hapter 15

RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF ANATOMY OF
RESPIRATORY RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM SYSTEM
1. Gas Exchange UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
2. Regulation of blood pH - External nose, nasal cavity,
3. Voice production pharynx
4. Olfaction LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
5. Innate immunity - Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
NOSE
Consists of the external nose and nasal cavity
EXTERNAL NOSE – visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the
face
NARES (nostrils) – external openings of the nose
CHOANAE – openings into the pharynx
NASAL CAVITY –extends from the nares to the choanae
NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing the nasal cavity into right and left
parts
DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM – occurs when the septum bulges to one side
HARD PALATE – floor of the nasal cavity; separates the nasal and oral cavity
CONCHAE – three prominent bony ridges on the lateral walls on each side of
the nasal cavity; increase the surface area of the nasal cavity and cause air to
churn
PARANASAL SINUSES – air-filled spaces within bone
NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – carry tears from the eyes
SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from the nasal cavity

PHARYNX

Common passageway for both the respiratory and digestive systems.

THREE REGIONS:
1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part
a. SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscles and connective tissue partition
separating the nasopharynx from the oropharynx
b. UVULA – posterior extension of the soft palate
c. PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps defend the body against infection
2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to the epiglottis
a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the lateral walls near the border of the
oral cavity and the oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the surface of the posterior part of the
tongue
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes posterior to the larynx and extends from
the tip of the epiglottis to the esophagus; lined with stratified squamous
epith. and ciliated columnar epith.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
LARYNX
Voice box
Passageway for air between the pharynx and trachea
Has 3 unpaired cartilages and 6 paired cartilages
UNPAIRED (3):
1. THYROID CARTILAGE – Adam’s apple; largest cartilage
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE – most inferior, forms the base of the larynx
3. EPIGLOTTIS – 3rd unpaired cartilage; consist of elastic cartilage
PAIRED (6): they form an attachment site for the vocal folds
1. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE – Top
2. CORNICULATE CARTILAGE – Middle
3. ARYTENOID CARTILAGE – Bottom
4. VESTIBULAR FOLDS – false vocal cords; superior
5. VOCAL CORDS – true vocal cords; inferior
6. LARYNGITIS – inflammation of the mucous epith. of the vocal folds
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

TRACHEA
Windpipe
Membranous tube attached to the larynx
Consists of CT and smooth muscle; Reinforced with 16- 20 C-shaped pieces
of hyaline cartilage
C-SHAPED CARTILAGES – form the anterior and lateral sides of the
trachea; protect the trachea and maintain an open passageway for air
COUGH REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from the trachea
SMOKER’S COUGH – results from constant irritation and inflammation
of the respiratory passages by cigarette smoke

BRONCHI
The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or primary
bronchi, each of which connects to a lung
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS – more horizontal because it is displaced by the
heard
RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS – where foreign objects that enter the trachea
usually lodge; more vertical
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
LUNGS
Principal organs of respiration

RIGHT LUNG
has 3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)
LEFT LUNG
has 2 lobes (superior, inferior)
The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep, prominent fissures on the
lung surface.
Each lobe is divided into Bronchopulmonary segments separated from one
another by CT septa.
The main bronchi branch many times to form the TRACHEOBRONCHIAL
TREE.

MAIN BRONCHI
LOBAR BRONCHI – Secondary bronchi
SEGMENTAL BRONCHI – Tertiary bronchi
BRONCHIOLES
TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
ALVEOLAR DUCTS – long, branching hallways with many
open doorways
ALVEOLI – Small air sacs

RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE OF THE LUNGS

where gas exchange between the air and blood takes place
It is very thin to facilitate the diffusion of gases
Consists of 6 LAYERS:
1. Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
2. Alveolar epithelium – composed of simple squamous epithelium
3. Basement membrane of the alveolar epith.
4. Thin interstitial space
5. Basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
6. Capillary endothelium – simple squamous epith.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

PLEURAL CAVITY
surround the lungs and provide protection against friction
PLEURA – serous membrane lining the pleural cavity
PARIETAL PLEURA – lines the walls of the thorax, diaphragm and
mediastinum
VISCERAL PLEURA – covers the surface of the lung
PLEURAL FLUID – acts as a lubricant and helps hold the pleural
membranes together
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC SUPPLY
SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS – are deep to the visceral pleura;
they drain lymph from the superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura
DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS – follow the bronchi; they drain lymph from
the bronchi and associated CTs
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

VENTILATION AND RESP. VOLUMES

VENTILATION (breathing) – the process of moving air into and out of the
lungs.
2 PHASES:
1. INSPIRATION – inhalation; movement of air into the lungs
2. EXPIRATION – exhalation; movement of air out of the lungs
CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION – include the diaphragm and the muscles that
elevate the ribs and sternum, such as the external intercostals
DIAPHRAGM – a large dome of skeletal muscle that separates the
thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION – internal intercostals; depress the ribs and
sternum.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
Two physical principles that govern the airflow:
1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure.
2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure
During INSPIRATION, air flows into the alveoli because atmospheric
pressure is greater than the alveolar pressure.
During EXPIRATION, air flows out of the alveoli because alveolar
pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure.

