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Contents
About the Authors ............................................................................................................................. xvii
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xix
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................ xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

References .................................................................................................................. 3

CHAPTER 2 Transportation Systems ............................................................................ 5

2.1 Background................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 History of Transportation ........................................................................................... 6
2.3 Transportation Sector and Transportation Modes ................................................... 15
2.3.1 Components of Transportation Modes............................................................ 16
2.3.2 Structure of Transportation Modes ................................................................. 17
2.3.3 Technologies of Transport Modes .................................................................. 17
2.3.4 Relationships Between Transport Modes ....................................................... 20
2.4 Characteristics of Transport Modes and Their Systems.......................................... 22
2.4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 22
2.4.2 Urban and Sub/Urban Road and Rail-Based Transit Systems
for Passengers .................................................................................................. 22
2.4.3 Urban and Sub/Urban Transport Systems for Freight Shipments.................. 29
2.4.4 Interurban Road Transport Systems................................................................ 30
2.4.5 Interurban Rail Transport Systems ................................................................. 34
2.4.6 Inland Waterways and Sea Shipping Systems for Cargo Shipments............. 44
2.4.7 Air Transport System ...................................................................................... 51
2.5 Transportation Systems Topics: Planning, Control, Congestion, Safety,
and Environment Protection..................................................................................... 56
2.6 Problems ................................................................................................................... 59
References ................................................................................................................ 59
Websites.................................................................................................................... 62

CHAPTER 3 Traffic and Transportation Analysis Techniques ................................ 63

or applicable copyright law.

3.1 Object Motion and Time-Space Diagrams .............................................................. 63

3.2 Transportation Networks Basics .............................................................................. 69
3.3 Optimal Paths in Transportation Networks ............................................................. 72
3.3.1 Finding Shortest Path in a Transportation Network....................................... 72
3.3.2 Dijkstra’s Algorithm........................................................................................ 73
3.3.3 Shortest Paths Between All Pairs of Nodes.................................................... 77

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3.4 Mathematical Programming Applications in Traffic and Transportation............... 81

3.4.1 Linear Programming in Traffic and Transportation ....................................... 82
3.4.2 Integer Programming....................................................................................... 88
3.4.3 Dimensionality of the Traffic and Transportation Engineering
Problems .......................................................................................................... 91
3.4.4 Complexity of Algorithms .............................................................................. 92
3.5 Probability Theory and Traffic Phenomena ............................................................ 93
3.5.1 Probability Theory Basics ............................................................................... 94
3.5.2 Random Variables and Probability Distributions ........................................... 96
3.6 Queueing in Transportation Systems ..................................................................... 106
3.6.1 Elements of Queueing Systems..................................................................... 107
3.6.2 D/D/1 Queueing............................................................................................. 109
3.6.3 Little’s Law ................................................................................................... 109
3.6.4 M/M/1 Queueing............................................................................................ 114
3.6.5 M/M/s Queueing ............................................................................................ 115
3.6.6 Queueing Theory and Investments in Transportation Facilities
Expansion ...................................................................................................... 119
3.7 Simulation............................................................................................................... 121
3.7.1 The Monte Carlo Simulation Method........................................................... 121
3.8 MultiAttribute Decision Making Methods............................................................. 124
3.8.1 Attribute Weights .......................................................................................... 125
3.8.2 Minimax Method ........................................................................................... 126
3.8.3 Maximax Method .......................................................................................... 127
3.8.4 Simple Additive Weighting Method............................................................. 127
3.8.5 TOPSIS .......................................................................................................... 128
3.9 Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA)....................................................................... 130
3.9.1 Ratios ............................................................................................................. 130
3.9.2 DEA Basics ................................................................................................... 132
3.10 Computational Intelligence Techniques................................................................. 135
3.10.1 The Concept of Fuzzy Sets ......................................................................... 136
3.10.2 The Fuzzy Sets Basics................................................................................. 138
3.10.3 Basic Elements of Fuzzy Systems .............................................................. 140
3.10.4 Artificial Neural Networks.......................................................................... 149
3.11 Problems ................................................................................................................. 155
References .............................................................................................................. 160
or applicable copyright law.

CHAPTER 4 Traffic Flow Theory ............................................................................... 163

4.1 Traffic Flow Phenomenon...................................................................................... 163
4.2 Measurements of the Basic Flow Variables .......................................................... 164
4.3 Vehicle Headways and Flow.................................................................................. 165

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4.4 Poisson Distribution of the Number of Arrivals and the Exponential

Distribution of Headways....................................................................................... 166
4.5 Normal Distribution and Pearson Type III Distribution of Headway................... 168
4.5.1 Speeds ............................................................................................................ 169
4.6 Speed-Density Relationship ................................................................................... 171
4.7 Flow-Density Relationship..................................................................................... 173
4.8 Speed-Flow Relationship ....................................................................................... 175
4.9 Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow.................................................................. 182
4.10 Shock Waves .......................................................................................................... 182
4.11 Micro-Simulation Traffic Models .......................................................................... 186
4.12 Car Following Models............................................................................................ 187
4.12.1 The Car-Following Model Based on Fuzzy Inference Rules..................... 188
4.13 Network Flow Diagram.......................................................................................... 189
4.13.1 Link-Based Measurements .......................................................................... 190
4.13.2 Generalized Traffic Flow Variables............................................................ 190
4.13.3 Trajectory-Based Measurements................................................................. 192
4.14 Problems ................................................................................................................. 193
References .............................................................................................................. 195

CHAPTER 5 Capacity and Level of Service ............................................................. 197

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 197
5.2 Highway Capacity and Level of Service ............................................................... 198
5.2.1 Highway Capacity and Traffic Demand Variations ..................................... 199
5.2.2 Freeways ........................................................................................................ 201
5.2.3 Methodology for the Capacity Analysis, LOS, and the Lane
Requirements ................................................................................................. 205
5.2.4 The Number of Lanes Required to Deliver the Target LOS ....................... 209
5.3 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity of Bus Stations ........................................... 212
5.4 Rail Inter-Urban Transport Systems ...................................................................... 215
5.4.1 General........................................................................................................... 215
5.5 Inland Waterway Freight/Cargo Transportation System....................................... 236
5.5.1 General........................................................................................................... 236
5.5.2 Classification ................................................................................................. 237
5.5.3 Infrastructure Network .................................................................................. 239
5.5.4 Transport Service Network ........................................................................... 250
or applicable copyright law.

5.6 Maritime Freight/Cargo Transport System............................................................ 253

5.6.1 General........................................................................................................... 253
5.6.2 Ports ............................................................................................................... 253
5.6.3 Shipping Lines............................................................................................... 263

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5.7 Air Transport System ............................................................................................. 269

5.7.1 General........................................................................................................... 269
5.7.2 Airports .......................................................................................................... 269
5.7.3 Air Traffic Control ........................................................................................ 282
5.8 Problems ................................................................................................................. 287
References .............................................................................................................. 290
Websites.................................................................................................................. 292

CHAPTER 6 Traffic Control ........................................................................................ 293

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 293
6.2 Traffic Control at Signalized Intersections............................................................ 294
6.2.1 Fixed-Time Control at the Isolated Intersection........................................... 296
6.2.2 Vehicle Delays at Signalized Intersections................................................... 300
6.2.3 The Determination of Timing for Fixed-Time Signals ................................ 306
6.2.4 Signal Phasing Selection ............................................................................... 307
6.2.5 Volume Adjustment (Calculation of Equivalent Straight-Through
Passenger Cars) ............................................................................................. 308
6.2.6 Critical Lane Volumes Selection .................................................................. 310
6.2.7 Change Interval Calculation.......................................................................... 311
6.2.8 Cycle Length Calculation.............................................................................. 312
6.2.9 Green Time Allocation.................................................................................. 314
6.2.10 Pedestrian Crossing Time Check ................................................................ 314
6.2.11 Actuated Signal Control .............................................................................. 315
6.3 Traffic Control for Arterial Streets ........................................................................ 317
6.3.1 Adaptive Control Strategies .......................................................................... 319
6.4 Area-Wide Traffic Control Systems ...................................................................... 320
6.5 Traffic Control Signal Needs Studies .................................................................... 324
6.6 Intelligent Transportation Systems ........................................................................ 325
6.6.1 ITS Architecture ............................................................................................ 326
6.6.2 ITS User Services.......................................................................................... 327
6.6.3 Autonomous Vehicles ................................................................................... 329
6.6.4 Autonomous Intersection Management ........................................................ 330
6.7 Freeway Traffic Control......................................................................................... 332
6.7.1 Freeway Traffic Control Measures ............................................................... 333
6.7.2 Ramp Metering.............................................................................................. 333
or applicable copyright law.

