SCHOOL CERTIFICATE BIOLOGY NOTES

Grade 10

Introduction

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their
structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution and taxonomy. The word biology
comes from two Greek words “bios” which means life and “logia” which means knowledge.
Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. The most striking
thing about living organisms is their range of diversity and complexity. They range from a single
celled animal like the amoeba found in fresh water ponds to the giant blue whale found in the
oceans, from a single celled green plant called algae (limbwe-limbwe) found on moist river
banks to the giant Baob tree found in the savanna grass lands or from a tiny mosquito to the
giant elephant.

Branches of biology

The branches of biology are many and they include the following;

 Agriculture – the study of producing livestock, and crops from the land, with an emphasis
on practical applications
 Anatomy – the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or
specifically in humans
 Botany – the study of plants
 Cell biology – the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical
interactions that occur within a living cell
 Conservation biology – the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the
natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife

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  Ecology – the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the
non-living elements of their environment
 Entomology – the study of insects
 Environmental biology – the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area,
especially as affected by human activity
 Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and descent of species over time
 Genetics – the study of genes and heredity
 Mammalogy – the study of mammals
 Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their
interactions with other living things
 Mycology – the study of fungi
 Parasitology – the study of parasites and parasitism
 Virology – the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
 Zoology – the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development and
behavior

Importance of biology

Biology is a very popular subject and it is studied by millions of people around the world. The
main reason for this is that life itself is a complex mystery and hence both scientists and
ordinary people have keen interest in biology. Students and pupils study biology in order to get
a good grade in their examinations, scientists uses biological principles to manufacture
products for the good of mankind, medical doctors use biological principles to treat disease,
drug developers test their drugs on animals before using them on people because there is a
biological relationship between man and the animals.

Career prospects in biology

Biology offers a wide range of careers and these include; agriculture, medicine, teaching,
nutrition, pharmacy, wild life, processing and manufacturing.

The microscope

One of the most important tools in biology is the microscope. The microscope is used to view
tiny organism that cannot be seen by a naked eye. The compound microscope uses light for
illumination. Some simple compound microscope make use of natural light where as some have
an illuminator attached to the base of the microscope that act as the source of light. The
specimen is placed on the stage and observed through different lenses of the microscope,
which have varying magnification Fig 1 below shows a microscope

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Compound microscope parts and functions

1. Body tube;
This is the part of the microscope that holds the eye piece and it separates the eye piece
from the objective lenses
2. Arm or stem;
The arm connects the body tube to the base. The user must hold this part in order to move
the microscope from one place to another
3. Base ;
As the name suggests, the base is the lower portion on which the whole structure of the
microscope rests.
4. Eye piece;
It is through the eye piece that we look at the specimen placed on the stage of the
microscope. It contains two or more lenses
5. Objective lenses;
Objective lenses together with the eye piece help to magnify the specimen
6. Stage;
This is the platform below the objective lenses 0n which the object or specimen to be
viewed id placed,
7. Stage clips;
The stage clips are used to hold the slide in place
8. Diaphragm;
This is located on the lower surface of the stage. It is used to control the amount of light
that reaches the specimen through the hole in the stage
9. The mirror;

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 This reflects light into the microscope so that the specimen can be seen. Some advanced
compound microscopes have their own light source called the illuminator
10. Adjustments;
There are two adjustment knobs; the fine adjustment knob and the coarse adjustment
knob. The coarse adjustment knob helps in improving the focus at a lower power where
as the fine adjustment knob helps in adjusting the focus of the lenses with higher
magnification.

The Resolution Power of the Microscope

The resolution power of the microscope is found by multiplying the eye piece lens and the
objective lens. Thus if the eye piece lens is X10 and the objective lens is X50; the resolution
power is:

Resolution power = 10 X 50
= X500
The resolution power shows how much the specimen has been magnified by the microscope using that
objective lens. The microscope show in fig 1 is called the light compound microscope. The other types
include the simple microscope and the electron microscope. The electron microscope is more complex

Magnification
In biology from time to time students and pupils will be expected to draw diagrams of specimens that
practical instructors and teachers would give them. Students and pupils will be required to calculate the
magnification of their diagrams in relation to the specimen that they were given. To find the
magnification of the diagram; the sizes of both the diagram and the specimen are measured accurately
to the nearest millimeter using a ruler and using the formula:

Magnification = size of the diagram

Size of specimen
From the above diagram the magnification of the diagram can easily be calculated.

Example; the size of the diagram is 9.1cm and the size of the specimen is 3.9cm, the magnification of the
diagram can be calculated as follows:

Magnification = size of the diagram

Size of specimen
9.1cm
= 3.9cm
= 2.333
= 2.3 X or X2.3
The answer is always rounded to 1 decimal place and so the answer is 2.3 X

The X stands for the number of time the specimen has been magnified in the diagram
Alternatively the figures could be written in millimeters as follows

Magnification = size of diagram

Size of specimen
= 91mm
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 39mm
= X2.3
When writing magnification;
1. The formula must be written in full and no abbreviations are allowed
2. Correct units must be indicted in the substitutions
3. The answer must be rounded off to 1 decimal place
4. Capital X must be indicated in front or behind in the answer.

Exercise
Take a small mango leaf measuring between 3.0cm and 6.0cm in length. Draw its diagram and calculate
the magnification of the diagram you have drawn

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

Biology is the study of living organisms and organisms that once lived. All living organisms
exhibit certain characteristics which distinguishes them from non living things. The
characteristics are:

a. GROWTH
All living organisms feed and assimilate nutrients into their cells. These make living organisms to
increase in size and complexity. Non living things do not grow

b. RESPIRATION
All living organisms take oxygen into their bodies and take carbon dioxide out of their bodies.
Oxygen is used to oxidize sugars in the cells to release energy, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Energy is used by body cells while carbon dioxide and water vapour are given out as waste products.
The process of releasing energy from sugars in the cells is called respiration. Non living things like
stones do not respire

c. NUTRITION
All living organisms take into their bodies complex food materials which they are able to digest and
obtain nutrients from these materials. Plants make their own food through photosynthesis. Non
living things do not take in food material and do not make their own food.

d. LOCOMOTION
All living organisms show movement. In animals this movement is very clear. In plants this
movement is not very visible to our eyes because they are rooted in one position. However, there
are some plants that show remarkable movement when touched. Non living things do not show any
movement on their own except when moved by animals, wind or water.

e. REPRODUCTION
All living organisms have the characteristic of producing young ones to replace the dead and the
aged. These young ones resemble members of the species and they are important because
they make the species continue to exist on earth. Non living organisms do not produce.

f. SENSITIVITY
All living organisms are sensitive to their environment. They respond to stimuli like light,
heat, gravity and chemicals. In plants the response is called tropism while in animals it is
called taxism. Non living things are not sensitive to their environment.

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g. EXCRETION
All living organisms remove nitrogenous waste products from their bodies. These
substances are toxic and poisonous such that if they are allowed to stay in their bodies they
would harm the organism. One of the nitrogenous waste products is urea. In animals urea is
mainly removed through urinating. Non living things do not remove urea.

The above characteristics are exhibited by all living organisms and are usually known as the
seven characteristics of living organisms

Exercise;

In what ways does a car behave like living organism and why is it not a living organism?

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION:

A cell is a basic unit of life; this means that a single cell has all the seven characteristics of a
living organism. There are organisms that are made up of only one cell and are called unicellular
organisms. Examples of such organisms include amoeba, algae, spirogyra etc. Organisms like
man, rat, chicken, mango tree and grass are made up of billions of cells and are referred to as
multi cellular organisms.

The diagrams below shows atypical animal cell and a typical plant cell as viewed under a
compound light microscope

Animal cell

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 Plant cell

Similarities between the animal cell and a plant cell:

1. They both have nucleus

2. They both have cytoplasm
3. They both have a cell membrane
4. They both have protoplasm. Protoplasm is a collective term for both the nucleus and
cytoplasm

Differences between the plant cell and the animal cell:

1. The plant cell has chloroplasts while the plant cell has no chloroplasts
2. The plant cell has big vacuole while in the animal cell the vacuole is absent
3. The plant cell has cell wall while the animal cell has no cell wall
4. The plant cell is regular in shape while the animal cell is irregular in shape

When the cell is examined using an electron microscope more features are seen.

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The diagram above show the plant cell as viewed through the electron microscope. Compare
the details with that from a compound light microscope.

Parts and Functions of a Cell

Mitochondria (one is called mitochondrion and many are called mitochondria);
Mitochondria are at times known as the cell’s power house because this is the site where
respiration takes place. The number of mitochondria in a cell will vary depending on its energy
requirement. Cells that are more active like those of the liver, heart and skeletal muscles have a
greater number of mitochondria than less active cells like those of the alimentary canal. The
main function of the mitochondria is to serve as a site for respiration and hence generate
energy for the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum;
This is a complex network of membranes. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum
namely the smooth endoplasmic reticulum which has no ribosomes and the rough endoplasmic
reticulum which has ribosomes. The main function of the endoplasmic reticulum is to serve as a
transport system of materials within the cell and out of the cell.

Ribosomes;
These are organelles found in the cell. They are the site where serve as sites where the
synthesis of proteins such as enzymes take place

Golgi bodies:
These are flattened vesicles found in both plant and animal cells. Their function is to facilitate
the transportation of materials such as enzymes from endoplasmic reticulum to sites of
reaction. In plants they help in the formation of cell walls.

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Nucleus:
The nucleus is the major cell organelle because it houses chromosomes that carry genes. The
main function of the nucleus is to control all cell activities such as respiration, cell division and
protein synthesis

Cytoplasm:
This is a transparent jelly- like material and it is nearly all water. It contains a lot of dissolve
substances such as amino acids, glucose and mineral salts. It also has all the suspended cell
organelle, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes

Cell membrane also called plasma membrane:

This lies next to the cell wall, it comprises a protein and lipid bilayer. Its main function is
selective transport of nutrients, and an important organelle in osmosis.

Cellulose cell wall:

The cellulose cell wall is found only in plant cells. It is the outermost covering of the plant cell.
Its functions include giving support to the cell, maintaining the cell shape, preventing the cell
from bursting when there is too much water inside and controlling the growth of the cell.

Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are clear fluid sacs. In plant cells vacuoles are large and mostly filled with
water. In animal cells they are mostly absent or they are much smaller. Their functions
include acting as storage areas for food, minerals, and waste products. Since it is fluid
filled it gives the plant cell support

Chloroplasts:
These are found in Plant cells only they contain a green pigment known as
chlorophyll. This chlorophyll captures energy from sunlight and helps in the manufacture of
food by the process of photosynthesis

Specialized Cells
Some cells are specialised to carry out certain functions, hence the differences in structure. The
specialization of cells is more complex in multi cellular organisms. Some specialized cells are
listed below

Root hair cell;

The root hair cell is thin and elongated to increase the surface area for the absorption of water
and dissolved mineral salts

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Red blood cell;
The red blood cell has no nucleus, it is biconcave and has haemoglobin. It is specialized in
transporting oxygen from lungs to the cells so that respiration can take place. If it had a nucleus
it would be a living thing and instead of transporting oxygen it would use it for its respiration

The nerve cell (neuron)

The nerve cell or the neuron has along axon and dendrites. It specializes in picking and conducting
electrical impulses detected by sense organs. The myelin sheath and nodes speeds up the conduction of
impulses

White blood cell (phagocyte)

The white blood cell has a nucleus and can change shape. It specializes in engulfing bacteria

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Ciliated cells:
These cells have cilia or hairs that beat continuously. They are mainly found in the respiratory
system in mammals. Their function is to remove dust and germs.

Ciliated cell
Phloem sieve tube:
The diagram below shows a phloem tube

It has a companion cell. It transports food to all parts of the plant. It is a living cell.
Palisade cell:
This cell has an oblong shape. It has a lot of chloroplasts. It specializes in carrying out
photosynthesis

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 Palisade cell
Spongy cell:
The spongy cell is spherical in shape. It allows large air spaces to exist between the spongy cells.
It specializes in photosynthesis and allows gaseous exchange

Guard cell:
The guard cells contain chloroplasts and are oval in shape. The specialize in opening and closing
the stomata

Xylem vessel
The xylem vessel has no nucleus and its cells are impregnated with lignin which a non living
material. It is a drain pipe. It specializes in conducting water from roots to leaves

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Sperm:
The sperm is a reproductive cell. It has a long tail for swimming

CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS, SYSTEMS AND ORGANISM

Cells of multi cellular organisms such as plants and animals differ in shape and structure. The
shape of a particular cell depends on the place where it is found and its function.
Cells:
A cell is a basic unit of life i.e a single cell is capable of exhibiting all the seven characteristics of
living organisms. However some cells, do not exhibit all the seven characteristics. Examples of
cells include nerve cells, sex cells, root hair cells, muscle cells etc
Tissue:
Cells that are similar in structure and perform a specific function form a tissue. Therefore a
tissue is a collection of cells that perform the same function. Multi cellular organisms have a
variety of tissues. Examples of tissues in man include nerve tissue, bone tissue, muscle tissues,
phloem tissue, palisade tissue etc
Organ:
Tissues that perform a specific function form an organ. Examples of organs in man include the
eye, the ear, the heart, the brain, the stomach, the liver, the kidney etc. examples of organs in
plants include root, the stem, the leaf etc

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System:
Different organs in a living organism form a system, multi cellular organisms are made of
different systems. Examples of a system include the digestive system, the nervous system, the
excretory system, the respiratory system, the skeletal system, the reproductive system etc.
Organism:
Different systems form an organism. Multi cellular organisms are made up of many different
systems such as the circulatory system, the reproductive system, the digestive system in
animals. In plants the systems that make the plant include the transport system, root system,
the shoot system, the reproductive system etc

The order of complexity starting with the least complex to the most complex is illustrated
below;

Cell Tissue Organ System Organism

Diffusion, Osmosis and Active transport

Diffusion:
Diffusion is the process by which substances or molecules of a substance move from the area of
their highest concentration to the area of their lowest concentration along the concentration
gradient.
The diagram below show the diffusion of potassium permanganate

Observation:
After several hours; the purple colour spread to all parts of the liquid as shown in the diagram above

Importance of diffusion
There are many useful substances that are always in a higher concentration outside the cells
than inside the cell. These substances must diffuse into the cells for the cells to utilize them. For
example oxygen diffuses from air sacs in the lung to the blood stream for it to be taken the
cells. From the blood oxygen diffuses into the cells for respiration, carbon dioxide produced by
respiration diffuses from the cells into the blood stream and when carbon dioxide reaches the
lungs it diffuses out of the blood stream into the air sac where it is breathed out. In plants
gaseous exchange takes place through diffusion i.e carbon dioxide enters the leaf through
stomata by diffusion and oxygen leaves the leaf by diffusion.

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Osmosis:
Cell membranes are selectively permeable to solute only and are completely permeable to
water. A cell has two solutions to which it is related; one solution is inside the cell and the other
solution is outside the cell. These two solutions are separated by the cell membrane. When the
two solutions separated by the cell membrane have different concentrations water moves from
a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution so as to dilute it. Osmosis is
therefore the movement of water molecules from a less concentrated solution to a more
concentrated solution through a selective membrane.

The diagrams below illustrate the experiment that was set up to demonstrate osmosis

In the above diagram the direction of the flow of water is shown by the arrow. Water molecules
are flowing from the pure water area to salt water area through a selective membrane by
osmosis increasing the volume of the solution on the salt water area.

HYPERTONIC OR HYPOTONIC OR ISOTONIC SOLUTION

Hypertonic solution:
The cells of a living organism can be put into a solution that has more solute (concentrated
solution) than the solutions inside the cells (cell sap). A solution that is more concentrated than
the cell sap inside the cells is called a hypertonic solution. In this case water molecules would
move from the cell sap to the hypertonic solution which is outside the cell through the selective
membrane by osmosis
Hypotonic solution:
The solution that the cells may be subjected can be hypotonic. A hypotonic solution is less
concentrated than the solution inside the cells (cell sap). In this case water molecules would
move from the hypotonic solution outside the cell to the more concentrated solution inside the
cell (cell sap) thought the selective membrane by osmosis
Isotonic Solution:
When the concentration of the solution in which the cell is put is equal to the concentration of
the cell sap the solution is called isotonic solution. In this case the amount of water molecules
leaving the cell sap is equal to the amount of water molecules entering into the cell sap from
the outside. This situation is called dynamic equilibrium.

The diagrams below illustrate the movement of water between the hypotonic and hypertonic
solution

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Osmosis and plant cells:
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution i.e a solution which is less concentrated than
the cell sap water from the solution will enter the cell by osmosis until such a time when the
concentration inside the cell and outside the cell are equal. When the two solutions are equal
the movement of water into and out of the cell balance and the equilibrium is reached.

When a plant cell is put in distilled water (pure water), more and more water molecules will
enter the cell. No matter how much water enters the cell the cell will not burst, the cell will not
burst because the plant cell has a tough cellulose cell wall that resists turgor pressure and
rapture. The cell will simply swell and become turgid.

On the other hand if a plant cell is put in a hypertonic solution i.e a solution which is more
concentrated than the cell sap, the cell will lose water from the cell sap by osmosis. As more
and more water is lost from the cell sap the cell membrane pull away from the cell wall and the
cell shrinks. The cell is said to be plasmolysed.

Osmosis is an important process because it makes water enter root hair cells in the soil.

The diagrams below illustrates osmosis and plant cells

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Osmosis and animal cells:

Like plant cells, when an animal cell is put in a more concentrated solution than its cell sap it
loses water to the surrounding solution. When the animal cell loses more water it shrinks a
condition known as crenation

As shown in the above diagram, animal cells, such as red blood cells, lose water by the process
called osmosis when they are placed in a concentrated salt solution. The cells are said to be
crenated

On the other hand, placing an animal cell in a dilute solution such as distilled water, the water
molecules enter the cell by osmosis. As more and more water enters the animal cell the cell
swells and bursts. The animal cell bursts because it has no cellulose cell wall to resist the
increasing targor pressure. The bursting of the animal cell is called lysis

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 Effect of osmosis on Red blood cells

The solution that is hypotonic (diluted solution, less solutes more water) will have higher
osmotic potential. The solution that is hypertonic (concentrated solution, more solutes less
water) will have lower osmotic potential. Difference in osmotic potentials will cause water
molecules to move from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the movement of substances across a cell membrane in the direction
against their concentration gradient, i.e moving from an area where they are in low
concentration to an area where they in high concentration. To move substances against their
concentration gradient requires energy hence the term active transport. In living organisms
substances that are moved by active transport include the movement of mineral salts from the soil
where they are in low concentration into the root hair cell sap where they are in high concentration,
glucose moves from the small intestines into the cells of the villi where they are in high concentration.

REVISION QUESTION

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ENZYMES:
Enzymes are biological catalysts protein in nature which alter the rate of chemical reactions in
the body of a living organism. All metabolisms are either speeded up by enzymes or slowed
down by enzymes. Examples of enzymes include salivary amylase obtained from the mouth,
Pepsin in the stomach and catalase obtained from fresh cabbage leaves or fresh Irish potato
tubers. Catalase is also found in the liver where it breaks down hydrogen peroxide. The
substance upon which the enzyme acts is called a substrate. Generally enzymes are named
after the substrate that they act on. For example enzymes that act on lipids are called lipase,
enzymes that act on proteins are called protease and enzymes that act on maltose are called
maltase and enzymes that act on sucrose are called sucrase.

There are intracellular enzymes and extracellular enzymes. Intracellular enzymes are enzymes
that are secreted the cell and catalyse substrates within the cell where as extra cellular
enzymes are secreted by the cell or group of cells but catalyse substrates outside the cell. Most
digestive enzymes are extracellular enzymes. For example maltase is secreted by cells in the
pancreas but catalyse the digestion of starch in the small intestine.

Properties of enzymes
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 1. Enzymes are proteins in nature
2. Enzymes are specific in their action
3. Enzymes work well in a narrow PH range
4. Enzymes have an optimum temperature where their rate of activity is at their best
5. concentration of enzymes

Enzyme specificity (lock and key theory)

Enzymes are very specific in their action. Each type of enzymes acts on a specific substrate. For
example protease enzymes will only act on protein substrates and lipase act only on lipids.
Enzymes act on specific substrates because enzymes have specific shapes. The enzyme’s shape
determines the substrate which can be worked on. Only those substrates that can fit into the
enzyme’s shape can be catalyzed. The region of the enzyme that fits into substrate is called the
reactive site.
The relationship of an enzyme to a substrate is similar to that of a lock and key. Just as each
lock has its own key every substrate or class of food has specific enzymes. The diagram below
illustrates the lock and key theory of the enzymes

The enzyme P is the “lock” while the substrate Q is the “key”. You can easily remember this
when you think of a small key fitting into a large lock! Similarly, the enzyme binds to the
substrate to form an enzyme substrate complex that later breaks down to form the unchanged
enzyme and the products R and S. (It is a common mistake to think that the lock is the one that
becomes opened, hence called substrate.)

PH
Enzymes are affected by alkalinity and acidity. The degree of alkalinity or acidity of a solution is
called PH. Enzymes which work well in an acidic environment may not work well in an alkaline
environment. At a certain PH for a particular enzyme, enzyme activity is at a maximum.

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Enzymes work better in a narrow temperature range. Enzymes that work in the duodenum and
small intestine generally work in an alkaline environment which is created by bile salts.
Enzymes that work in the stomach work in an acidic environment. The acidic environment is
created by the hydrochloric acid which is secreted by walls of the stomach.

Temperature:

Each enzyme type has its own optimum temperature at which its rate of activity is at its peak.
Enzymes that catalyse reactions in plants have their optimum temperatures around 25 0C and
enzymes that catalyse the reaction in man have their optimum temperatures around 370C.
Most enzymes are destroyed at temperatures above 400C.

It is observed that gradual increase in temperature say from 0 0C to the optimum temperature
increases the enzyme activity. However, after the optimum temperature the enzyme activity
decreases almost sharply this is because after the optimum temperature enzymes get
denatured.

The diagram below illustrates the effect of temperature on enzyme activity

At low temperature enzyme activity is low because at low temperatures molecules do not have
enough kinetic energy to facilitate rapid collision which would result in more enzymes and
substrates reacting. At optimum temperatures enzymes and substrates have enough kinetic
energy and the enzyme activity is at its highest. At temperatures higher than the optimum
temperature the enzyme activity decreases and eventually stops because enzymes get
denatured. They get denatured because enzymes are proteins in nature and just as proteins get
denatured when heated enzymes also get denatured at temperatures above the optimum
temperature due to too much heat.

Enzyme inhibitors;

Enzyme inhibitors are substances that interact in some way with the enzyme to prevent it from
acting on substrates fast. There are a variety of inhibitors which include: competitive and
noncompetitive inhibitors
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Competitive Inhibitors:

A competitive inhibitor is any compound that resembles the substrate upon which the substrate
acts. The inhibitor competes for the same active site as the substrate. The inhibitor may interact
with the enzyme at the active site of the enzyme, but no reaction takes place. The inhibitor is
"stuck" on the enzyme and prevents any substrate molecules from reacting with the enzyme.

Non competitive Inhibitors:

A noncompetitive inhibitor is a substance that interacts with the enzyme, but usually not at the
active site. The noncompetitive inhibitor reacts either far from or very close to the active site.
The effect of a non competitive inhibitor is to change the shape of the enzyme and thus
distorting the shape of the active site, so that the substrate can no not interact with the enzyme to
give a reaction

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Other inhibitors:

Other inhibitors include un favaourable PH, too high or too low temperature

Co-enzymes

Coenzymes are substances that are required by certain enzymes to carry out catalysis
Coenzymes cannot function on their own and require the presence of an enzyme. Examples of co-
enzymes include vitamins and mineral salts

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF ENZYMES

Biological Washing Powder;

These contain enzymes lipases, proteases and amylases. These enzymes digest and remove dirt stains of
plant and animal materials from clothes during washing. For effective removal of the dirt a suitable
water temperature and PH is necessary.

In Brewing;

in brewing carbohydrates are fermented and during this process the enzymes in malt convert
carbohydrates into sucrose and the enzyme in yeast breaks down sucrose to alcohol
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In Leather Tanning;

Animal skin are hard and thick and to process them into a leather the skin are softened by tannic acid
and enzyme solutions is added to break down some tissues.

In Baking;

Flour is mixed with yeast and enzymes in wheat flower change starch in wheat to glucose. The enzyme
in yeast act on sugar to produce carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is trapped in the dough making it rise.

Revision questions:

1. The diagram below shows how an enzyme controlled reaction may occur. Study the diagram and
attempt the questions that follow

a. Identify A -----------------------------------------------------------------------
b. State two characteristics of enzymes being demonstrated in the diagram above

i) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

c. State two characteristics of enzymes not being demonstrated in the diagram above

i) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ii) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

d. State the hypothesis being illustrated above

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Fig 2.1 shows the effect of temperature on an enzyme activity. The amount of substrate
was equal at each temperature

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 From Fig 2.1 state one general deduction
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
a. Suggest a reason why curve 600C became horizontal at a much lower value (Y) than the
other two curves.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. Suggest a reason why curve at 250C and Curve 350C became horizontal at the same level
X
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. At what time did each curve became horizontal
60oC---------------------------------------
350C -----------------------------------
250C ----------------------------------

3. Three test tubes A, B and C each containing 2cm3 of starch solution were put in water at
0 degrees Celsius, 38 degrees Celsius and 70 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. After
10minutes an equal amount of salivary amylase added to each test tube and allowed to
stand for another 10 minutes as shown in the diagram below.

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 3drops of freshly prepared iodine solution were then added to each test tube and
shaken.

a. State the observations that were observed in

(i) Test tube A ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Test tube B……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
(iii) Test tube C ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Explain the cause of the observations in

(i) Test tube A
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Test tube B
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(iii) Test tube C
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

NUTRIENTS

A nutrient is an essential substance found in food that the body of a living organism needs for
growth and development. Nutrients to the organism are raw materials for energy production,
growth and protection against diseases. Nutrients are classified as carbohydrates, proteins,
water, roughage or dietary fibre, vitamins, lipids (fats and oils) and mineral salts.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates contain the elements oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. This class of nutrients
includes starch, glycogen and sugars. They are obtained when an organism feeds on food
substances such as bread, cassava potatoes, rice, honey, bananas, Nshima etc. all

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carbohydrates are made from basic units (monomers) called monosaccharides. A
monosaccharide is a simple sugar commonly known as a reducing sugar.

All monosaccharides are soluble in water and have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides
include glucose found in honey and icing sugar, fructose found in fruits and nectar and
galactose found in milk..

When monosaccharides chemically combine in a process called condensation polymerization

they form disaccharides. For example when two glucose monomers chemically combine they
form maltose. Examples of disaccharide s are sucrose (cane sugar) and lactose i.e. sugar found
in milk.

When more than two monosaccharides chemically combine they form a polysaccharide.
Examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen and cellulose. Disaccharides and
monosaccharides are soluble in water but polysaccharides are insoluble in water.

Uses of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are sources of energy for the body. The body uses carbohydrates to carry out
respiration. And respiration generates energy which the body uses to maintain a constant body
temperature in mammals. Energy is also used by the organism to carry out all the metabolic
reactions. Every gram of carbohydrate provides about 17kj of energy during the respiration
process. Lack of carbohydrates in the human body causes marasmus

PROTEINS

Proteins contain the elements oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen. Living organisms
obtained these nutrients when they feeds on food substances such as meat, milk, eggs, beans,
ground nuts and soya beans all proteins are made from basic units (monomers) called amino
acids. When amino acids chemically combine in a process called condensation polymerization
they form proteins.

Uses of proteins/Dietary Importance

Proteins are needed for the following body processes:

(i) Muscle formation
(ii) Formation of enzymes, antibodies and hormones
(iii) Cell membrane formation and protoplasm formation
(iv) Repair of worn out cells and tissues.
(v) Source of energy in certain cases of starvation. The proteins become denatured and
the carboxyl group is used as a source of energy.
Deficiency of proteins in the body of a human being causes kwashiorkor

LIPIDS (fats and oils)

Lipids have the same elements as carbohydrates i.e. carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The
monomers that make lipids are fatty acids and glycerol. Fats are solids at room temperature

27
while oils are liquids at room temperature. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
substances like alcohol
The chief sources of fats include plant sources such as rape seed oil, coconut, palm oil, ground
nuts and sunflower seed. Animal sources include eggs, meat, chicken, milk and cooking fat like
lard.
Dietary Importance
Fats are useful for the following functions:
(i) Major source of energy through the process of respiration
(ii) Heat insulation to reduce heat loss through the skin
(iii) Protection of vital organs such as kidneys, liver and spleen.
(iv) Source of fat soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E, K.
(v) To provide lubrication e.g. at the synovial joint.
(vi) Formation of cell membrane i.e. phospholipid bi- layer

FIBRE (ROUGHAGE)
Dietary Importance
Fibre in the diet is necessary in the prevention of constipation. It adds grip hence speeding up
the bowel movements. This is necessary also in the prevention of cancer of the colon.

Principal Sources
Vegetables, fruits, grains, and legumes constitute a rich source of dietary fiber. Composed of
the indigestible cell walls of plant material, fiber acts like a scouring pad to cleanse and flush
the digestive tract. It stimulates peristalsis in the alimentary canal. Lack of roughage causes
constipation.

WATER
Dietary Importance

Water is the major constituent of living matter. From 50 to 90 percent of the weight of living
organisms is water. Protoplasm, the basic material of living cells, consists of a solution in water
of fats, carbohydrates, proteins, salts, and similar chemicals. Water acts as a solvent,
transporting, combining, and chemically breaking down these substances. Blood in animals and
sap in plants consist largely of water and serve to transport food and remove waste material.
Water also plays a key role in the metabolic breakdown of such essential molecules as proteins
and carbohydrates. This process, called hydrolysis, goes on continually in living cells.

Principal Sources

Water is obtained from drinking water sources or bottled water, drinks, fresh fruits, vegetables,
milk and metabolic water from respiration
Lack of water in the body leads to dehydration.

The table below summarizes the above nutrients and their functions
28
Nutrient Source Function Deficiency disease
Carbohydrates Bread, potatoes, Source of energy for the Marasmus is the disorder
nshima, rice, bananas, body
sugar, honey, cassava,
fruits
Proteins Meat, milk, eggs, beans, For formation of enzymes, Kwashiorkor is the disease
ground nuts, antibodies, cell protoplasm,
caterpillars hormones, repairing worn
out cells
Lipids Cooking oil, ground Source of energy, source of
nuts, butter, fat soluble vitamins,
formation of cell membrane
and connective tissue
Roughage Cellulose from Stimulates peristaltic Constipation is the disorder
vegetables, un polished movements in the
rice, fruits, maize meal, alimentary canal
unpolished rice
Water All fresh foods, drinking Solvent for all drinking Dehydration is the disorder
water, drinks water, constituent of blood
plasma, cytoplasm, solvent
for transport of materials

Vitamins
Vitamins are complex organic substances found in food; which the body needs regularly in small
quantities for the proper functioning of the metabolic activities. They are necessary for the
healthy state of the body and their absence from the diet causes certain deficiency diseases.

VITAMIN C (Ascorbic acid)

Ascorbic Acid or Vitamin C is a food substance needed by humans to prevent scurvy, a disease
of the gums, bones, and blood vessels, and to increase the body’s resistance to infection.
Ascorbic acid acts as an antioxidant, a nutrient that chemically binds and neutralizes the tissue-
damaging effects of substances in the environment known as free radicals. As a result, ascorbic
acid is vital for the growth and maintenance of healthy bones, teeth, gums, ligaments, and
blood vessels. Because of its role in the formation of collagen, the body’s major building
protein, ascorbic acid is a central component of all body organs.

Principal Sources

Ascorbic acid occurs naturally in many fruits and vegetables, particularly in tomatoes, citrus
fruits, broccoli, spinach, green peppers, cabbage, and potatoes. The vitamin is easily destroyed
by cooking or canning foods and by exposure to air and light. A healthy diet generally contains
sufficient quantities of ascorbic acid, but the body requires more of the vitamin after serious
injury, major surgery, burns, and when exposed to extremes of temperature. At risk for ascorbic
acid deficiency are smokers, women taking contraceptives containing the female sex hormone
estrogen, and people who live in cities with high levels of carbon monoxide from traffic.

29
 Ascorbic acid is an organic compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Pure ascorbic acid is a
white solid, and is made synthetically from the sugar dextrose. It is used both in vitamin
supplements and as a food preservative.

VITAMIN C DEFICIENCY

Scurvy is a disease of human beings caused by a prolonged deficiency of vitamin C, or ascorbic

acid, in the diet. It is characterized by progressive bodily weakness, spongy and inflamed gums,
loose teeth, swollen and tender joints, and a tendency toward ecchymosis, or absorption by the
tissues of blood from ruptured blood vessels. Anemia often occurs as a direct result of such
hemorrhage. Lack of vitamin C in the diet prevents the formation of connective tissues that
hold the body's structures together, such as tendons, ligaments, bone, dentin, and cartilage.
The disease may appear in adults after about six months of complete lack of vitamin C.

VITAMIN D
Vitamin D is necessary for keeping the bones and teeth strong and healthy. It performs this
function by helping the intestines absorb calcium and by regulating levels of the minerals
calcium and phosphorus in the blood. These minerals play a vital role in building bones and
teeth. Calcium taken without sufficient vitamin D has little effect on maintaining bones.

Principal sources
Also called the sunshine vitamin, vitamin D is manufactured by the skin after exposure to the
ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. It is also obtained from eggs; liver; salmon, sardines, and other
fatty fish; and fortified milk. The introduction of milk fortified with vitamin D largely banished
the disorder among children. However, infants fed only with breast milk may receive too little
vitamin D; physicians generally recommend supplements to prevent rickets. Increased use of
sunscreens to prevent skin cancer lowers the body’s exposure to ultraviolet radiation and
increases the likelihood of vitamin D deficiency. In addition, African Americans and other
people with dark skin pigmentation have less ability to produce vitamin D from ultraviolet
radiation. Vitamin D supplements are recommended for people with dark skin who receive little
exposure to sunlight.
Because vitamin D is fat-soluble and stored in the body, too much vitamin D taken regularly can
cause health problems. Over time, excessive vitamin D consumption—more than 50 mg (2,000
IU) per day—can lead to vitamin D poisoning, causing nausea, vomiting, constipation, and
weight loss. By raising the level of calcium in the blood, excess vitamin D also can lead to
confusion and abnormal heartbeats. In addition, it can interfere with kidney function and result
in deposits of calcium throughout the body, especially in the kidneys.

VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY
Vitamin D deficiency can lead to a softening of the bones known as rickets in children or
contribute toosteoporosis (loss of bone mass). Recent research suggests that vitamin D may
also bolster the immune system and help protect against some cancers. Vitamin D deficiency
has also been associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
The table below summaries some vitamins, their roles and deficiency disease
vitamin source Functions Deficiency

30
 disease/disorders
A(Retinol) Fresh green vegetables, milk, Formation of pigments in eyes Frequent colds and
egg yolk, ripe fruits e.g (rhodopsin), maintains healthy bronchits, reduced night
mangoes, citrus fruits, carrots, state of lining of skin, eyes, gut, vision, sore eyes,
tomatoes, pawpaw nose xerophthalmia and
protrusion of eye ball
C (ascorbic Fresh fruits like oranges, apples, Needed for formation of blood People surfer form Scurvy;
acid) tomatoes, grapes, bananas, vessels formation of strong sore gums anaemia, painful
pineapples, lemons, and fresh teeth and bones, formation of joints and muscles
vegetables like cabbage, spinach connective tissues
D(Calciferol) Butter, egg yolk, exposure of the Increases the absorption of Formation of rickets , weak
skin to sun light calcium and phosphorus from bones and poor teeth
the gut which is needed for development,
proper formation of bones
K Un polished cereals, liver, green Speeds up formation of Prolonged bleeding
vegetables, tomatoes, and egg prothrombin when blood is
yolk clotting at a sore
B1 Wheat, yeast, un polished rice Used in carbohydrate Beriberi: swelling of legs,
metabolism wasting of tissue,
degenerating of nerve
ending, muscular weakness
B12 Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products Used in the formation of red Anaemia, sore tongue,
blood cells diarrhea, malformation of
red blood cells, body
weakness.

MINERAL SALTS
These are inorganic substances which are taken into the body inform of ions. The sources of
these ions are mineral salts. These mineral salts include iron, calcium, fluorine, iodine and
phosphorus

Calcium
Milk contains large amounts of calcium, fish, cheese, eggs, fruits, green vegetables, baking
powder, and batter. The mineral calcium plays a critical role in building and maintaining strong
bones; without it, children develop weak bones and adults experience the progressive loss of
bone mass known as osteoporosis, which increases their risk of bone fractures.

Dietary Importance
It is important in the formation of strong bones and teeth, helps in proper muscle contraction;
the transmission of nerve impulses plays a role in the clotting of blood.
During childhood and adolescence, much more bone tissue is deposited than broken down, so
that the skeleton grows in size and strength. During early adulthood, breakdown slowly begins
to exceed deposits. As a person ages, bone tissue is depleted, and bones are weakened and
increasingly susceptible to breaking. Exercise and proper diet are important for maintaining
healthy bone growth at all stages of life.

31
Iron
Principal sources
Lean meats, eggs, liver, beans whole grains, green leafy vegetables and legumes.

Dietary Importance
Iron is necessary for the formation of haemoglobin used by red blood cells during oxygen
transport. Some people find it difficult to meet their nutritional requirements. For example,
women, due to their menstrual cycle, have a higher requirement for iron than do men. If their
iron requirement is not met, women may develop anemia.

Phosphorus
This is needed for the formation of ADP and ATP which are needed in respiration. Obtained by
eating eggs, fish, cheese and lean meat

Iodine

This is needed for the formation of the hormone thyroxine in the thyroid gland. It is obtained
from iodized salt, cheese, onion and drinking water. Lack of iodine causes goiter

The table below summarizes the mineral salts

Mineral salt Source Function Deficiency symptom

Iron Egg-yolk, liver, green Formation of haemoglobin, Anaemia
vegetables,
Iodine Iodised salt, sea fish, Formation of thyroxine Reduced growth and
cheese, onion, hormone goiter
Fluorine Sea food, toothpaste, Prevents teeth from acid Tooth decay,
fluoridated water attack. Too much darkens the
teeth
Phosphorus Fish, eggs, milk, cheese, Formation of adenosine Weaker bones, less
lean meat, protein foods triphosphate (ATP) for energy production
respiration, formation of
strong teeth and bones
Calcium Milk, cheese, fruits, eggs, Formation of strong teeth and Rickets is the result of
green vegetables, butter, bones, transmission of nerve calcium deficiency.
baking powder, impulses, promotes rapid
blood clotting

BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet refers to a diet that has sufficient supply of all the necessary nutrients needed
by the body in proper quantities. This diet considering, especially energy intake, should be
related to age, sex and activity of an individual. Thus young individuals with a rapid growth rate
require more of the energy and growth nutrients per unit body mass compared to adult
individuals. A lumber jack would need more energy supply than a sedentary worker such as a
typist or a computer operator.
Malnutrition

32
Also known as bad feeding, malnutrition can either be under nutrition where the individual is
not supplied with adequate nutrients as is the case with starvation. Malnutrition can also be
due over feeding where an individual is supplied with more nutrients than the average
requirement for the body, this leads to obesity.

PROBLEMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO FAMINE

Among the leading causes of famine include:
 unequal distribution of food within a particular region
 drought and flooding in certain parts of the world
 Increasing population as is the case with most developing nations.

FOOD TESTS
Questions on food tests rarely miss in the school certificate examinations. It is therefore very important for
pupils to be very familiar with the method, expected observations and conclusions. They must also be very
familiar with the reagents for testing each nutrient. At the same time pupils must know the digestion of each
nutrient in the mammalian digestive system i.e. the region associated with the digestion of each nutrient,
the enzyme and the end product. The nutrients frequently asked in the examinations are;

1. Starch; and the reagent used to test for starch is freshly prepared iodine solution. This test is also
known as the iodine test
2. Proteins; and the reagent used to test for the presence of proteins is biuret. This test is also called
biuret test
3. Reducing sugars; and the reagent used to test for reducing sugars is Benedict’s solution. This
test is also known as the Benedict’s test.
4. Fats or lipids or oils; and the reagent used to test for this nutrient is ethanol or alcohol and waterl.
This test is also called the emulsion test. Lipids are also tested using the greasy spot test
5. Non- reducing; and the reagents used to test for this nutrient are hydrochloric acid, sodium
hydroxide and Benedict’ solutions.

STARCH
Method/ procedure;
The description of the method would very much depend on the physical state in which the
nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution. Below is
a description of how the method would be like for these physical states
Solid; Crush the specimen on a clean white tile; put the crushed sample into a clean test tube.
Add 4cm3 of distilled water, shake to scatter starch grains and decant the mixture.
Measure 2cm3 of the decanted solution and put into a clean test tube and add 3 drops of
iodine solution and shake.
Powder; put a spatula full of the powder into a clean test tube and add 5cm 3 of distilled water and
shake to scatter starch grains. Decant the mixture and measure out 2cm3 of the decanted
solution into a clean test tube. Add 2 drops of iodine solution and shake.
Solution; Measure out 3cm3 of the solution into a clean test tube and add 3drops of iodine solution
and shake.
33
Observations
The observations must be clearly written in a sentence form. The colour intensity shows
the concentration of the nutrient. The correctly written observations would include the
following:
i. The solution turned brown
ii. The solution turned light blue
iii. The solution turned blue black
iv. The solution turned black
you must avoid writing unclear words such “no colour change”, “there was a colour change”,’ It did not
react’, ‘nothing happened’, ‘there was iodine solution’, ‘the solution took the colour of the iodine
solution’.
Conclusions;
The conclusion must be clearly written in a short sentence form and consistent with the observations. The
colour intensity shows the concentration of the nutrientThe correctly written conclusions would include the
following:
a. Starch absent
b. Little starch present
c. A lot of starch present
Pupils must avoid un clear words or phrases such as ‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘it was there’.
In a table form the observations and conclusions would be like this:

Nutrient Observations Conclusions

a Solution turns brown Starch absent
b The solution turned light blue Little starch present
c The solution turned blue black A lot of starch present
d The solution turned black A lot of starch present

NOTE: if any essential step is omitted in the method; the observations and conclusions are also rejected
because correct observations cannot be made from a wrong method. Similarly if the observation is
wrong the conclusion is also rejected because a correct conclusion cannot be made from a wrong
observation.

REDUCING SUGARS
Method/ procedure;
The description of the method again would very much depend on the physical state in
which the nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution.
Below is a description of how the method would be like for these physical states

34
Solid; Crush the specimen on a clean white tile; put the crushed sample into a clean test tube.
Add 5cm3 of distilled water, shake to dissolve sugars. Decant or filter the mixture. Measure
2cm3 of the decanted or filtered solution and put into a clean test tube and add 2cm 3 of
Benedict’s solution shake and heat the content in a test tube using a water bath to avoid
spouting. Wait till there is no further colour change
Powder; put half spatula full of the powder into a clean test tube and add 3cm 3 of distilled water and
shake to dissolve the sugars. Using a measuring cylinder, measure out 2cm 3 of the
solution into a clean test tube. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution shake and heat the content
in a test tube using a water bath to avoid spouting. Wait till there is no further colour
change
Solution; Using a measuring cylinder measure out 3cm3 of the solution into a clean test tube. Add
3cm3 of Benedict’s solution shake and heat the content in a test tube using a water bath to
avoid spouting. Wait till there is no further colour change.
Observations;
The observations must be clearly written in a sentence form. At times the pupil may be required to list all
the colour changes that occur. The correctly written observations would include the following:
i. The solution turned blue
ii. The solution turned green
iii. The solution turned greenish-yellow
iv. The solution turned orange
v. The solution turned brick red
you must avoid writing unclear words such “no colour change”, “there was a colour change”,’ It did not
react’, ‘nothing happened’, ‘there was Benedict’s solution’, ‘the solution took the colour of the
Benedict’s solution’.
Conclusions;
The conclusion must be clearly written in a short sentence form and consistent with the observations. The
colour intensity shows the concentration of the nutrient. The correctly written conclusions would include the
following:
a. Reducing sugars absent
b. Very little reducing sugar present
c. Little reducing sugars present
d. More reducing sugars presents
e. Plenty of reducing sugars present
You must avoid unclear words or phrases such as ‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘it was there’.
In a table form the observations and conclusions would be like this:

Nutrient Observations Conclusions

a Solution turns blue reducing sugar absent

35
 b The solution turned green Very little reducing sugar present
c The solution turned greenish-yellow Little reducing sugars present
d The solution turned orange More reducing sugars presents
e The solution turned brick red Plenty of reducing sugars present

NOTE:
1. If any essential step is omitted in the method; the observations and conclusions are also rejected
because correct observations cannot be made from a wrong method. Similarly if the observation is
wrong the conclusion is also rejected because a correct conclusion cannot be made from a wrong
observation.
2. Unless stated that the sugar is glucose or fructose or maltose, pupils should identify the sugars
with general terms only such as reducing sugars present. If however, it is stated that the sugar to
be investigated is glucose then the answers in the conclusion must be glucose present or glucose
absent.
NON REDUCING SUGARS SUCH AS SUCROSE OR CANE SUGAR;
Method/ procedure;
The description of the method again would very much depend on the physical state in
which the nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution.
Below is a description of how the method would be like for these physical states
Solid; Crush the specimen on a clean white tile; put the crushed sample into a clean test tube.
Add 5cm3 of distilled water, shake to dissolve sugars. Decant or filter the mixture. Measure
2cm3 of the decanted or filtered solution and put into a clean test tube. Add 1cm3 of
hydrochloric acid and heat in a water bath for 3minutes to hydrolyze the non-reducing
sugar, add 1cm3 of sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acid. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s
solution shake and heat the content in a test tube using a water bath to avoid spouting.
Wait till there is no further colour change
Powder; put half spatula full of the powder into a clean test tube and add 3cm 3 of distilled water and
shake to dissolve the sugars. Using a measuring cylinder, measure out 2cm3 of the
solution into a clean test tube. Add 1cm3 of hydrochloric acid and heat in a water bath for
2minutes to hydrolyze the non-reducing sugar, add 1cm3 of sodium hydroxide to neutralize
the acid. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution shake and heat the content in a test tube using a
water bath to avoid spouting. Wait till there is no further colour change
Solution; Using a measuring cylinder measure out 3cm3 of the solution into a clean test tube. Add
1cm3 of hydrochloric acid and heat in a water bath for 2minutes to hydrolyze the non-
reducing sugar, add 1cm3 of sodium hydroxide to neutralize the acid. Add 3cm3 of
Benedict’s solution shake and heat the content in a test tube using a water bath to avoid
spouting. Wait till there is no further colour change.
Observations
The observations must be clearly written in a sentence form. At times the pupil may be required to list
all the colour changes that occur. The correctly written observations would include the following:

36
 i. The solution turned blue
ii. The solution turned green
iii. The solution turned greenish-yellow
iv. The solution turned orange
v. The solution turned brick red
you must avoid writing unclear words such “no colour change”, “there was a colour change”,’ It did not
react’, ‘nothing happened’, ‘there was Benedict’s solution’, ‘the solution took the colour of the
Benedict’s solution’.
Conclusions;
The conclusion must be clearly written in a short sentence form and consistent with the observations.
The colour intensity shows the concentration of the nutrient. The correctly written conclusions would
include the following:
a. Reducing sugars absent
b. Very little reducing sugar present
c. Little reducing sugars present
d. More reducing sugars presents
e. Plenty of reducing sugars present
You must avoid un clear words or phrases such as ‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘it was there’.
In a table form the observations and conclusions would be like this:

Nutrient Observations Conclusions

a Solution turns blue reducing sugar absent
b The solution turned green Very little reducing sugar present
c The solution turned greenish-yellow Little reducing sugars present
d The solution turned orange More reducing sugars presents
e The solution turned brick red Plenty of reducing sugars present

NOTE:
1. If any essential step is omitted in the method; the observations and conclusions are also rejected
because correct observations cannot be made from a wrong method. Similarly if the observation is
wrong the conclusion is also rejected because a correct conclusion cannot be made from a wrong
observation.
PROTEINS;
Method/ procedure;
The description of the method again would very much depend on the physical state in
which the nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution.
Below is a description of how the method would be like for these physical states.

37
Method/ procedure;
The description of the method would very much depend on the physical state in which the
nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution. Below is
a description of how the method would be like for these physical states
Solid; Crush the specimen on a clean white tile; put the crushed sample into a clean test tube.
Add 4cm3 of distilled water, shake to dissolve proteins Measure 2cm3 of the decanted
solution and put into a clean test tube and add 3cm3 of the biurete reagent and shake.
Powder; put a half spatula full of the powder into a clean test tube and add 4cm 3 of distilled water
and shake to dissolve proteins and measure out 2cm3 of the solution into a clean test tube.
Add 2cm3 of the biuret solution shake.
Solution; Measure out 2cm3 of the solution into a clean test tube and add 2cm3 of the biuret solution
and shake.
Observations
The observations must be clearly written in a sentence form. The correctly written
observations would include the following:
i. The solution turned blue
ii. The solution turned light purple
iii. The solution turned purple
You must avoid writing unclear words such “no colour change”, “there was a colour change”,’ It did not
react’, ‘nothing happened’, ‘there was biuret solution’, ‘the solution took the colour of the biurete
solution’.
Conclusions;
The conclusion must be clearly written in a short sentence form and consistent with the
observations. The correctly written conclusions would include the following:
a. proteins absent
b. Little proteins present
c. A lot of proteins present
You must avoid un clear words or phrases such as ‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘it was there’.
In a table form the observations and conclusions would be like this:

Nutrient Observations Conclusions

a The solution turned blue proteins absent
b The solution turned light purple Little proteins present
c The solution turned purple A lot of proteins present

NOTE:
38
1. If any essential step is omitted in the method; the observations and conclusions are also rejected
because correct observations cannot be made from a wrong method. Similarly if the observation is
wrong the conclusion is also rejected because a correct conclusion cannot be made from a wrong
observation.

2. At times Biuret is provided as Copper II sulphate solution and sodium hydroxide solution separately. In
which case the addition of reagents would be:

Add 2cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution and shake then add 2cm3 of copper II sulphate
solution and shake

LIPIDS:

Method/ procedure;
The description of the method would very much depend on the physical state in which the
nutrient sample is given. The physical state could be solid, powder or solution. Below is
a description of how the method would be like for these physical states
Solid; Crush the specimen on a clean white tile; put the crushed sample into a clean test tube.
Add 4cm3 of ethanol, shake to dissolve lipids and decant or filter the mixture. Measure
2cm3 of the decanted or filtered solution and put into a clean test tube and add 2cm 3 of
distilled water and shake.
Liquid/oil; Measure out 3cm3 of the liquid into a clean test tube add 2cm3 of ethanol, shake to
dissolve lipids and add 2cm3 of distilled water and shake.
Observations;
The observations must be clearly written in a sentence form. The correctly written
observations would include the following:
a. The solution turned colourless
b. The solution turned slightly milky
c. The solution turned milky
Pupils must avoid writing unclear words such “no colour change”, “there was a colour change”,’ It
did not react’, ‘nothing happened’,
Conclusions;
The conclusion must be clearly written in a short sentence form and consistent with the
observations. The correctly written conclusions would include the following:
a. Lipids absent
b. Little lipids present
c. A lot of lipids present
You must avoid un clear words or phrases such as ‘positive’, ‘negative’, ‘it was there’.
In a table form the observations and conclusions would be like this:

39
 Nutrient Observations Conclusions
a Solution turns colourless Lipids or oil absent
b The solution turned slightly Little lipids or oil present
c The solution turned milky A lot of lipids or oil present

NOTE:
if any essential step is omitted in the method; the observations and conclusions are also rejected
because correct observations cannot be made from a wrong method. Similarly if the observation is
wrong the conclusion is also rejected because a correct conclusion cannot be made from a wrong
observation.
Other methods of testing for starch include the greasy spot test. In this method a spot of lipid is
smeared on the filter paper and it forms a permanent translucent mark. If a drop of water is put on
the side of the greasy spot the mark for water disappears leaving no translucent mark
Always start with ethanol and add water last

PLANT NUTRITION

Nutrition means feeding and living organisms feed in order to stay healthy and grow. Animals
move from one place to the other to fetch for food to feed on. Green plants on the other hand
do not move about to fetch for food to feed themselves. Green plants in their rooted position
are able to manufacture their own food using water and carbon dioxide. This is called
autotrophic nutrition.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from
raw materials. These raw materials include carbon dioxide and water. For Photosynthesis to
take place there must be chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide. Chlorophyll traps light energy,
light energy splits up water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen and carbon dioxide combines
with hydrogen from the split water molecule to form glucose. Leaves and any part of the plant
containing chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis.

The light and dark phases of photosynthesis

During the light phase light energy is trapped by chlorophyll. This light energy is used to split
water molecules to produce oxygen and hydrogen ions. This reaction is called photolysis
because it requires light to take place. The useful product of the light phase reaction is the
hydrogen ion and oxygen is given out as a by- product.

In the dark phase reaction of photosynthesis the hydrogen ions produced during photolysis are
incorporated into carbon dioxide molecules through a series of enzyme controlled reactions to
form a glucose molecule. This reaction does not need light energy and hence it is called the
dark phase reaction.

40
 Some of the glucose formed is used for respiration some is converted into starch and some
react with other elements to form complex organic compounds such proteins, lipids, sucrose
and other secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are very important because it is from
secondary metabolites that we obtain substances such drugs

Starch

The glucose made in the leaf is changed quickly changed into starch because glucose is soluble
in water and can cause the leaf cells to be plasmolysed if it accumulates in the leaf. On the
other hand starch is insoluble in water and hence does not disturb the osmosis balance.
Furthermore glucose is more reactive and can easily disturb other essential reactions in the leaf
where as starch is less reactive.

Testing a leaf for starch

Green leaves are the main manufacturers of starch. When two to three drops of iodine solutions are
added to a starch powder or starch solution a blue- black colour is seen. This is the identity test for
starch. We cannot put drops of iodine solution on the leaf directly to test for starch because the leaf has
a tough epidermis which is not permeable to iodine solution. The procedure below is used when testing
a leaf for starch.

1. The leaf is put in boiling water for two to four minutes to break the epidermis and kill the cells
2. The leaf is put in a test tube containing ethanol and heated in a water bath to boil. Ethanol
dissolves away chlorophyll and to make any colour change with iodine easy to see. Ethanol is
boiled using a water bath because it is very flammable i.e. it easily catches fire.
3. From ethanol the leaf is dipped into hot water to make it soft because Ethanol makes the leaf
brittle.
4. The leaf is spread on the white tile to expose as many cells as possible to iodine solution.
5. Drops of iodine solution are added to the leaf spread on the white tile to see if the leaf contains
starch.
6. Any part of the leaf that turns blue black contains starch.
The procedure can be presented diagrammatically as shown below

41
Light

Light is one of the factors necessary for photosynthesis to occur. Light is the source of energy
for the splitting of water to produce oxygen and hydrogen ions as products. This energy is
converted into chemical energy and stored in glucose molecules and other organic food
molecules.

Experiment;

Title: Testing a leaf for starch

AIM: Does a green leaf need light in order for it to carry out photosynthesis?

Procedure: Water the plant and leave it in a dark cupboard for 3 days
(72 hours) if possible. Most of the plants will be starch-free after this time.

After three days one of the leaves is taken and tested for starch as before to confirm if
the plant has completely de-starched. When it is confirmed that the plant has
completely de-starched an aluminium foil strip is wrapped round one of the de-starched
leaves. Press it close to the surface so that this part of the leaf cannot receive any light
at all. The potted plant is then put in bright sun light for at least eight (8) hours. After
eight hours the leaf that was wrapped with an aluminum foil is tested for starch as
before. The diagram below shows how an aluminum foil is wrapped on the leag

42
Aluminium foil
Press foil closely to
leaf to exclude light

Observations and explanations

When the leaf was tested for starch, the parts that were not covered by the aluminium foil had
a blue- black colour showing that photosynthesis took place in these regions and therefore
contained starch. The part that was covered by the aluminium foil had a brown colour which is
the colour of the un reacted iodine solution, indicating that in this region photosynthesis never
took place. Photosynthesis never took place in this region because light which is one of the
requirements that has to be present for the leaf to make starch had been excluded. The colour
changes on the three parts of the leaf were observed as shown in the diagram below. Region P
and R had a blue- black colour while region Q had a brown colour.

Blue - black Brown

Blue - back

Chlorophyll:

Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in the leaf and any green part of the green plant. It
absorbs or traps light energy during the light reaction phase of photosynthesis. Light energy is
converted into chemical energy to be later used in the dark reaction phase of photosynthesis. A
variegated leaf is used to find out if chlorophyll is necessary for a leaf to carry out
photosynthesis. A variegated leaf has a green colour and other colours on it, for example a leaf
with green and white colours on it. The diagram of a variegated leaf is shown below;

White
43
 Green

Experiment:

Title: Testing a leaf for starch

AIM: Is chlorophyll necessary for green leaves to carry out photosynthesis

Method: A variegated that has been exposed to light for several hours is taken and tested for
starch as before.

Observations and explanations;

When the leaf is tested for starch it is observed that the parts that were green turn blue-black while
the parts that were white turn brown. The parts that turned blue black contained chlorophyll while
the parts that stained brown did not contain chlorophyll. Therefore chlorophyll is necessary for green
plants to carry out photosynthesis. The diagram below shows the colour changes after adding drops of
iodine solution

Stained brown

Blue- black

Carbon dioxide:

44
 Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials needed for green plants to carry out
photosynthesis. Green plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide
enters the leaves through stomata.

Experiment:

Title: Testing a leaf for starch

AIM: Carbon dioxide necessary for green leaves to carry out photosynthesis

Method: The potted plant id de-starched for 36 hrs and then has one of its leaves enclosed in a conical
flask or plastic containing sodium hydroxide or any substance that can absorb carbon dioxide
from the enclosed air. The plant is then exposed to bright sunlight for at least 6hrs. After six
hours two leaves one that was enclosed in a substance that absorbs carbon dioxide and one that
was not enclosed are taken and tested for starch as before. The diagram below illustrate how
this experiment can be performed using a potted plant which at the same time is variegated.
The letters P, Q, R and S indicate the parts of the two leaves to be tested for starch.

Observations and explanations:

The leaf enclosed in the plastic containing a substance that absorbs carbon dioxide stained
brown on both the green part (S) and the white part (P). The white part stained brown because
it had no chlorophyll. The green part stained brown because although chlorophyll was present
there was no carbon dioxide for this part of the leaf to carry out photosynthesis. The leaf that
was not enclosed had the green part turning blue-black because it was in normal air containing
carbon dioxide which is necessary for green plants to make starch. The white part stained
brown because it lacked chlorophyll.

Word equation for photosynthesis:

45
Carbon dioxide + water light and chlorophyll glucose + oxygen

Chemical equation for photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O light and chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2

Oxygen

Oxygen is produced during the light phase of photosynthesis. Sea weed can be used to
demonstrate that oxygen of produced photosynthesis. Sea weeds are small green plants
growing under water. In a bright sun light bubbles of a colorless gas are seen to come from
these plants.

Experiment

Title: Production of oxygen during photosynthesis

Aim: To find out if the gas produced during photosynthesis is oxygen

Method: The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram below

The apparatus is then put in bright sun light and when enough gas has been collected it is
tested using a glowing splint.

Observations and explanations:

When the glowing splint is introduced into the test tube containing the collected gas; the
glowing splint rekindles or re-lights. This shows that the gas given out during photosynthesis is
oxygen.

Fate of glucose made in plants:

46
Some of the glucose made during photosynthesis in plant is used by the plant to carry out the
process of respiration in the leaf. The excess is changed into starch, sucrose, proteins, lipids
and cellulose.

Transportation and storage:

The starch made in the leaves is changed into a more soluble substance like sucrose for
transportation to storage organs. In plants the storage organs are roots, stems, seeds, fruits,
tubers and leaves. In these organs carbohydrates are stored mainly as starch grains. However,
in some plants such as sugar cane carbohydrate is stored as sucrose. Starch is stored in maize
grains, rice, potatoes, cassava, wheat; bananas etc. sucrose is stored in stems of sugar cane.
Monsaccharides such as fructose are stored in fruits like oranges, lemons, tomatoes, etc.

The structure of the leaf

The leaf is an important organ of green plants because it is in the green leaf that much of the
photosynthesis takes place. A leaf has a petiole or leaf stalk which holds the leaf and exposes it
to as much sunlight as possible. The leaf blade or lamina which provides a large surface area
through which light and carbon dioxide can be absorbed. The midrib and veins conducts water
and mineral salts to the leaf and also provide support to the leaf.

The external features of the leaf

Internal structure of a leaf

Between the upper epidermis and the lower epidermis there are many highly specialized
tissues that make the leaf suitable for carrying out photosynthesis. The diagram below shows
the tissues of the leaf that are in between the upper epidermis to the lower epidermis.

47
The tissues include the cells of the upper epidermis, the palisade mesophyll cells, vascular
bundles, spongy mesophyll cells, guard cells and cells of the lower epidermis.

How the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis:

The following features make the leaf very suitable for carrying out photosynthesis.

a. The upper epidermis is made of a single layer of cells. These cells are transparent to
allow light energy to penetrate and reach the mesophyll cells where photosynthesis
takes place. In some plants the upper epidermis is covered by a thin waxy layer called
cuticle. The cuticle reduces transpiration through the upper part of the leaf.
b. The palisade mesophyll cells come immediately below the upper epidermis. These
oblong in shape and contains a lot of chloroplasts. Most of the photosynthesis takes
place in the palisade mesophyll cells.

48
 c. Spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed together with a lot of air spaces in between
them. These spaces provide easy circulation of gases within the leaf. They also contain
chloroplasts.
d. Air spaces facilitate the easy and rapid diffusion of gases between the atmosphere and
the inside of the leaf.
e. The vascular bundles are made up of the xylem vessels and the phloem tubes. Xylem
vessels conduct water to the mesophyll cells so that photosynthesis can take place. The
phloem tissues conduct the manufactured food to various parts of the plant for use
and storage
f. The stomata are found on the lower epidermis. The stomata allow gases to diffuse into
and out of the leaf.
g. The guard cells contain chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis. Their role is to open
and close the stomata hence controlling the exchange of gases between the
atmosphere and the inside of the leaf.
h. A lot of chloroplasts in the guard cells and the mesophyll cells which trap light energy
needed during photosynthesis.

Limiting factors in Photosynthesis

A limiting factor is a condition or a reagent that determines the amount of products produced.
Photosynthesis just like any other chemical process can be limited by certain factors. The rate
of photosynthesis can sometimes be reduced due to some limiting factors such as Carbon
dioxide concentration, light intensity or temperature as shown below:

Carbon dioxide;

Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide increases the rate of photosynthesis up to the instance
when the rate of photosynthesis becomes constant i.e. where the curve becomes constant so
long the temperature is kept at the optimum.

In the diagram above the limiting factor is carbon dioxide. Using 0.04% of carbon dioxide the
curve becomes horizontal at a much lower height that when using 1% of carbon dioxide.
Therefore the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere determines the rate of
photosynthesis and consequently the amount of starch made by the plant.

49
Light intensity:
Light intensity refers to how much light is being shone onto the green plant. This amount
determines the rate of photosynthesis provided the temperature is kept at the optimum.
Increasing the light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis.
Experiment
Title: Photosynthesis
Aim: To find out the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis
Procedure: The experiment is set up as shown in the diagram below. The light intensity
is varied by increasing or decreasing the distance between the experiment and the
source of light. The number of bubbles of the gas given out in a given period of time is
counted and recorded at each distance. Allow the production of bubbles to stabilize
each time the distance is adjusted before counting.

Observations and explanations:

The number of bubbles given off at each distance is an indication of the rate of
photosynthesis at that distance. From the number of bubbles counted in a given time
and the adjusted distance, a graph of rate of photosynthesis against increasing light
intensity can be plotted. The graph below shows the rate of photosynthesis at different
light intensity.

Temperature;
Increasing temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis up to the optimum temperature.
Temperatures higher than the optimum denatures the enzymes and photosynthesis collapses.

50
For most green plants the rate is highest between 20 0C and 300C provided light intensity
remains constant.

In the diagram above the rate of photosynthesis is higher at 300C than at 200C

Importance of photosynthesis to life on earth

Most forms of life are completely dependent on photosynthesis in that the energy from the sun
is trapped by the green plants and used to manufacture plant food. This food is later used by
other living organisms for energy, growth and repair of body tissues. Herbivores depend on
green pants directly by feeding on the vegetation while carnivores depend on green plants
indirectly by feeding on the herbivores that fed on vegetation. Additionally, photosynthesis
provides the other living organisms with oxygen gas that is needed for respiration.
Furthermore, photosynthesis regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Revision questions

Question 1.

In an experiment to investigate starch production by a plant, three similar plants, each with
variegated (green and white) leaves were set up as shown in the diagram below

51
a. Name the process that produces starch in the leaves--------------------------
b. At the start of the experiment, each jar contained atmospheric air.
Name a gas, other than oxygen and carbon dioxide, which was present in the air inside
the jar. …………………………………………………
c. Explain how the conditions in Jar L make it the a control
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. At the end of the experiment, a leaf was taken from each plant and tested for the
presence of starch. On the outlines in the diagrams below clearly label the colours of
each leaf after the starch test.

e. When the air was first trapped under the jars, it contained 0.04% carbon dioxide. For
each of the jars, explain why this percentage has changed by the end of the
experiment.

Jar L
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Jar M
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Jar N
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

52
Question 2

The diagram below shows a section through a leaf with only some of the cells shown

a. On the diagram above draw and label in their correct positions:

(i) A palisade mesophyll cell

(ii) A spongy mesophyll cell
(iii) A pair of guard cells
(iv) A cuticle
b. On the diagram label and name the tissue bringing water to the leaf
c. Explain how an increase in atmospheric humidity slows down the process of
transpiration
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
d. Suggest one reason why epidermal cells are important to the leaf.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Question 3

The diagram below show a transverse section of a leaf

a. Using numbers from 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the diagram above

(i) Which leaf cells carry out photosynthesis
----------------------------------------------------------------
53
 (ii) State the common feature that the cells you have stated above have
b. Using an arrow show on the diagram above the direction of the movement of carbon
dioxide at night [1]
c. Explain why the glucose made in the leaf is quickly changed into starch

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

d. Describe how a molecule of carbon dioxide in the air becomes part of a carbohydrate
molecule stored in a leaf of a plant.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................
e. Describe how a carbohydrate molecule stored in a leaf of a plant can become a
starchmolecule stored in the root.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................

Plant Mineral Nutrients:

Plants need several mineral elements that are needed for the synthesis of important
components of the plant cells. The mineral elements are grouped into major, minor and trace
elements.

The macro or major or primary elements;

These are needed by plants in large quantities. They include nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium

The micro, or secondary or minor elements;

These are needed in moderate quantities. They include magnesium, calcium, sulphur, and iron

The table below summarizes some of the elements, their functions and deficiency symptoms

Element Function Deficiency symptoms

Nitrogen Promotes growth and synthesis of Stunted growth, small yellow leaves
plant proteins
Phosphorus For formation of ATP, promotes Leaves turn purple, or dull green
growth of roots and seedlings
Potassium Strengthens plant stems, formation of Leaves have yellow edges
cell membrane.
Magnesium For formation of chlorophyll Leaves lose the green colour and
become yellow
Calcium For the development of cell walls at Poor root growth and the plant gets

54
 root and stem apex stunted.
Sulphur For formation of proteins Stunted growth and yellow leaves

DENTITION IN MAMMALS:

There are many animals in existence. One group of animals is called mammals. Mammals cut
and grind the food before swallowing it. To cut and grind the food they use teeth. Dentition is
the term used to describe the type and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of a mammal. There
are four different types of teeth in the mouth of a mammal. These are incisors, the canines. The
premolars and molars. The teeth are inserted into the jawbone.

Left to right are, premolar (for crushing and grinding food particles), incisor (for cutting and
biting off pieces of food), molar (for grinding food particles) and canine (for tearing off flesh
food). In carnivores Canines are long, strong, sharp and slightly curved inwards for killing prey.

Structure of the human teeth

The human teeth are made of four distinct types of tissue namely enamel, dentine, pulp, and
cement.

Enamel:

This is the clear outer layer of the tooth above the gum line, is the hardest substance in the
human body. In human teeth, the enamel layer is about 0.16 cm thick and protects the inner
layers of the teeth from harmful bacteria and changes in temperature from hot or cold food.

Dentine:

Directly beneath the enamel is dentine, it is a hard, mineral material that is similar to human
bone. Dentine surrounds and protects the pulp, or core of the tooth.

Pulp:

55
The Pulp contains blood vessels which carry oxygen and nutrients to the tooth and nerves.
Nerves transmit pain and temperature sensations to the brain.

Cement:

This is the outer layer of the tooth that lies below the gum. It is a bonelike substance that
anchors the tooth to the jawbone.

CROWN.

The crown is the visible portion of the tooth. Projections on the top of each crown that are used
primarily for chewing and grinding are called cusps or ridges. The portion of the tooth that lies
beneath the gum line is the root. The periodontal ligament anchors the tooth in place with
small elastic fibers that connect the cement in the root to a special socket in the jawbone called
the alveolus. The diagram of the structure of the teeth is shown below

The Dental formula:

This is the number and arrangement of the type of teeth in mammals. The upper numbers show
the number of teeth on one half of the upper jaw and the lower numbers show the number of
teeth on one half of the lower jaw in the mouth of a mammal.

The letters; i stand for incisors, c stand for canine, pm stand for premolar and m for molars.

Calculating the number of teeth

To find the total number of teeth on the upper jaw we multiply each teeth type by two (2) and
add the numbers. To find the total number of teeth on the lower jaw we multiply each teeth type
by two (2) and add the numbers. To find the total number of teeth in the month of the mammal
we add the total number of teeth on the upper jaw and lower jaw.

Dental formula in man.

56
The total number of teeth on the lower jaw in man is 16 and the total number of teeth on the
upper jaw is 16. The total number of teeth in a grown up human being’ mouth is 32. This
formula applies only to those who have not lost any of their teeth.

Dental formula in a carnivore e.g. dog

Below is the skull of a dog with a dental formula of;

The total number of teeth in a dog mouth is ………………

iii. Dental formula in a herbivore e.g. goat is

The number of teeth on the upper jaw in a goat is------

The skull of a goat is shown below

57
The horny pad is for pulling grass while incisors cut it

The diastema is a space without teeth in herbivores. It is used to separate the grass that is being
chewed from the newly gathered grass

Gum disease and teeth decay

The three main diseases of human teeth are tooth decay, also called dental caries; gum
disease, or periodontal disease. Human teeth problems are treated or prevented by dentists.

Tooth decay

This affects approximately 90 percent of all children by the time they are 14 years old. Tooth
decay begins when bacteria are passed from mothers or caregivers to children between their
first and second birthdays. When these bacteria are exposed to sugars commonly found in
foods, the bacteria produce harmful acids that attack tooth enamel. If left unchecked, the acids
make holes in the enamel and forms cavities of tooth decay. Most tooth decay forms in the
deep grooves on the chewing surfaces of the molars, called pits and fissures.

Ways of preventing teeth decay;

1. Daily tooth brushing and proper dental care help prevent and reduce tooth decay.
2. Dentists use preventive treatments to reduce the risk of tooth decay; clear plastic
coatings are painted on the teeth, called dental sealants,
3. Applications of the mineral fluoride though tooth paste, which fortifies tooth enamel,
4. Fluoride is also added to public water supplies in a process called fluoridation.

