
contain information that has been referred to as assets. Most pass-face using keyboard, spyware, social engineering, less
assets have been secured by using PINS, textual passwords, vulnerable to password description,, vulnerable to brute force ,
Feldmier et.al 1989; Morris et.al 1979; wu 1990 observed that dictionary, guessing attacks [Sacha; 2000].
pins and textual passwords are vulnerable to dictionary attacks. Deja vu was proposed in 2000, it allows users select specific
Graphical passwords have been also used to overcome the number of pictures among large image portfolio reducing the
problems of textual passwords and Pins but these passwords chance for description attack. The pictures are created
cannot ascertain the identity of the sender of a particular according to random art (one of the hash visualization
document as well as prove that the information received have algorithm). One initial seed (a binary string) is given and then
not be altered. one random mathematical formula is generated which defines
The use of Public Key Infrastructure was developed to improve the colour value for each pixel in the image. The image
on data security, integrity and confidentiality overcoming the depends only on pixels so only the seeds need to be stored in
limitations of textual passwords and Pins. This technique the trust server. During authentication phase, the portfolio of a
presents to the user no choice of responsibility to securing his user mixes with decoys. It is resistant to dictionary attacks,
documents by using alphanumeric data encryption which may spyware, social engineering attacks, vulnerable to brute force,
not be the actual choice of the user, although the technique has guessing attack and shoulder surfing [Rachna; 2000].
proven to be reliable over the years as the keys are most time Triangle was proposed by a group which created several
unforgeable, but the best choice of security is one in which the numbers of schemes which can overcome shoulder surfing
user is largely part of. The Public Key Infrastructures available attacks in 2002, the system randomly puts a set of N-objects
are expensive to install and mostly platform dependent. which could be a hundred or a thousand on the screen. There
A possible solution to these problems is the use of Enhanced is a subset of K-objects are the user passwords. During login
Token designed to cover the limitations discussed above. This the system will randomly select a placement if the N-objects
token is a software application which provides a means to then the user must find three of his password objects and click
authenticate users and sign documents for the purpose of inside the invisible triangle created by those three objects or
integrity, confidentiality and security. This application makes click inside the convex hull of the pass objects that are
the user the prime maker as an extra measure of security. displayed. For each login this challenge is repeated a few
Proffering better means of securing documents as the user’s times using a different makes the screen [Sobrado et al; 2002].
interest is the first step to securing data. Moveable frame proposed in 2002 the user must locate three
out of K-objects which are the user passwords. Only three
FIELD OF STUDY pass-objects are displayed at any given time and only one of
them is placed in a moveable frame. During login phase the
The design and implementation of enhanced token to sign data user moves the frame and the objects contained in it by
transferred across a network conveniently and improved dragging the mouse around until the password object placed
security technique is the major goal of this research. on the frame is minimized by repeating the procedure few
Enhanced token is a two-tier architecture which proffers a times. The algorithm is confusing, time consuming and
convenient technique to sign data across a Network. It unpleasant. It is subject to brute force attack, spyware,
achieves this by using graphical password mechanism for shoulder-surfing, resistant to dictionary attack [Furkan et al;
gathering data, creating authentication, creating graphical 2006].
Public/ Private Keys for users, a registry to store user Picture password proposed in 2003 designed for handheld
credentials as well as publish public picture keys with identity device; PDA. It has 2 distinct parts; initial password enrolment
and Public Key Infrastructure for signature & verification and subsequent password verification. During enrolment a
operation of the data before transfer.

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selects a theme identifying the thumbnail photos to be applied anywhere on the license; automatic facial recognition systems
and then registers a sequence of thumbnail images that are searching for known card cheats in a casino; season tickets to
used to derive the associated password. On booting of the an amusement park linked to the shape of the purchaser’s
PDA the user enters the currently enrolled image sequence for finger; home incarceration programs supervised by automatic
verification to gain access, selecting a new sequence and/ or. voice recognition systems and confidential delivery of health
The user is presented with 30 thumbnails the screen and each care through iris recognition: these systems seem completely
thumbnail is a shift to another presenting 930 thumbnails to be different in terms of purpose, procedures, and technologies,
selected from for password creation. The addition of the shift but each uses “biometric authentication” in some way”.
keys cause the algorithm to be complex and difficult and is Biometric features have the characteristics of non-repudiation
vulnerable to shoulder surfing [Wayne et al; 2003]. but each of these features if damaged there is simply no way to
Man et al. Proposed in 2003, to avoid shoulder surfing. In this retrieve them. (James et al, 2004)
algorithm al the pictures are signed a unique code, during
authentication the user is presented with several scenes which
contain several pass images/objects and many decoys. Since DIGITAL SIGNATURE
every object has a unique code, for each password image, the
A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a
user will enter will enter the string of code. It requires users to
mathematical scheme for demonstrating the authenticity of a
memorize the code for each password object variant causing
digital message or document. A valid digital signature gives a
inconveniences to users. It is vulnerable to brute force attack
recipient reason to believe that the message was created by a
and spyware attack, resistant to dictionary attack, guessing
known sender, and that it was not altered in transit. Digital
attack, shoulder surfing attacks, social engineering attack
signatures are commonly used for software distribution,
[Farnaz et al; 2009].
financial transactions, and in other cases where it is important
Story proposed in 2004, the scheme categories the available
to detect forgery or tampering.
picture into nine (9) categories which include animals, cars,
women, food, children, men, objects nature and sport [Darren Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic
et al; 2003]. signatures, a broader term that refers to any electronic data
Pass-Go was proposed in, 2006 Inspired by an old Chinese that carries the intent of a signature, but not all electronic
game, Go, we have designed a new graphical password signatures use digital signatures. However, laws concerning
scheme, Pass-Go, in which a user selects intersections on a electronic signatures do not always make clear whether they
grid as a way to input a password. While offering an extremely are digital cryptographic signatures in the sense used here,
large password space (256 bits for the most basic scheme). It leaving the legal definition, and so their importance, somewhat
supports most application environments and input devices, confused. Digital signatures employ a type of asymmetric
rather than being limited to small mobile devices (PDAs), and cryptography. For messages sent through a non-secure
can be used to derive cryptographic keys. We study the channel, a properly implemented digital signature gives the
memorable password space and show the potential power of receiver reason to believe the message was sent by the claimed
this scheme by exploring further improvements and variation sender. Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional
mechanisms scheme) [HAI; 2006]. handwritten signatures in many respects; properly
Public Key/ Asymmetric Cryptography: Public-key implemented digital signatures are more difficult to forge than
cryptography is a cryptographic approach which involves the the handwritten type. Digital signature schemes in the sense
use of asymmetric key algorithms instead of or in addition to used here are cryptographically based, and must be
symmetric key algorithms, it was first proposed in 1976 by implemented properly to be effective. Digital signatures can
Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman in order to solve the key also provide non-repudiation, meaning that the signer cannot
management problem. Unlike symmetric key algorithms, it successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also
does not require a secure initial exchange of one or more claiming their private key remains secret; further, some non-
secret keys to both sender and receiver. The asymmetric key repudiation schemes offer a time stamp for the digital
algorithms are used to create a mathematically related key signature, so that even if the private key is exposed, the
pair: a secret private key and a published public key. Use of signature is valid nonetheless. Digitally signed messages may
these keys allows protection of the authenticity of a message be anything represent able as a bit-string: examples include
by creating a digital signature of a message using the private electronic mail, contracts, or a message sent via some other
key, which can be verified using the public key. It also allows cryptographic protocol. All public key / private key
protection of the confidentiality and integrity of a message, by cryptosystems depend entirely on keeping the private key
public key encryption, encrypting the message using the secret. A private key can be stored on a user's computer, and
public key, which can only be decrypted using the private key protected by a local password, but this has two disadvantages:
[. Donal et al; 1997]. the user can only sign documents on that particular computer
Biometric technologies” are automated methods of verifying the security of the private key depends entirely on the security
or recognizing the identity of a living person based on a of the computer
physiological or behavioral characteristic. Fingerprints taken
as a legal requirement for a driver license, but not stored

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C -represents the signed message after RSA algorithm has
been used.
IMPLEMENTATION
The sequence of thumbnail elements uploaded by the user or
the server from where the password or keys are created. A -Represents the additional value added to either E or D
mapped value of a pair image selection can be directly applied
while the two mapped values of a pair image selection must improve its security.
first be composed into a single value for password (server
supplied images) or key (user supplied images) by XORing The Enhanced Token public key is the pair (N, E).
their values as shown in equations 1.1. For example, if single- The Enhanced Token private key is the pair (N, D).
byte non-zero, unsigned integers comprise the set of 30 basic
alphabet values a single image selection could be the pair of The technological approach for the implementation of this
bytes (0, X5) and a paired image selection could be the pair of system is based on Java for the front end and Java Database
bytes (X1, X2), X2 where, represents either the alphabet value for back-end. The database is deployed using relational
in the value matrix for a single image selected or the first database.
image selected in a paired image selection and X1 represents
the alphabet value for second image in a paired image
selection. DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM
(1)
The password or enhanced token key component for a single Enhanced token employs the use of picture password
user is formed using the equation 2 and 3 algorithm algorithms RSA, SHA-512
Enhanced Token has two distinct phases:
(2)
· Enrolment/Registration at the
(3)
- Client side
- Represents the integer value of the pixels
for each image. - Server side.

- Represents the set of images to be selected from either · Digital Signature and verification.

the key or password generation. SERVER SIDE

E- Represents enhanced token component of the private key The presentation of images to the clients (users) for selection
generated from the images of password or key is based on a tiling portion of the user’s
graphical interface window, a 100 * 100 pixel squares of
D- Represents enhanced token component of the public key identical sizes grouped into a 10* 12 matrix of elements is
provided by the server to the client. The 120 The images
enrolled by the client are stored at the server and is only
available to the user who uploaded them and the administrator.
The signature/verification method employed is RSA
Only the hashed (SHA) form of the keys in 512-bits/64-bytes
algorithm.
is stored in the account/server. The server via the application
Signature operation: during enrolment blocks other open ports except the port in
(4) use for enrolment. In the course of a refresh in the user’s login
and keys selection window, the images are randomized. The
server address must always be visible to all users, in a case of
Verification operation: break down access to the user account, verification and
(5) signature will not be possible.

(6) CLIENT SIDE

On successful installation, the user opens the application either
The value of Q is derived from the maintaining the equation by checking the box to automatically run after installation is
(7) complete or clicks the icon on the desktop, the following
requirements must be provided for successful running of the
(7) application; the active server address and port number of the
server (socket). The factors will be checked and proceeds if

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 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
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found else displays a window “sever down”. On successful key is displayed, anybody can go to the registry to verify a
connection an interface containing all the blocks shown in fig message that has been received from a user who has signed the
1 is presented to the user for registration of an account from message. In the security subsystem, access is restricted and
which he will create components needed for private key and only those with the correct login details can make use of this
public (signature and verification operation). The availability subsystem. The security requirement defined by this
of the server provides the start-up images for selection of subsystem, is seen in:
password by the user; the user can use the mouse or the the Login interface at the client and server ends, where the
keyboard (both) for selection of either four composite or user is required to supply the username and image password,
single images. Since the authentication process consist of five The digital signature operation when the user is made to sign
verification phase under the sign-up mode, shown in fig 1 the message with the registered key
The system was deployed on a LAN using computer systems
. running windows operating system and tested using some
Entering assumed username and image password, it was observed that
of user for every correct username and password access was granted
name to user uploaded images and to sign document but for wrong
entry of username and password, including users without
Client initial accounts were denied showing that the system is not
Sign-
index vulnerable to brute force attack, dictionary attack, shoulder
up Da
Page surfing. The a random document was signed with the created
tab
user private key and verified using the user’s created public
ase
key, the verification and signing of the message was correct
at
Selection of for correctly imputed public and private key respectively, but
the
image for wrong entry access to the plaintext messages was denied.
ser
password This means prevents users who are not the rightful owner from
ver
presented by signing messages using another person’s key.
the server
SECURITY OF THE DATABASE
The password, key (private) selected by the user is entered
into the database from the client end of the application is
Fig 1: user index page encrypted using secure hash algorithm (512), this can only be
viewed in the plain text format by the user who created the
account but in the hashed form at the database by the
DIGITAL SIGNATURE CREATION AND VERIFICATION administrator at the server end. Anybody outside this category
In this section the recommendation for the implementation of cannot view or modify the information supplied by the user. If
digital signature and verification is based on enhanced token an intruder hacks into the database the cipher text is what will
with RSA algorithm as the underlying technology. This digital be presented to the intruder except he has the account details
signature method can be implemented across any network but of the user and has the original image upload of such a user.
for evaluation and performance, it is implemented across a Every image that has been uploaded is attached to a set of
LAN. Enhanced Token is a means of signing data/messages binary digits gotten from the associated alphabet and
using one set of image-alphabet-integer values known as the converted for signature operation, these images can be used
digital keys and verification of those messages using another with different geometry of values since the images can be
set of values known as the verification keys. detached from these values, this presents a method of security
which will give the user the opportunity to use the same image
for a long time with bothering of expiration period,
OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM nevertheless the images-values will only be detached when
there is either a reenrollment or the application decides to
Enhanced Token for digital signature is a system of program make the a security management policy decidable by the
designed to work together. The program contains a registry administrator.
that can be accessed from either the user’s account or directly
at the client end after connecting to the server. The system is a
two tier system (client-server) that has security and non- CHALLENGES
security subsystem. In the non-security subsystem access is While significant research has been done on digital signature
not restricted that is it can be viewed by anybody. The registry several algorithm were available and it required extra effort to
falls under this category. When the file list is clicked the user make a choice on the algorithm and how the primes are
is taken to a page where all the users with account and have developed for this particular application.
created the public key as well as published the key is The idea to generate four versions was a tough decision to
displayed, each user’s name and pictures selected for public make.