LUNG RECOIL
The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size.
When thoracic volume and lung volume decrease during quiet expiration.
Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
SURFACTANT and PLEURAL PRESSURE.
SURFACTANT – reduces the surface tension of the fluid lining the
alveoli (surface acting agent).
PLEURAL PRESSURE – lower than alveolar pressure, which causes
the alveoli to expand.

CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME

Increasing thoracic volume results in decreased pleural pressure,
increased alveolar volume, decreased alveolar pressure, and air movement
into the lungs (inspiration).
Decreasing thoracic volume results in increased pleural pressure,
decreased alveolar volume, increased alveolar pressure, and air movement
out of the lungs (expiration).
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES

SPIROMETRY – is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into
and out of the respiratory system.
SPIROMETER – device that measures the resp. volumes
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – are measures of the amount of air movement
during different portions of ventilation
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES – are sums of two or more respiratory
volumes

RESPIRATORY VOLUMES:
1. TIDAL VOLUME – air inspired or expired with each breath (at rest, quiet
breathing = 500mL)
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can be inspired forcefully
beyond the resting TV (3000mL)
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can be expired forcefully
(1100mL)
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME – air still remaining in the respiratory passages and
lungs after maximum expiration (1200mL)
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES:
1. FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY – ERV + RV
Amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration
(2300mL)
2. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY – TV + IRV
Amount of air a person can inspire maximally after a normal expiration
(3500mL)
3. VITAL CAPACITY – IRV + TV + ERV
It is the maximum volume of air that a person can expel from the resp.
tract after maximum inspiration (4600mL)
4. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY – IRV + ERV + TV +RV
Also equal to the VC + RV (5800mL)

GAS EXCHANGE
Gas exchange bet. air and blood occurs in the respiratory membrane
DEAD SPACE – the parts of the resp. passageways where gas exchange bet.
air and blood does not occur.
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS
Increases in the thickness of the respiratory membrane result in decreased
gas exchange.
SURFACE AREA
Small decreases in surface area adversely affect gas exchange during
strenuous exercise. When the surface area is decreased to 1/3 or 1/4 of
normal, gas exchange is restricted under resting conditions.
PARTIAL PRESSURE
is the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases, such as air.
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE LUNGS
O2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the alveoli to a lower pp in the
pulmonary capillaries.
CO2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the pulmonary capillaries to
a lower pp in the alveoli.
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE TISSUES
O2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissue capillaries to a lower pp in the
tissue spaces.
CO2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissues to a lower pp in the tissue
capillaries.
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – hemoglobin with oxygen bound to its heme groups
MORE OXYGEN IS RELEASED FROM HEMOGLOBIN IF (FOUR
FACTORS):
1. Partial pressure for O2 is low
2. Partial pressure for CO2 is high
3. pH is low
4. Temperature is high
CO2 TRANSPORT AND BLOOD pH
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE
enzyme that promotes the uptake of CO2 by RBCs
As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases (becomes more acidic)
As CO2 levels decrease, blood pH increases (becomes more basic)

RHYTHMIC BREATHING
RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER – establishes rhythmic breathing
DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily responsible for
stimulating contraction of the diaphragm.
VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily responsible for
stimulating the external and internal intercostal, and abdominal
muscles.
PRE-BOTZINGER COMPLEX – establish the basic rhythm of
breathing

PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP

is a collection of neurons in the pons.
It plays a role in switching between inspiration and expiration.

GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC BREATHING

involves the integration of stimuli that start and stop inspiration
1. Starting inspiration
2. Increasing inspiration
3. Stopping inspiration
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING
HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS – allow voluntary control of breathing.
HERING-BREUER REFLEX – supports rhythmic respiratory movements by
limiting the extent of inspiration
TOUCH, THERMAL, PAIN RECEPTORS – can stimulate breathing

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

HYPERCAPNIA – a greater than normal amount of CO2 in the blood
CARBON DIOXIDE – major chemical regulator of breathing
CHEMORECEPTORS (in medulla oblongata) – respond to changes in blood pH
CHEMORECEPTORS (in carotid and aortic bodies) – respond to changes in
blood O2.
HYPOXIA – a condition when blood O2 declines to a low level

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING

1. Breathing increases abruptly
2. Breathing increases gradually
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD – the highest level of exercise that can be
performed without causing a significant change in blood pH

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO
EXERCISE
Training results in increased minute volume at maximal exercise because
of increased TV and respiratory rate.

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESP.

SYSTEM
1. VC and Maximum min. ventilation decrease
2. RV and dead space increase
3. Increase in resting TV compensates for increased dead space, loss of
alveolar walls, and thickening of alveolar walls
4. The ability to remove mucus from respiratory passageways decreases with
age
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM