Chapter two

Performance Characteristics
Static and Dynamic characteristics
Noise and Interference in Instrumentations
 Characteristics of measurement systems

• Instrument performance must be accurately described with quantitative criteria

so that different instruments may be compared and evaluated for specific tasks.
• The system characteristics are to be known, to choose an instrument that most
suited to a particular measurement application.
• It allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs
Characteristics of an instrument
 - To determine the design or choice of an instrument, we must consider the following
three aspects:
 – how we wish to use the instrument and for which purposes ;
 – whether it is an isolated system or connected to other systems;
 – the features of the measurand and ease of accessibility.
 The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided

1. Static characteristics into two categories:

• The performance criteria for the measurement of
quantities that remain constant, or slowly varying with Range & Span
time. Accurancy and precision
• The static characteristics of instruments are related with Sensitivity
Environmental effects
steady state response.
threshold
Repeatability and reproducibility
Death space

2. Dynamic characteristics
 The set of criteria defined for
instruments which are changes rapidly
with time.

 The relationship between the system input and output when The detailed specifications of the
the measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly. functional characteristics of any
 system performance for AC inputs and value of the measured instrument are termed its
variable change very fast. performance characteristics.
 RANGE Or SPAN Static Performance of Instrument Static Characteristics:

 The minimum and maximum values of a quantity for which instrument is designed to measure is called range
or span.
 The range of indicating instruments is normally from zero to full scale value and the Span is simply the
difference between the full scale and lower scale value.
 The range of span of an instrument which has a reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.
 In such case, the scale range is said to be from 5V to 25V and the scale span is 25-5 i.e.,20V.

2)Tolerance:-the maximum error

 Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured (out) component from some specified value.
 Tolerance is the maximum acceptable difference between the actual value of a quantity and the value specified for
it.
 Closely related to accuracy of an equipment where the accuracy of an equipment is sometimes referred to in the
form of tolerance limit.

 For example, if an electrical resistor has a specification of 10 ohms and there is a tolerance of
±10 % on that specification, the minimum acceptable resistance would be 9 ohms and the
maximum would be 11 ohms.
 A 1000W resistor with a tolerance of ±5% has an actual resistance between 950 and 1050W.
 Static Characteristics:

• 3) Bias:
 Bias is quantitative term describing the difference between the average of measured
readings made on the same instrument and its true value
 (It is a characteristic of measuring instruments to give indications of the value of a
measured quantity for which the average value differs from true value).
 Bias describes a constant error which exits over the full range of measurement of an
instrument, when the pointer not starting from zero scale.
 The error is normally removable by calibration.

Example :
 A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This equipment always gives a
reading of 1 kg even without any load applied. Therefore, if A with a weight of 70 kg
weighs himself, the given reading would be 71 kg. This would indicate that there is a
constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
 Static Characteristics:
Accuracy
• It is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches to the true value of
the quantity being measured.
• It is the closeness of a measurement (or a set of observations) to the true value.
• The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the instrument is to the
correct value.
• Degree of conformity of an indicted value to a recognized accepted standard value.
Expressions
The accuracy of the instrument can be specified as: • % of reading
1. Percentage of the true value • % of FS (or simply %)
• ±number of digits
1
• 2 the smallest division of
2. percentage of the full-scale deflection an analog scale
• Sum of the above

Accuracy - closeness of agreement between the measured value and the true value
True Value is the exact value of a variable(known and unknowable).
Measured Value - value of variable as indicated by measurement system
 Static Characteristics:

2) Precision:
Precision is measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of
measurements are repeatedly made under the prescribed condition.
Precision is defined as the capability of an instrument to show the same reading
when used each time.
Precision measures how closely two or more measurements agree with other.

An instrument which is precise may not be necessarily accurate.

High precision does not imply high accuracy.
The number of distinguishable alternatives from which a given result is selected
(2.434 V is a more precise value than 2.43 V).
X : result The idea is that firing an arrow at a target is like making a measurement.
Centre circle : true value
Comparison between accuracy and precision.
Accuracy Precision
• It refers to degree of closeness of • It refers to the degree of
the measured value to the true agreement among group of
value. readings.
• Accuracy is the ability of an • Precision of a measuring system
instrument to show the exact gives its capability to reproduce
reading. a certain reading with a given
• A qualitative term that describes accuracy.
how close a set of measurements • Precision is about how close
are to the actual (true) value. measurements are to one another.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
viii) Reproducibility:
 It is the closeness with which the same value of the input quantity is measured at different times and under
different conditions of usage of the instrument and by different instruments.
 The closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same value of the
input under the same operating condition.
 Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, approaching from the
different direction (location), conditions of use and time of measurement.

• Repeatability:
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a
short period of time.
• The measurement is made on the same instrument, at the same location, by the same observer and under the
same measurement conditions.
• For example If a person wants his weight to be measured, repeatability requires the measurements to give the
same weight of the same person on the same weight bridge and with all the other conditions the same.
• The closeness of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the output for the same value
of the input under the same operating conditions, approaching from the same direction, for full range
traverses.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Linearity
 The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation
from the linear characteristics as a percentage of the
full scale output.
 Linearity is the maximum deviation between the
measured values of a sensor from ideal curve.
 The output of an instrument has to be linearly or
directly proportional to the measured quantity.
 So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship
between the output to input is called as linearity
of an instrument.
 Linearity is the closeness of the calibration curve of a
measuring system to a straight line.
 9) Sensitivity

 The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds.
 It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change in the measured quantity.
 Definition of sensitivity for (a) Linear and (b) Non-linear instrument

 It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an

instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured(input).

It is defined as the ratio of the magnitude

response of the output signal to the
magnitude response of the input signal.

Where, ∆θo = Change in output and ∆θi = Change in input

Example 1: The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance Thermometer changes when the
temperature increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for this equipment is Ohm/°C.
 Threshold:
• When the reading of an input is increased from zero, the input reading will reach a
certain value before change occurs in the output.
• The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to produce
an output is termed its threshold .

• If the input to an instrument is gradually

increased from zero, the input will have to
reach a certain minimum level before which no
output change can be observed or detected.

Example :- a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This means that, if the
vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer until the
speed reaches 15 km/h.
 DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND
Output
Reading
 It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which
there is no output the instrument due to the factors such as static +
friction, backlash or hysteresis within the system. -
 Dead zone is also known as dead band /dead Space.
 The region up to which the instrument does not respond for an Measured
input change is called dead zone. Variables
 Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to Dead Space
respond to change in input quantity .

• As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 15 km/h.

• This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output reading is observed on the
speedometer until the speed reaches 15 km/h.
• If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to
be detectable.
 • Resolution/ Threshold

• If the input to an instrument increases slowly from some

arbitrary non-zero value, it will be observed that the output of
the instrument does not change at all until there is a certain
minimum increment in the input.
• This minimum increment in what is input is called resolution of
the instrument.
• The smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected
with certainty by instrument is called resolution or discrimination.

• One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output
scale is divided into subdivisions.
• Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h.
• This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed
more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h.
• This figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument.
 Hysteresis.

 Many measuring systems have the undesirable characteristic of giving a different

value when the input is increasing than when it is decreasing. This is called
hysteresis.
 An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference in readings
depending an whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from above or
below.
 This refers to the situation where different readings (outputs) are sometimes observed
for the same input because the input was approached from different directions.

 For example a thermometer exposed to an increasing temperature input (i.e. going from 0
to 100°C) may show a slightly different profile to that for the decreasing input (i.e.
decreasing from 100 to 0°C).
 Hysteresis may be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation,
or thermal effects.
 XI)Hysteresis:

• Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output

effects when loading and unloading whether it is a mechanical
system or any electrical system and for that matter any system.
• Hysteresis is the difference in the readings of an
instrument(output), which depends on whether that input value is
approached from increasing or decreasing values of input.
• That is upscale and down scale deflections do not coincide when
the measurement is made of the same value by the method of
symmetry.

It is the difference in output when input is varied in two

ways- increasing and decreasing.

• If input is decreases from maximum value and output also

decreases but does not follow the same curve, then there is a
residual output when input is zero.
• This phenomenon is called Hysteresis.
Drift
 Drift is defined as the gradual shift in the induction over a period of time where in the input variable
does not change.
 Drift is a departure in the output of the instrument over the period of time.
 The variation of the input measured value with time, for a given input caused due to change in the
sensitivity of the instrument, due to certain interfering inputs like temperature change, component
instabilities, etc.
 An instrument is said to have no drift if it produces same reading at different times for the same
variation in the measured variable.

 Drift is unrelated to the operating conditions or load.

 Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.

The following factors could contribute towards the drift in the instruments:
i) Wear and tear
ii) Mechanical vibrations
iii) Stresses developed in the parts of the instrument There are 3 types of drift ,they are
iv) Temperature variations a) zero drift:
v) Stray electric and magnetic fields b) span drift or sensitivity drift
vi) Thermal emf c) Zonal drift:
 Zero drift

• Zero drift is a deviation observed in the instrument output with

time from the initial value, all the other measurement conditions
are constant.
• Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.

• Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of
an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions or
due to ageing.
• This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument.
• Zero drift is normally removable by calibration.

 Typical units by which zero drift is measured are volts per °C in the case of a voltmeter affected by
changes in ambient temperature.
• It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps 1 kg with no one stood on the scale.
• If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 71 kg, and if someone
of known weight 100 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would be 101 kg.
• (b).Sensitivity or span drift(also known as scale factor drift)
defines the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
• If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionately it
is called span drift.
• It may be due to the change in spring gradient.

• The slope of the calibration curve changes; i.e. the error is

proportional to the magnitude of the input.
• It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients that define
how much drift there is for a unit change in each
environmental parameter that the instrument characteristics are
sensitive to.
 (c)zero drift plus sensitivity drift.
 When the drift occurs only over a portion of the span of the
instrument it is called zonal drift.
 Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form (angular
degree/bar)/°C.
 If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the
same time, then the typical modification of the output characteristic .
Many components within an instrument are affected by environmental fluctuations, such as temperature
changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent.

Sources of zero drift

 Manufacturing misalignment
 Variations in ambient temperature
 ambient pressure changes
 Hysteresis
 Vibration
 Shock
 Sensitivity to forces from undesired direction
 Dynamic characteristics of instruments

• The static characteristics of measuring instruments are concerned only with the steady
state reading that the instrument settles down to, such as the accuracy of the reading
etc.
• The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behaviour between
the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output
attains a steady value in response.
• As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in
instrument data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified
environmental conditions.

Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.

• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured variables due
to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electrical
capacitance.
• Dynamic error is the difference between the true and measured value.
Dynamic characteristics of Electrical Measuring Instruments :

Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are

1. Speed of response
2. measuring lag
3. Fidelity
4. dynamic error,

. Speed of response:
 It refers to its ability to respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input signal.
 It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
 It is usually specified as the time taken by the system to come close to steady state conditions, for a
step input function.
 Hence the speed of response is evaluated from the knowledge of the system performance under
transient conditions and terms such as time constant, measurement lag, settling time and dead time
dynamic range are used to convey the response of the variety of systems, encountered in practice.
Dynamic characteristics of Electrical Measuring Instruments :

2. Measurement lag:
 It is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the measurand.
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity or variable.
• Measurement lag is of two types.
• a) Retardation type:
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the change
in measured quantity(measurand ) has occurred.
• b) Time delay lag:
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the
application of the input quantity.
• Dead time simply shifts the response of the system along the time scale and cause a
corresponding dynamic error.
 Dynamic characteristics of Electrical Measuring Instruments :

• Measurement systems having inputs dynamic in nature, the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output.
• The behaviour of the system under such conditions is dealt by the dynamic response of the system and its
dynamic characteristics of electrical measuring instruments are given below:

3. Dynamic error:
 It is the difference between the true value of the quantity(changing with time & the value indicated by the
measurement system( the instrument) provided static error is zero.
 When measurement problems are concerned with rapidly varying quantities, the dynamic relations b/n the
instruments input and output are generally defined by the use of differential equations
 Total dynamic error is the phase difference between input and output of the measurement system.
4. Fidelity:
 It is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the input.
 In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference is not included.
 Ideally a system should have 100% fidelity and the output should appear in the same form as the input and there is
no distortion produced by the system.
 Fidelity needs are different for different applications.
 It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system (instrument) indicates changes in the measurand
quantity (measured variable )without dynamic error.
Dynamic Characteristics:

• The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form of known and
predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then studies the output.
• Generally dynamic behavior is determined by applying following three types of inputs.
• Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in measured variable. Sudden change in input signal from steady state.
• The output signal for this kind of input is known as ‘transient response’.
• Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured variable,changing
linearly with time.
• Ramp Input-The signal changes linearly.
• The output signal for ramp input is ‘ramp response’.
• Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured variable,
the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
• The signal is harmonic.
• The output signal is ‘frequency response’
End
chapter three