6.7.3 Driver Information and Guidance Systems .................................................. 336

6.8 Transportation Demand Management.................................................................... 337
6.8.1 Ridesharing (Carpooling) .............................................................................. 338
6.8.2 Remote Parking and Park and Ride.............................................................. 339
6.8.3 Improved Walkability.................................................................................... 339
6.8.4 Telework ........................................................................................................ 339

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6.8.5 Congestion Pricing ........................................................................................ 339

6.8.6 Congestion Charges....................................................................................... 341
6.9 HOV Facilities........................................................................................................ 344
6.10 Highway Space Inventory Control System............................................................ 344
6.11 Auctions.................................................................................................................. 345
6.12 Rail Traffic Control................................................................................................ 345
6.12.1 Background.................................................................................................. 345
6.12.2 Infrastructure ............................................................................................... 346
6.12.3 Supportive Facilities and Equipment .......................................................... 347
6.12.4 The Workload and Capacity of Train Dispatcher(s) .................................. 359
6.13 Air Traffic Control ................................................................................................. 362
6.13.1 Background.................................................................................................. 362
6.13.2 Infrastructure ............................................................................................... 363
6.13.3 Supportive Facilities and Equipment .......................................................... 369
6.13.4 The ATC Separation Rules and Procedures ............................................... 370
6.13.5 The ATC Staff—Controller and Pilots ....................................................... 371
6.13.6 Automation .................................................................................................. 373
6.13.7 The Workload and Capacity of ATC Controller(s).................................... 376
6.14 Problems ................................................................................................................. 379
References .............................................................................................................. 380
Websites.................................................................................................................. 384

CHAPTER 7 Public Transportation Systems ............................................................ 387

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 387
7.2 Number of Transported Passengers Versus Number of Served Vehicles............. 388
7.3 Urban Public Transit .............................................................................................. 390
7.3.1 Road-Based Urban Transit Systems ............................................................. 393
7.3.2 Rail-Based Urban Transit Systems ............................................................... 395
7.3.3 Complementarity of the Systems .................................................................. 397
7.4 Infrastructure of Urban Transit Systems................................................................ 398
7.4.1 Stops/Stations in Urban Transit Systems...................................................... 399
7.4.2 Urban Transit Systems Links and Indicators of Network Size.................... 401
7.5 Public Transportation Availability......................................................................... 405
7.6 Passenger Flows in Public Transportation............................................................. 407
or applicable copyright law.

7.7 Passenger Flows Along a Transit Line .................................................................. 408

7.8 Service Frequency and Headways ......................................................................... 410
7.8.1 The Maximum Service Frequency................................................................ 412
7.8.2 Passenger Waiting Time ............................................................................... 413
7.8.3 Headway Determination by “Square Root Formula”................................... 413
7.8.4 Headway Determination by Maximum Load Method.................................. 415

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7.9 Timetable ................................................................................................................ 416

7.10 Transit Line Capacity............................................................................................. 418
7.10.1 Transit Line Capacity Utilization ............................................................... 420
7.11 The Performances of the Urban Transit Network ................................................. 423
7.12 Public Transit Network Types ............................................................................... 429
7.13 The Public Transit Network Design ...................................................................... 431
7.13.1 Simple Greedy Algorithm for Public Transit Network Design ................. 434
7.14 Service Frequencies Determination in Transit Network ....................................... 438
7.15 Vehicle Scheduling in Public Transit .................................................................... 441
7.16 Crew Scheduling in Public Transit ........................................................................ 444
7.17 Disruption Management in Public Transit............................................................. 445
7.18 Public Transit Planning Process............................................................................. 447
7.19 Demand-Responsive Transportation Systems........................................................ 448
7.19.1 Type of Routing and Scheduling in DRT................................................... 448
7.19.2 Dial-a-Ride .................................................................................................. 450
7.20 Interurban Road Transport Systems....................................................................... 453
7.20.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 453
7.20.2 Service Networks in an Interurban Road Transportation........................... 453
7.21 Air Transportation .................................................................................................. 456
7.21.1 Air Transportation Demand ........................................................................ 457
7.21.2 Airline Supply and Airline Capacity .......................................................... 459
7.22 Air Transportation Networks ................................................................................. 463
7.23 Flight Frequencies .................................................................................................. 469
7.23.1 Flight Frequency Satisfying Demand ......................................................... 470
7.23.2 Flight Frequency Gaining Market Share .................................................... 470
7.23.3 Flight Frequency Minimizing the Total Route Cost .................................. 472
7.24 Airline Transport Work and Productivity.............................................................. 475
7.25 Fleet Size ................................................................................................................ 478
7.26 Level of Service ..................................................................................................... 479
7.27 Airline Scheduling.................................................................................................. 481
7.28 Airline Schedule Planning Process ........................................................................ 483
7.29 Airline Revenue Management................................................................................ 486
7.30 Problems ................................................................................................................. 489
References .............................................................................................................. 490
or applicable copyright law.

CHAPTER 8 Transportation Demand Analysis ......................................................... 495

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 495
8.2 Transportation Demand and Transportation Supply.............................................. 496
8.3 Transportation Demand Modeling ......................................................................... 497

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8.4 Transportation Demand Forecasting Techniques .................................................. 499

8.4.1 Time Series Models....................................................................................... 501
8.4.2 Trend Projection ............................................................................................ 504
8.5 Four-Step Planning Procedure ............................................................................... 509
8.5.1 Trip Generation ............................................................................................. 511
8.5.2 Trip Distribution............................................................................................ 513
8.5.3 Gravity Model ............................................................................................... 514
8.5.4 Modal Split .................................................................................................... 518
8.5.5 Route Choice and Traffic Assignment ......................................................... 521
8.6 User Equilibrium and System Optimum................................................................ 523
8.6.1 Formulation of the User Equilibrium Problem............................................. 527
8.7 Heuristic Algorithms for Finding User-Equilibrium Flow Pattern ....................... 534
8.7.1 Capacity Restraint Algorithm ....................................................................... 534
8.7.2 FHWA Algorithm.......................................................................................... 536
8.7.3 Incremental Assignment Algorithm.............................................................. 537
8.8 System Optimal Route Choice............................................................................... 540
8.9 Price of Anarchy..................................................................................................... 542
8.10 Braess Paradox and Transportation Capacity Expansions .................................... 543
8.11 Dynamic Traffic Assignment ................................................................................. 546
8.12 Transportation Demand Analysis Based on Discrete Choice Models .................. 547
8.13 Logit Model ............................................................................................................ 549
8.13.1 Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives Property...................................... 553
8.13.2 Logit Model Estimation .............................................................................. 554
8.14 Application of the Computational Intelligence Techniques for the
Prediction of Travel Demand................................................................................. 557
8.15 Activity-Based Travel Demand Models ................................................................ 559
8.15.1 Basic Characteristics of the Activity-Based Travel Models ...................... 560
8.16 Problems ................................................................................................................. 563
References .............................................................................................................. 565

CHAPTER 9 Freight Transportation and Logistics .................................................. 569

9.1 Logistics Systems Basics ....................................................................................... 569
9.1.1 Reverse Logistics .......................................................................................... 572
9.2 Road Freight Transport Infrastructure ................................................................... 573
9.2.1 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity and Service Level of Road
or applicable copyright law.

Truck Roads................................................................................................... 574

9.2.2 “Ultimate” and “Practical” Capacity of Road Freight Terminals
and Their Level-of-Service ........................................................................... 575
9.3 Service Networks of the Road Freight Transport Operators................................. 577
9.3.1 Capacities and Service Level of the Road Freight Transport
Service Networks........................................................................................... 577

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9.4 City Logistics ......................................................................................................... 581

9.4.1 Urban Freight Transport Basics .................................................................... 582
9.4.2 Urban Freight Distribution Systems ............................................................. 584
9.5 Basics of Location Theory ..................................................................................... 595
9.5.1 Location Problems Classification ................................................................. 596
9.5.2 Measuring Distances Between Facilities and Demand-Generating
Nodes ............................................................................................................. 597
9.5.3 The Location Set Covering Problem ............................................................ 598
9.5.4 Maximal Covering Location Problem .......................................................... 603
9.5.5 Medians.......................................................................................................... 604
9.5.6 Hub Location ................................................................................................. 610
9.6 Vehicle Routing and Scheduling ........................................................................... 611
9.6.1 VRPs Types ................................................................................................... 612
9.6.2 Vehicle Routing and Scheduling Problems Complexity .............................. 614
9.6.3 Traveling Salesman Problem ........................................................................ 614
9.6.4 Vehicle Routing Problem .............................................................................. 616
9.6.5 Clark-Wright’s “Savings” Algorithm for the VRP....................................... 618
9.6.6 Sweep Algorithm for the VRP...................................................................... 624
9.7 Problems ................................................................................................................. 630
References .............................................................................................................. 632
Website ................................................................................................................... 634

CHAPTER 10 Transport Economics............................................................................. 635

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 635
10.2 Definition of the Main Terms ................................................................................ 637
10.2.1 Transport Sector/Industry............................................................................ 637
10.2.2 Fixed and Variable Costs ............................................................................ 637
10.2.3 Economies of Scale and Economies of Scope ........................................... 638
10.2.4 The Cost Function and Revenues ............................................................... 639
10.2.5 Relationship Between Demand and Supply ............................................... 642
10.3 Transportation Projects Evaluation ........................................................................ 643
10.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis............................................................................................. 644
10.5 Infrastructure Cost .................................................................................................. 647
10.5.1 Urban Mass Transit Systems....................................................................... 647
10.5.2 Road............................................................................................................. 653
or applicable copyright law.

10.5.3 Rail............................................................................................................... 654

10.5.4 Inland Waterways........................................................................................ 655
10.5.5 Ports ............................................................................................................. 657
10.5.6 Airports ........................................................................................................ 659

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10.6 Operating Costs and Revenues .............................................................................. 660

10.6.1 Individual Cars ............................................................................................ 660
10.6.2 Urban Mass Transit Systems....................................................................... 663
10.6.3 Interurban Mass Transit Systems................................................................ 671
10.6.4 Inland Waterways Cargo Transport ............................................................ 681
10.6.5 Maritime Cargo Transport........................................................................... 684
10.6.6 Air ................................................................................................................ 695
10.6.7 Intermodal—Rail/Road Freight Transport.................................................. 706
References .............................................................................................................. 714
Websites.................................................................................................................. 717

CHAPTER 11 Transportation, Environment, and Society ......................................... 719

11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 719
11.2 Categorization and Modeling Impacts ................................................................... 720
11.2.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 720
11.2.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 721
11.2.3 Traffic Incidents/Accidents (Safety) ........................................................... 723
11.2.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 724
11.2.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 732
11.2.6 Waste ........................................................................................................... 733
11.3 Road-Based Systems .............................................................................................. 733
11.3.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 733
11.3.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 737
11.3.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 744
11.3.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 748
11.3.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 760
11.4 Rail-Based Systems ................................................................................................ 762
11.4.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 762
11.4.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 763
11.4.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 770
11.4.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 780
11.4.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 789
11.5 Water-Based Systems............................................................................................. 791
11.5.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 791
11.5.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 792
or applicable copyright law.

11.5.3 Traffic Accidents/Incidents (Safety) ........................................................... 793

11.5.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 797
11.5.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 812
11.5.6 Waste ........................................................................................................... 814

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11.6 Air-Based Systems ................................................................................................. 816

11.6.1 Congestion ................................................................................................... 816
11.6.2 Noise ............................................................................................................ 820
11.6.3 Traffic Accidents and Incidents (Safety).................................................... 826
11.6.4 Energy/Fuel Consumption and Emissions of GHG.................................... 829
11.6.5 Land Use...................................................................................................... 837
11.7 Costs of Impacts—Externalities............................................................................. 840
11.7.1 Definition..................................................................................................... 840
11.7.2 Some Modeling ........................................................................................... 842
11.7.3 Some Estimation/Quantification ................................................................. 848
References .............................................................................................................. 851
Website ................................................................................................................... 857

Index .................................................................................................................................................. 859

or applicable copyright law.

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