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 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, 2011
LIMITATION 9. Donal O’Mahony, Michael Peirce, Hitech Tewari ,
· A stolen user uploaded images from the database Electronic payment system for e-commerce, pg 60-
leaves the user at a high risk. 63 2nd edition. NIST hash function competition
Retrieved on October 21, 2010
· With the design of the system every user is must have
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST_hash_function_co
a dedicated computer s system on the network.
mpetition.
· The probability of the system response time/
throughput at any time t is 0.5%.
10. RSA specification http://www.rfc-
RECOMMENDATION editor.org/rfc/rfc3447.txt, Retrieved on October 10,
2010.
For the digital signature an improved method for primes
generation will greatly improve the security of the keys by 11. Public Key Infrastructure;
increasing the check scheme from just N, E and N, D. More http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_infrastructur
research is need in the area of digital signature especially with e. Retrieved on September 27, 2010 .
the invention of quantum computing and evolving technology.
The security mechanism for enhanced Token can be improved
following the needs of technology. A larger alphabet will 12. James Wayman ,Anil Jain, Davide Maltoni, Dario
increase the security of the technique. Better techniques for the Maio (2004)”biometric systems” ISBN 1852335963.
deriving the four variations is encouraged as well as improved
throughput of the system is necessary.
13. Memorability and Security of Passwords - Cambridge
University Computer Laboratory study of password
memorability vs. security.
REFERENCES
14. Fred Cohen and Associates
1. HAI TAO (2006) Pass-Go, a New Graphical http://all.net/journal/netsec/1997-09.html retrieved on
Password Scheme; University of Ottawa, Ottawa, 24 February, 2011.
Canada.
15. Bruce Schneier (2001): Crypto-Gram Newsletter ,
2. Farnaz Towhidi, Maslin Masrom (2009) A Survey www.scheiner.com/crpto-gram.html. Retrieved on 24
on Recognition-Based Graphical User Authentication February, 2011.
Algorithms;; International Journal of Computer
Science and Information Security,Vol. 6, No. 2.
16. Bob Jenkins "Choosing Random Passwords"
3. Wayne Jansen, Serban Gavrila, Vlad Korolev www.burtleburtle.net/bob/crypto/password.html.
Rick, Ayers Ryan Swanstrom (2003), Picture retrieved on 24 February, 2011.
Password :A Visual Login Technique for Mobile
Devices;; NISTIR 7030.
17. Eugene Spafford (1992), OPUS: Preventing Weak
4. Sacha Brostoff & M. Angela Sasse (2000). “Are Password Choices, Computers & Security, Vol. 11,
passfaces more usable than passwords?” A Field Trial No. 3, pp. 273-278.
Investigation. Proceedings of HCI 405–424. 2000.
18. *Xiaoyuan Suo, Ying Zhu, G. Scott. Owen (2005),
5. Rachna Dhamija, Adrian Perrig ( 2000). “D´ej`a “Graphical Passwords: A Survey”
Vu: a user study,” Using Images for Authentication. http://www.acsac.org/2005/papers/89.pdf retrieved on
Proceeding of the 9th USENIX Security Symposium. 4 February, 2011.

6. L. Sobrado and J.-C. Birget(2002) , “Graphical 19. David Melcher (2001), The persistence of visual
passwords,” The RutgersScholar, An Electronic memory for scenes, Nature, 412(6845), p. 401.
Bulletin for Undergraduate Research, vol. 4.
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7. Furkan, T., A. Ant, O., Stephen, H. H (2006)., Hoshino(1994), Impact of artificial 'Gummy' Fingers
“Symposium on usableprivacy and security on Fingerprint Systems. Proc SPIE, vol 4677, Optical
(SOUPS),” July 12-14. Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 56-66. Security and Counterfeit Deterrence Techniques IV
or itu.int/itudoc/itu-
t/workshop/security/resent/s5p4.pdf pg 356.
8. Darren, D, Fabian, M., and Michael, k. R (2004).
“On user choice in graphical password schemes,”

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 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, 2011
running his postgraduate degree in computer
21. *David Chaum, Hans van Antwerpen (1990): Science at the Federal University of
Undeniable Signatures; Crypto'89, LNCS 435, Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Springer-Verlag. His are of research include Computer
Architecture.
AUTHORS PROFILE

. …
Dr. Alese B.K. has (B.Tech) in Industrial
Mathematics, M.Tech, PhD Computer
Science from the Federal University of
Technology, Akure Nigeria. He is a senior
Oyinloye Oghenerukevwe Elohor
(Mrs.) has (BSc.) In Computer Lecturer in the Department of Computer
Science (Technology), professional Science FUTA,a member of Nigeria
certifications in networking. She is Computer Society (NCS), Institute of
currently running her postgraduate Electrical Electronics Engineering (IEEE)
degree program in Computer Science and Association of Computing Machinery
at Federal University of Technology (ACM). Areas of research include Computer and
Akure, Ondo state and a lecturer in the Information Security.
Department of Computer and
Information Systems Achievers
University, Nigeria. She is a member of
IEEE. Her areas of research include Akinbohun Folake (Mrs.) has HND, PGD in
Security of data, Networking and Computer Science, is currently running a
Computer Architecture. postgraduate degree program in Computer
Science. Her area of research include
computer graphics, neural networks.
Fasiku Ayodeji Ireti has a (B. Tech) in
Computer Engineering, is currently

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Mr. Raman Kumar, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Associate Prof. Samir B. Patel, Institute of Technology, Nirma University, India
Dr. M.Munir Ahamed Rabbani, B. S. Abdur Rahman University, India
Asst. Prof. Koushik Majumder, West Bengal University of Technology, India
Dr. Alex Pappachen James, Queensland Micro-nanotechnology center, Griffith University, Australia
Assistant Prof. S. Hariharan, B.S. Abdur Rahman University, India
Asst Prof. Jasmine. K. S, R.V.College of Engineering, India
Mr Naushad Ali Mamode Khan, Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Mauritius
Prof. Mahesh Goyani, G H Patel Collge of Engg. & Tech, V.V.N, Anand, Gujarat, India
Dr. Mana Mohammed, University of Tlemcen, Algeria
Prof. Jatinder Singh, Universal Institutiion of Engg. & Tech. CHD, India
Mrs. M. Anandhavalli Gauthaman, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, Majitar, East Sikkim
Dr. Bin Guo, Institute Telecom SudParis, France
Mrs. Maleika Mehr Nigar Mohamed Heenaye-Mamode Khan, University of Mauritius
Prof. Pijush Biswas, RCC Institute of Information Technology, India
Mr. V. Bala Dhandayuthapani, Mekelle University, Ethiopia
Dr. Irfan Syamsuddin, State Polytechnic of Ujung Pandang, Indonesia
Mr. Kavi Kumar Khedo, University of Mauritius, Mauritius
Mr. Ravi Chandiran, Zagro Singapore Pte Ltd. Singapore
Mr. Milindkumar V. Sarode, Jawaharlal Darda Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Dr. Shamimul Qamar, KSJ Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
Dr. C. Arun, Anna University, India
Assist. Prof. M.N.Birje, Basaveshwar Engineering College, India
Prof. Hamid Reza Naji, Department of Computer Enigneering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran
Assist. Prof. Debasis Giri, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Haldia Institute of Technology
Subhabrata Barman, Haldia Institute of Technology, West Bengal
Mr. M. I. Lali, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
Dr. Feroz Khan, Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, India
Mr. R. Nagendran, Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Mr. Amnach Khawne, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Dr. P. Chakrabarti, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India

Mr. Nafiz Imtiaz Bin Hamid, Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh.
Shahab-A. Shamshirband, Islamic Azad University, Chalous, Iran
Prof. B. Priestly Shan, Anna Univeristy, Tamilnadu, India
Venkatramreddy Velma, Dept. of Bioinformatics, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS USA
Akshi Kumar, Dept. of Computer Engineering, Delhi Technological University, India
Dr. Umesh Kumar Singh, Vikram University, Ujjain, India
Mr. Serguei A. Mokhov, Concordia University, Canada
Mr. Lai Khin Wee, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Sharma, Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College, India
Mr. Syed R. Rizvi, Analytical Services & Materials, Inc., USA
Dr. S. Karthik, SNS Collegeof Technology, India
Mr. Syed Qasim Bukhari, CIMET (Universidad de Granada), Spain
Mr. A.D.Potgantwar, Pune University, India
Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, Punjabi University, India
Mr. Rajesh Ramachandran, Naipunya Institute of Management and Information Technology, India
Dr. K.L. Shunmuganathan, R.M.K Engg College , Kavaraipettai ,Chennai
Dr. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, KIST, India.
Dr. Ch. Aswani Kumar, VIT University, India
Mr. Ijaz Ali Shoukat, King Saud University, Riyadh KSA
Mr. Arun Kumar, Sir Padam Pat Singhania University, Udaipur, Rajasthan
Mr. Muhammad Imran Khan, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
Dr. Natarajan Meghanathan, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
Mr. Mohd Zaki Bin Mas'ud, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM), Malaysia
Prof. Dr. R. Geetharamani, Dept. of Computer Science and Eng., Rajalakshmi Engineering College, India
Dr. Smita Rajpal, Institute of Technology and Management, Gurgaon, India
Dr. S. Abdul Khader Jilani, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
Mr. Syed Jamal Haider Zaidi, Bahria University, Pakistan
Dr. N. Devarajan, Government College of Technology,Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, INDIA
Mr. R. Jagadeesh Kannan, RMK Engineering College, India
Mr. Deo Prakash, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, India
Mr. Mohammad Abu Naser, Dept. of EEE, IUT, Gazipur, Bangladesh
Assist. Prof. Prasun Ghosal, Bengal Engineering and Science University, India
Mr. Md. Golam Kaosar, School of Engineering and Science, Victoria University, Melbourne City, Australia
Mr. R. Mahammad Shafi, Madanapalle Institute of Technology & Science, India
Dr. F.Sagayaraj Francis, Pondicherry Engineering College,India
Dr. Ajay Goel, HIET , Kaithal, India
Mr. Nayak Sunil Kashibarao, Bahirji Smarak Mahavidyalaya, India
Mr. Suhas J Manangi, Microsoft India
Dr. Kalyankar N. V., Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded , India
Dr. K.D. Verma, S.V. College of Post graduate studies & Research, India
Dr. Amjad Rehman, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Mr. Rachit Garg, L K College, Jalandhar, Punjab

Mr. J. William, M.A.M college of Engineering, Trichy, Tamilnadu,India
Prof. Jue-Sam Chou, Nanhua University, College of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Dr. Thorat S.B., Institute of Technology and Management, India
Mr. Ajay Prasad, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, India
Dr. Kamaljit I. Lakhtaria, Atmiya Institute of Technology & Science, India
Mr. Syed Rafiul Hussain, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh
Mrs Fazeela Tunnisa, Najran University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Mrs Kavita Taneja, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Haryana, India
Mr. Maniyar Shiraz Ahmed, Najran University, Najran, KSA
Mr. Anand Kumar, AMC Engineering College, Bangalore
Dr. Rakesh Chandra Gangwar, Beant College of Engg. & Tech., Gurdaspur (Punjab) India
Dr. V V Rama Prasad, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
Assist. Prof. Neetesh Kumar Gupta, Technocrats Institute of Technology, Bhopal (M.P.), India
Mr. Ashish Seth, Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow ,UP India
Dr. V V S S S Balaram, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, India
Mr Rahul Bhatia, Lingaya's Institute of Management and Technology, India
Prof. Niranjan Reddy. P, KITS , Warangal, India
Prof. Rakesh. Lingappa, Vijetha Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
Dr. Mohammed Ali Hussain, Nimra College of Engineering & Technology, Vijayawada, A.P., India
Dr. A.Srinivasan, MNM Jain Engineering College, Rajiv Gandhi Salai, Thorapakkam, Chennai
Mr. Rakesh Kumar, M.M. University, Mullana, Ambala, India
Dr. Lena Khaled, Zarqa Private University, Aman, Jordon
Ms. Supriya Kapoor, Patni/Lingaya's Institute of Management and Tech., India
Dr. Tossapon Boongoen , Aberystwyth University, UK
Dr . Bilal Alatas, Firat University, Turkey
Assist. Prof. Jyoti Praaksh Singh , Academy of Technology, India
Dr. Ritu Soni, GNG College, India
Dr . Mahendra Kumar , Sagar Institute of Research & Technology, Bhopal, India.
Dr. Binod Kumar, Lakshmi Narayan College of Tech.(LNCT)Bhopal India
Dr. Muzhir Shaban Al-Ani, Amman Arab University Amman – Jordan
Dr. T.C. Manjunath , ATRIA Institute of Tech, India
Mr. Muhammad Zakarya, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Pakistan
Assist. Prof. Harmunish Taneja, M. M. University, India
Dr. Chitra Dhawale , SICSR, Model Colony, Pune, India
Mrs Sankari Muthukaruppan, Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology, Anna University, India
Mr. Aaqif Afzaal Abbasi, National University Of Sciences And Technology, Islamabad
Prof. Ashutosh Kumar Dubey, Trinity Institute of Technology and Research Bhopal, India
Mr. G. Appasami, Dr. Pauls Engineering College, India
Mr. M Yasin, National University of Science and Tech, karachi (NUST), Pakistan
Mr. Yaser Miaji, University Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Shah Ahsanul Haque, International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC), Bangladesh
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Prof. (Dr) Syed Abdul Sattar, Royal Institute of Technology & Science, India
Dr. S. Sasikumar, Roever Engineering College
Assist. Prof. Monit Kapoor, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, India
Mr. Nwaocha Vivian O, National Open University of Nigeria
Dr. M. S. Vijaya, GR Govindarajulu School of Applied Computer Technology, India
Assist. Prof. Chakresh Kumar, Manav Rachna International University, India
Mr. Kunal Chadha , R&D Software Engineer, Gemalto, Singapore
Mr. Mueen Uddin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM , Malaysia
Dr. Dhuha Basheer abdullah, Mosul university, Iraq
Mr. S. Audithan, Annamalai University, India
Prof. Vijay K Chaudhari, Technocrats Institute of Technology , India
Associate Prof. Mohd Ilyas Khan, Technocrats Institute of Technology , India
Dr. Vu Thanh Nguyen, University of Information Technology, HoChiMinh City, VietNam
Assist. Prof. Anand Sharma, MITS, Lakshmangarh, Sikar, Rajasthan, India
Prof. T V Narayana Rao, HITAM Engineering college, Hyderabad
Mr. Deepak Gour, Sir Padampat Singhania University, India
Assist. Prof. Amutharaj Joyson, Kalasalingam University, India
Mr. Ali Balador, Islamic Azad University, Iran
Mr. Mohit Jain, Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology, India
Mr. Dilip Kumar Sharma, GLA Institute of Technology & Management, India
Dr. Debojyoti Mitra, Sir padampat Singhania University, India
Dr. Ali Dehghantanha, Asia-Pacific University College of Technology and Innovation, Malaysia
Mr. Zhao Zhang, City University of Hong Kong, China
Prof. S.P. Setty, A.U. College of Engineering, India
Prof. Patel Rakeshkumar Kantilal, Sankalchand Patel College of Engineering, India
Mr. Biswajit Bhowmik, Bengal College of Engineering & Technology, India
Mr. Manoj Gupta, Apex Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
Assist. Prof. Ajay Sharma, Raj Kumar Goel Institute Of Technology, India
Assist. Prof. Ramveer Singh, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, India
Dr. Hanan Elazhary, Electronics Research Institute, Egypt
Dr. Hosam I. Faiq, USM, Malaysia
Prof. Dipti D. Patil, MAEER’s MIT College of Engg. & Tech, Pune, India
Assist. Prof. Devendra Chack, BCT Kumaon engineering College Dwarahat Almora, India
Prof. Manpreet Singh, M. M. Engg. College, M. M. University, India
Assist. Prof. M. Sadiq ali Khan, University of Karachi, Pakistan
Mr. Prasad S. Halgaonkar, MIT - College of Engineering, Pune, India
Dr. Imran Ghani, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Prof. Varun Kumar Kakar, Kumaon Engineering College, Dwarahat, India
Assist. Prof. Nisheeth Joshi, Apaji Institute, Banasthali University, Rajasthan, India
Associate Prof. Kunwar S. Vaisla, VCT Kumaon Engineering College, India
Prof Anupam Choudhary, Bhilai School Of Engg.,Bhilai (C.G.),India
Mr. Divya Prakash Shrivastava, Al Jabal Al garbi University, Zawya, Libya
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Associate Prof. Dr. V. Radha, Avinashilingam Deemed university for women, Coimbatore.
Dr. Kasarapu Ramani, JNT University, Anantapur, India
Dr. Anuraag Awasthi, Jayoti Vidyapeeth Womens University, India
Dr. C G Ravichandran, R V S College of Engineering and Technology, India
Dr. Mohamed A. Deriche, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia
Mr. Abbas Karimi, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Amit Kumar, Jaypee University of Engg. and Tech., India
Dr. Nikolai Stoianov, Defense Institute, Bulgaria
Assist. Prof. S. Ranichandra, KSR College of Arts and Science, Tiruchencode
Mr. T.K.P. Rajagopal, Diamond Horse International Pvt Ltd, India
Dr. Md. Ekramul Hamid, Rajshahi University, Bangladesh
Mr. Hemanta Kumar Kalita , TATA Consultancy Services (TCS), India
Dr. Messaouda Azzouzi, Ziane Achour University of Djelfa, Algeria
Prof. (Dr.) Juan Jose Martinez Castillo, "Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho" University and Acantelys research
Group, Venezuela
Dr. Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Narmada College of Computer Application, India
Dr. Babak Bashari Rad, University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. B. Muthu Kumar, Kathir College Of Engineering, Coimbatore
Dr. Nighat Mir, Effat University, Saudi Arabia
Prof. (Dr.) G.M.Nasira, Sasurie College of Engineering, India
Mr. Varun Mittal, Gemalto Pte Ltd, Singapore
Assist. Prof. Mrs P. Banumathi, Kathir College Of Engineering, Coimbatore
Assist. Prof. Quan Yuan, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, US
Dr. Pranam Paul, Narula Institute of Technology, Agarpara, West Bengal, India
Assist. Prof. J. Ramkumar, V.L.B Janakiammal college of Arts & Science, India
Mr. P. Sivakumar, Anna university, Chennai, India
Mr. Md. Humayun Kabir Biswas, King Khalid University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Mr. Mayank Singh, J.P. Institute of Engg & Technology, Meerut, India
HJ. Kamaruzaman Jusoff, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Mr. Nikhil Patrick Lobo, CADES, India
Dr. Amit Wason, Rayat-Bahra Institute of Engineering & Boi-Technology, India
Dr. Rajesh Shrivastava, Govt. Benazir Science & Commerce College, Bhopal, India
Assist. Prof. Vishal Bharti, DCE, Gurgaon
Mrs. Sunita Bansal, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, India
Dr. R. Sudhakar, Dr.Mahalingam college of Engineering and Technology, India
Dr. Amit Kumar Garg, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra(J&K), India
Assist. Prof. Raj Gaurang Tiwari, AZAD Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Mr. Hamed Taherdoost, Tehran, Iran
Mr. Amin Daneshmand Malayeri, YRC, IAU, Malayer Branch, Iran
Mr. Shantanu Pal, University of Calcutta, India
Dr. Terry H. Walcott, E-Promag Consultancy Group, United Kingdom
Dr. Ezekiel U OKIKE, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Mr. P. Mahalingam, Caledonian College of Engineering, Oman

Dr. Mahmoud M. A. Abd Ellatif, Mansoura University, Egypt
Prof. Kunwar S. Vaisla, BCT Kumaon Engineering College, India
Prof. Mahesh H. Panchal, Kalol Institute of Technology & Research Centre, India
Mr. Muhammad Asad, University of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan
Mr. AliReza Shams Shafigh, Azad Islamic university, Iran
Prof. S. V. Nagaraj, RMK Engineering College, India
Mr. Ashikali M Hasan, Senior Researcher, CelNet security, India
Dr. Adnan Shahid Khan, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Prakash Gajanan Burade, Nagpur University/ITM college of engg, Nagpur, India
Dr. Jagdish B.Helonde, Nagpur University/ITM college of engg, Nagpur, India
Professor, Doctor BOUHORMA Mohammed, Univertsity Abdelmalek Essaadi, Morocco
Mr. K. Thirumalaivasan, Pondicherry Engg. College, India
Mr. Umbarkar Anantkumar Janardan, Walchand College of Engineering, India
Mr. Ashish Chaurasia, Gyan Ganga Institute of Technology & Sciences, India
Mr. Sunil Taneja, Kurukshetra University, India
Mr. Fauzi Adi Rafrastara, Dian Nuswantoro University, Indonesia
Dr. Yaduvir Singh, Thapar University, India
Dr. Ioannis V. Koskosas, University of Western Macedonia, Greece
Dr. Vasantha Kalyani David, Avinashilingam University for women, Coimbatore
Dr. Ahmed Mansour Manasrah, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Miss. Nazanin Sadat Kazazi, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Saeed Rasouli Heikalabad, Islamic Azad University - Tabriz Branch, Iran
Assoc. Prof. Dhirendra Mishra, SVKM's NMIMS University, India
Prof. Shapoor Zarei, UAE Inventors Association, UAE
Prof. B.Raja Sarath Kumar, Lenora College of Engineering, India
Dr. Bashir Alam, Jamia millia Islamia, Delhi, India
Prof. Anant J Umbarkar, Walchand College of Engg., India
Assist. Prof. B. Bharathi, Sathyabama University, India
Dr. Fokrul Alom Mazarbhuiya, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia
Prof. T.S.Jeyali Laseeth, Anna University of Technology, Tirunelveli, India
Dr. M. Balraju, Jawahar Lal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad, India
Dr. Vijayalakshmi M. N., R.V.College of Engineering, Bangalore
Prof. Walid Moudani, Lebanese University, Lebanon
Dr. Saurabh Pal, VBS Purvanchal University, Jaunpur, India
Associate Prof. Suneet Chaudhary, Dehradun Institute of Technology, India
Associate Prof. Dr. Manuj Darbari, BBD University, India
Ms. Prema Selvaraj, K.S.R College of Arts and Science, India
Assist. Prof. Ms.S.Sasikala, KSR College of Arts & Science, India
Mr. Sukhvinder Singh Deora, NC Institute of Computer Sciences, India
Dr. Abhay Bansal, Amity School of Engineering & Technology, India
Ms. Sumita Mishra, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, India
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Professor S. Viswanadha Raju, JNT University Hyderabad, India

Mr. Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch, India
Mr. Manoj Sharma, Panipat Institute of Engg. & Technology, India
Mr. Shakeel Ahmed, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Mohamed Ali Mahjoub, Institute of Engineer of Monastir, Tunisia
Mr. Adri Jovin J.J., SriGuru Institute of Technology, India
Dr. Sukumar Senthilkumar, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Mr. Rakesh Bharati, Dehradun Institute of Technology Dehradun, India
Mr. Shervan Fekri Ershad, Shiraz International University, Iran
Mr. Md. Safiqul Islam, Daffodil International University, Bangladesh
Mr. Mahmudul Hasan, Daffodil International University, Bangladesh
Prof. Mandakini Tayade, UIT, RGTU, Bhopal, India
Ms. Sarla More, UIT, RGTU, Bhopal, India
Mr. Tushar Hrishikesh Jaware, R.C. Patel Institute of Technology, Shirpur, India
Ms. C. Divya, Dr G R Damodaran College of Science, Coimbatore, India
Mr. Fahimuddin Shaik, Annamacharya Institute of Technology & Sciences, India
Dr. M. N. Giri Prasad, JNTUCE,Pulivendula, A.P., India
Assist. Prof. Chintan M Bhatt, Charotar University of Science And Technology, India
Prof. Sahista Machchhar, Marwadi Education Foundation's Group of institutions, India
Assist. Prof. Navnish Goel, S. D. College Of Enginnering & Technology, India
Mr. Khaja Kamaluddin, Sirt University, Sirt, Libya
Mr. Mohammad Zaidul Karim, Daffodil International, Bangladesh
Mr. M. Vijayakumar, KSR College of Engineering, Tiruchengode, India
Mr. S. A. Ahsan Rajon, Khulna University, Bangladesh
Dr. Muhammad Mohsin Nazir, LCW University Lahore, Pakistan
Mr. Mohammad Asadul Hoque, University of Alabama, USA
Mr. P.V.Sarathchand, Indur Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Mr. Durgesh Samadhiya, Chung Hua University, Taiwan
Dr Venu Kuthadi, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, RSA
Dr. (Er) Jasvir Singh, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India
Mr. Jasmin Cosic, Min. of the Interior of Una-sana canton, B&H, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Dr. Pouya Derakhshan-Barjoei, Islamic Azad University, Naein Branch, Iran
Dr S. Rajalakshmi, Botho College, South Africa
Dr. Mohamed Sarrab, De Montfort University, UK
Mr. Basappa B. Kodada, Canara Engineering College, India
Assist. Prof. K. Ramana, Annamacharya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India
Dr. Ashu Gupta, Apeejay Institute of Management, Jalandhar, India
Assist. Prof. Shaik Rasool, Shadan College of Engineering & Technology, India
Assist. Prof. K. Suresh, Annamacharya Institute of Tech & Sci. Rajampet, AP, India
Dr . G. Singaravel, K.S.R. College of Engineering, India
Dr B. G. Geetha, K.S.R. College of Engineering, India
Assist. Prof. Kavita Choudhary, ITM University, Gurgaon
 (IJCSIS) International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security,
Vol. 9, No. 7, July 2011

Dr. Mehrdad Jalali, Azad University, Mashhad, Iran

Megha Goel, Shamli Institute of Engineering and Technology, Shamli, India
Mr. Chi-Hua Chen, Institute of Information Management, National Chiao-Tung University, Taiwan (R.O.C.)
Assoc. Prof. A. Rajendran, RVS College of Engineering and Technology, India
Assist. Prof. S. Jaganathan, RVS College of Engineering and Technology, India
 CALL FOR PAPERS
International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security
IJCSIS 2011
ISSN: 1947-5500
http://sites.google.com/site/ijcsis/
International Journal Computer Science and Information Security, IJCSIS, is the premier
scholarly venue in the areas of computer science and security issues. IJCSIS 2011 will provide a high
profile, leading edge platform for researchers and engineers alike to publish state-of-the-art research in the
respective fields of information technology and communication security. The journal will feature a diverse
mixture of publication articles including core and applied computer science related topics.

Authors are solicited to contribute to the special issue by submitting articles that illustrate research results,
projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in the following
areas, but are not limited to. Submissions may span a broad range of topics, e.g.:

Track A: Security

Access control, Anonymity, Audit and audit reduction & Authentication and authorization, Applied
cryptography, Cryptanalysis, Digital Signatures, Biometric security, Boundary control devices,
Certification and accreditation, Cross-layer design for security, Security & Network Management, Data and
system integrity, Database security, Defensive information warfare, Denial of service protection, Intrusion
Detection, Anti-malware, Distributed systems security, Electronic commerce, E-mail security, Spam,
Phishing, E-mail fraud, Virus, worms, Trojan Protection, Grid security, Information hiding and
watermarking & Information survivability, Insider threat protection, Integrity
Intellectual property protection, Internet/Intranet Security, Key management and key recovery, Language-
based security, Mobile and wireless security, Mobile, Ad Hoc and Sensor Network Security, Monitoring
and surveillance, Multimedia security ,Operating system security, Peer-to-peer security, Performance
Evaluations of Protocols & Security Application, Privacy and data protection, Product evaluation criteria
and compliance, Risk evaluation and security certification, Risk/vulnerability assessment, Security &
Network Management, Security Models & protocols, Security threats & countermeasures (DDoS, MiM,
Session Hijacking, Replay attack etc,), Trusted computing, Ubiquitous Computing Security, Virtualization
security, VoIP security, Web 2.0 security, Submission Procedures, Active Defense Systems, Adaptive
Defense Systems, Benchmark, Analysis and Evaluation of Security Systems, Distributed Access Control
and Trust Management, Distributed Attack Systems and Mechanisms, Distributed Intrusion
Detection/Prevention Systems, Denial-of-Service Attacks and Countermeasures, High Performance
Security Systems, Identity Management and Authentication, Implementation, Deployment and
Management of Security Systems, Intelligent Defense Systems, Internet and Network Forensics, Large-
scale Attacks and Defense, RFID Security and Privacy, Security Architectures in Distributed Network
Systems, Security for Critical Infrastructures, Security for P2P systems and Grid Systems, Security in E-
Commerce, Security and Privacy in Wireless Networks, Secure Mobile Agents and Mobile Code, Security
Protocols, Security Simulation and Tools, Security Theory and Tools, Standards and Assurance Methods,
Trusted Computing, Viruses, Worms, and Other Malicious Code, World Wide Web Security, Novel and
emerging secure architecture, Study of attack strategies, attack modeling, Case studies and analysis of
actual attacks, Continuity of Operations during an attack, Key management, Trust management, Intrusion
detection techniques, Intrusion response, alarm management, and correlation analysis, Study of tradeoffs
between security and system performance, Intrusion tolerance systems, Secure protocols, Security in
wireless networks (e.g. mesh networks, sensor networks, etc.), Cryptography and Secure Communications,
Computer Forensics, Recovery and Healing, Security Visualization, Formal Methods in Security, Principles
for Designing a Secure Computing System, Autonomic Security, Internet Security, Security in Health Care
Systems, Security Solutions Using Reconfigurable Computing, Adaptive and Intelligent Defense Systems,
Authentication and Access control, Denial of service attacks and countermeasures, Identity, Route and
Location Anonymity schemes, Intrusion detection and prevention techniques, Cryptography, encryption
algorithms and Key management schemes, Secure routing schemes, Secure neighbor discovery and
localization, Trust establishment and maintenance, Confidentiality and data integrity, Security architectures,
deployments and solutions, Emerging threats to cloud-based services, Security model for new services,
Cloud-aware web service security, Information hiding in Cloud Computing, Securing distributed data
storage in cloud, Security, privacy and trust in mobile computing systems and applications, Middleware
security & Security features: middleware software is an asset on
its own and has to be protected, interaction between security-specific and other middleware features, e.g.,
context-awareness, Middleware-level security monitoring and measurement: metrics and mechanisms
for quantification and evaluation of security enforced by the middleware, Security co-design: trade-off and
co-design between application-based and middleware-based security, Policy-based management:
innovative support for policy-based definition and enforcement of security concerns, Identification and
authentication mechanisms: Means to capture application specific constraints in defining and enforcing
access control rules, Middleware-oriented security patterns: identification of patterns for sound, reusable
security, Security in aspect-based middleware: mechanisms for isolating and enforcing security aspects,
Security in agent-based platforms: protection for mobile code and platforms, Smart Devices: Biometrics,
National ID cards, Embedded Systems Security and TPMs, RFID Systems Security, Smart Card Security,
Pervasive Systems: Digital Rights Management (DRM) in pervasive environments, Intrusion Detection and
Information Filtering, Localization Systems Security (Tracking of People and Goods), Mobile Commerce
Security, Privacy Enhancing Technologies, Security Protocols (for Identification and Authentication,
Confidentiality and Privacy, and Integrity), Ubiquitous Networks: Ad Hoc Networks Security, Delay-
Tolerant Network Security, Domestic Network Security, Peer-to-Peer Networks Security, Security Issues
in Mobile and Ubiquitous Networks, Security of GSM/GPRS/UMTS Systems, Sensor Networks Security,
Vehicular Network Security, Wireless Communication Security: Bluetooth, NFC, WiFi, WiMAX,
WiMedia, others

This Track will emphasize the design, implementation, management and applications of computer
communications, networks and services. Topics of mostly theoretical nature are also welcome, provided
there is clear practical potential in applying the results of such work.

Track B: Computer Science

Broadband wireless technologies: LTE, WiMAX, WiRAN, HSDPA, HSUPA, Resource allocation and
interference management, Quality of service and scheduling methods, Capacity planning and dimensioning,
Cross-layer design and Physical layer based issue, Interworking architecture and interoperability, Relay
assisted and cooperative communications, Location and provisioning and mobility management, Call
admission and flow/congestion control, Performance optimization, Channel capacity modeling and analysis,
Middleware Issues: Event-based, publish/subscribe, and message-oriented middleware, Reconfigurable,
adaptable, and reflective middleware approaches, Middleware solutions for reliability, fault tolerance, and
quality-of-service, Scalability of middleware, Context-aware middleware, Autonomic and self-managing
middleware, Evaluation techniques for middleware solutions, Formal methods and tools for designing,
verifying, and evaluating, middleware, Software engineering techniques for middleware, Service oriented
middleware, Agent-based middleware, Security middleware, Network Applications: Network-based
automation, Cloud applications, Ubiquitous and pervasive applications, Collaborative applications, RFID
and sensor network applications, Mobile applications, Smart home applications, Infrastructure monitoring
and control applications, Remote health monitoring, GPS and location-based applications, Networked
vehicles applications, Alert applications, Embeded Computer System, Advanced Control Systems, and
Intelligent Control : Advanced control and measurement, computer and microprocessor-based control,
signal processing, estimation and identification techniques, application specific IC’s, nonlinear and
adaptive control, optimal and robot control, intelligent control, evolutionary computing, and intelligent
systems, instrumentation subject to critical conditions, automotive, marine and aero-space control and all
other control applications, Intelligent Control System, Wiring/Wireless Sensor, Signal Control System.
Sensors, Actuators and Systems Integration : Intelligent sensors and actuators, multisensor fusion, sensor
array and multi-channel processing, micro/nano technology, microsensors and microactuators,
instrumentation electronics, MEMS and system integration, wireless sensor, Network Sensor, Hybrid
Sensor, Distributed Sensor Networks. Signal and Image Processing : Digital signal processing theory,
methods, DSP implementation, speech processing, image and multidimensional signal processing, Image
analysis and processing, Image and Multimedia applications, Real-time multimedia signal processing,
Computer vision, Emerging signal processing areas, Remote Sensing, Signal processing in education.
Industrial Informatics: Industrial applications of neural networks, fuzzy algorithms, Neuro-Fuzzy
application, bioInformatics, real-time computer control, real-time information systems, human-machine
interfaces, CAD/CAM/CAT/CIM, virtual reality, industrial communications, flexible manufacturing
systems, industrial automated process, Data Storage Management, Harddisk control, Supply Chain
Management, Logistics applications, Power plant automation, Drives automation. Information Technology,
Management of Information System : Management information systems, Information Management,
Nursing information management, Information System, Information Technology and their application, Data
retrieval, Data Base Management, Decision analysis methods, Information processing, Operations research,
E-Business, E-Commerce, E-Government, Computer Business, Security and risk management, Medical
imaging, Biotechnology, Bio-Medicine, Computer-based information systems in health care, Changing
Access to Patient Information, Healthcare Management Information Technology.
Communication/Computer Network, Transportation Application : On-board diagnostics, Active safety
systems, Communication systems, Wireless technology, Communication application, Navigation and
Guidance, Vision-based applications, Speech interface, Sensor fusion, Networking theory and technologies,
Transportation information, Autonomous vehicle, Vehicle application of affective computing, Advance
Computing technology and their application : Broadband and intelligent networks, Data Mining, Data
fusion, Computational intelligence, Information and data security, Information indexing and retrieval,
Information processing, Information systems and applications, Internet applications and performances,
Knowledge based systems, Knowledge management, Software Engineering, Decision making, Mobile
networks and services, Network management and services, Neural Network, Fuzzy logics, Neuro-Fuzzy,
Expert approaches, Innovation Technology and Management : Innovation and product development,
Emerging advances in business and its applications, Creativity in Internet management and retailing, B2B
and B2C management, Electronic transceiver device for Retail Marketing Industries, Facilities planning
and management, Innovative pervasive computing applications, Programming paradigms for pervasive
systems, Software evolution and maintenance in pervasive systems, Middleware services and agent
technologies, Adaptive, autonomic and context-aware computing, Mobile/Wireless computing systems and
services in pervasive computing, Energy-efficient and green pervasive computing, Communication
architectures for pervasive computing, Ad hoc networks for pervasive communications, Pervasive
opportunistic communications and applications, Enabling technologies for pervasive systems (e.g., wireless
BAN, PAN), Positioning and tracking technologies, Sensors and RFID in pervasive systems, Multimodal
sensing and context for pervasive applications, Pervasive sensing, perception and semantic interpretation,
Smart devices and intelligent environments, Trust, security and privacy issues in pervasive systems, User
interfaces and interaction models, Virtual immersive communications, Wearable computers, Standards and
interfaces for pervasive computing environments, Social and economic models for pervasive systems,
Active and Programmable Networks, Ad Hoc & Sensor Network, Congestion and/or Flow Control, Content
Distribution, Grid Networking, High-speed Network Architectures, Internet Services and Applications,
Optical Networks, Mobile and Wireless Networks, Network Modeling and Simulation, Multicast,
Multimedia Communications, Network Control and Management, Network Protocols, Network
Performance, Network Measurement, Peer to Peer and Overlay Networks, Quality of Service and Quality
of Experience, Ubiquitous Networks, Crosscutting Themes – Internet Technologies, Infrastructure,
Services and Applications; Open Source Tools, Open Models and Architectures; Security, Privacy and
Trust; Navigation Systems, Location Based Services; Social Networks and Online Communities; ICT
Convergence, Digital Economy and Digital Divide, Neural Networks, Pattern Recognition, Computer
Vision, Advanced Computing Architectures and New Programming Models, Visualization and Virtual
Reality as Applied to Computational Science, Computer Architecture and Embedded Systems, Technology
in Education, Theoretical Computer Science, Computing Ethics, Computing Practices & Applications

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and should not have been published previously or be under consideration for publication while being
evaluated by IJCSIS. Before submission authors should carefully read over the journal's Author Guidelines,
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ISSN 1947 5500