Gum disease or periodontal disease;

Gum disease occurs when bacteria eat away at gum tissue, causing it to pull away from the
teeth. This space created by bacteria between the tooth and the gum is called a periodontal
pocket. Gum disease develops in two stages. Gingivitis, the early stage, causes red, swollen
gums that bleed easily. Gingivitis can be eliminated through good oral hygiene and dental care.
58
If not treated, gingivitis can progress to periodontitis, when bacteria attack the bone supporting
the teeth. To treat periodontitis, dentists may have to surgically cut out the infected portion of
the gum so the bacteria can be removed.

ANIMAL NUTRITION:

Unlike green plants animals do not make their own food. They depend on the food made by
plants directly by feeding on the green vegetation or by feeding fellow animals that fed on
vegetation. In this way animals exhibit holozoic mode of nutrition. The main processes in the
holozoic mode of nutrition are Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Animals have an elaborate digestive system called the alimentary canal.

The human alimentary canal

The Alimentary Canal is the principal part of the digestive system. It begins at the mouth and
extends at the anus. In human beings the average length of the alimentary canal is about 9 m
long. The alimentary canal passes through the head, neck and the body. It includes the mouth
(buccal) cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, cecum, large intestines, rectum
and anus.

The other associated organs of the alimentary canal are the salivary glands, pancreas, gall
bladder and the liver. The relative position of each of the above organs is shown in the diagram
below.

59
Along this stretch, digestion of food occurs in phases beginning with the intake of food into the
mouth which is called ingestion. Ingestion is followed by digestion which is the breaking down
of complex food substances into simpler soluble ones. Digestion is followed by absorption
which is the uptake of the soluble end products of digestion by the small intestines. Absorption
is followed by assimilation which is the incorporation of the absorbed end products of digestion
into body tissues. Egestion is the removal of the undigested food substances from the
alimentary canal through the anus.

Digestion in the mouth:

In human beings, digestion begins in the mouth, where both mechanical and chemical
digestion occurs. Mechanical digestion is done by the teeth which cut, chop, and grind the
food. Glands in the cheek linings secrete mucus, which lubricates the food, making it easier to
chew and swallow. Chemical digestion starts in the mouth by the enzyme amylase. Three pairs
of salivary glands empty saliva into the mouth through ducts to moisten the food. Saliva
contains the enzyme amylase which begins to hydrolyze (break down) cooked starch—a carbohydrate
manufactured by green plants into maltose. Saliva is slightly alkaline and Amylase digests food in
an alkaline medium.

Once food has been reduced to a soft mass, it is ready to be swallowed. The tongue pushes this
mass called a bolus to the back of the mouth and into the pharynx. This cavity between the
mouth and windpipe serves as a passage way both for food on its way down the alimentary
canal and for air passing into the windpipe. The epiglottis, a flap of cartilage, covers the trachea
(windpipe) when a person swallows. This action of the epiglottis prevents choking by directing
food from the windpipe towards the esophagus and stomach.

60
The presence of food in the pharynx stimulates swallowing, which squeezes the food into the
esophagus. The esophagus, a muscular tube about 25 cm long, passes behind the trachea and
heart and penetrates the diaphragm (muscular wall between the chest and abdomen) before
reaching the stomach. Food advances through the alimentary canal by means of rhythmic
muscle contractions (tightenings) known as peristalsis. The process begins when circular
muscles in the esophagus wall contract and relax (widen) one after the other, squeezing food
downward toward the stomach. Food travels the length of the esophagus in two to three
seconds. The diagram below shows the movement of a bolus by peristalsis along the
esophagus.

A circular muscle called the esophageal sphincter separates the esophagus and the stomach. As
food is swallowed, this muscle relaxes, forming an opening through which the food can pass
into the stomach. Then the muscle contracts, closing the opening to prevent food from moving
back into the esophagus. The esophageal sphincter is the first of several such muscles along the
alimentary canal. These muscles act as valves to regulate the passage of food and keep it from
moving backward.

Digestion in the stomach:

The stomach is located in the upper abdomen just below the diaphragm. It is a saclike structure
with strong, muscular walls. The stomach can expand significantly to store all the food from a
meal. Both mechanical and chemical digestion takes place in the stomach. Mechanical
digestion takes place when the stomach contracts churning the food and mixing it with gastric
juice. The gastric fluid is secreted by thousands of gastric glands in the lining of the stomach.
This fluid consists of water, hydrochloric acid and two enzymes called pepsin and rennin.

Hydrochloric acid creates the acidic environment in the stomach and the salivary amylase stops
digesting cooked starch. The hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms that may have been
ingested in the food and creates an acidic environment which the enzymes pepsin and rennin
need to begin breaking down proteins. Pepsin hydrolyses proteins changing them into peptides
and rennin digests milk and changing it into casein.

61
Digestion in the small intestine;
The food in the stomach is churned and turned into chyme. Through the pyloric sphincter the
chyme is passed into the duodenum. The duodenum is the first portion of the small intestine.
Most of the digestion as well as the absorption of digested food takes place in the small
intestine. The small intestine is narrow, twisting tube; it fills most of the lower abdomen,
extending about 6 m in length. Over a period of three to six hours, peristalsis moves chyme
through the duodenum into the next portion of the small intestine, the jejunum, and finally into
the ileum, the last section of the small intestine.

The liver secretes bile into the duodenum through the bile duct. Bile contains sodium salts
called sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate. These salts are alkaline in nature and play
two roles;
1. Bile salts neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach and create an alkaline
environment for the enzymes that work in the basic environment to digest the food.
2. Bile salts emulsify fats by lowering their surface tension. This makes fats to break up into
very tiny fat droplets for easy digestion by the enzyme lipase from the pancreatic juice.
Bile salts are not enzymes and therefore they only carry out physical digestion of emulsifying
fats.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice, secreted by the
pancreas, enters the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice like bile also
contains the salt sodium hydrogen carbonate that neutralizes the acidic chyme from the
stomach and provides the basic environment for the enzymes to digest the food. The
pancreatic juice contains three enzymes namely amylase, trypsin and lipase. Amylase digests
sugars and starches into simple sugars, Trypsin digests proteins into amino acids and Lipase
digests emulsified fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Glands in the intestinal walls secrete additional enzymes to complete the digestion of the foods
into smaller soluble nutrients that the intestine can absorbs. These enzymes include peptidase,
sucrase, lactase and maltase. Peptidase completes the digestion of peptides and converts them
into amino acids, sucrase digests sucrose and changes it into glucose and fructose, lactase
digests lactose into glucose and galactos and maltase digests maltose and converts it into
glucose.

Absorption of digested food

The end products of carbohydrate digestion are glucose, galactose and fructose. The end
products of protein digestion are amino acids. The end products of fats digestion are fatty acids
and glycerol. These end products of digestion together with those of mineral salts and vitamins
are absorbed by the ileum. The ileum which is the last part of the small intestine absorbs all the
digested food. The absorption of the end products of digestion is by diffusion and active
transport. The ileum is well adapted to absorb the digested food. Its capacity to absorb
digested food is increased by:
1. The ileum is 5m long and folded this provides a large surface area for the absorption of
food
2. The ileum has a thin epithelium allowing easy passage of the digested food

62
 3. It has millions of fingerlike projections called villi, which line the inner walls of the small
intestine. Each villus is divided into even tinier fingerlike projections called microvilli.
These increase the cell surfaces for absorbing digested food
4. Each illus is surrounded by a dense net work of blood capillaries; these facilitate quick
absorption of the digested food
5. Each villus contains a lacteal, which is part of the lymphatic system. Fatty acids and
glycerol are absorbed into the lacteal
The diagram below shows the longitudinal section of the lacteal

Large intestine
A watery residue of indigestible food and digestive juices remains unabsorbed. This residue
leaves the ileum of the small intestine and moves by peristalsis into the large intestine, where it
spends 12 to 24 hours. The large intestine forms an inverted ‘U’ over the coils of the small
intestine. It starts on the lower right-hand side of the body and ends on the lower left-hand
side. The large intestine is 1.5 to 1.8 m long and about 6 cm in diameter.

The large intestine has several important functions which include the absorption of water and
dissolved salts from the undigested materials. In addition the large intestine has bacteria which
breakdown the undigested materials and make several vitamins e.g. vitamin K. vitamin K is
needed for blood clotting.

The remaining un digested residue moves toward the rectum. The rectum makes up the final
part of the alimentary canal. The rectum stores the faeces until elimination through the anus.
The muscles of the rectum contract to push the faeces toward the anus. When sphincters
between the rectum and anus relax, the faeces pass out of the body.

ASSIMILATIONOF THE ABSORBED NUTREINTS

63
This is the incorporation of nutrients into the cells and tissues of animals. Once food is
absorbed by the villi in the small intestines, it passes through the hepatic portal vein and goes
to the liver.
Amino acids are carried in the hepatic portal vein to the liver. The needed amounts of amino
acids are carried by the blood to the rest of the body where they are used to make proteins for
growth and repair as well as making hormones, enzymes, etc. Excess amino acids are
deaminated in the liver and the end products of deamination are glycogen and urea.

The monosaccharides i.e. glucose, fructose and galactose are carried from the small intestine to
the liver through the hepatic portal vein. Needed monosaccharides are carried by blood from
the liver to all parts of the body where they are used by cell to produce energy by respiration.
The excess monosaccharides are changed into glycogen.

Most of the end products of lipid digestion i.e fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the
lymphatic system and later find their way into the blood stream. They are used by cells to
produce energy and also to make cell membranes. Excess fatty acids and glycerol are changed
into fats and stored in adipose tissues. Fats are also stored around delicate organs such as the
liver and the heart. The diagram below shows the relationship between the liver and the small
intestine.

Common ailments of the alimentary canal:

The common ailments of the gut include dehydration due to diarrhea resulting in the loss of
fluids and mineral salts, inflammation of the of the alimentary canal, ulcers, cancer of the gut
and constipation.

Metabolic functions of the liver:

The liver is a special organ in the mammals. Apart from its role in nutrition it does many other
functions such as changing glucose into glycogen, deaminating amino acids, detoxicating poison
and alcohol, destroying bacteria, breaking down red blood cells and storing iron, making bile,
denaturing hormones, changing glycogen into glucose, osmoregulation of blood plasma,
production of heat etc.

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 The effects of common ailments of the liver.
Effects of common ailments of the liver include Poor bile formation, high blood sugar, low
blood sugar and high toxin levels in the blood.
Dietary Needs of different people:
Every human being needs a balanced diet. However, the amount of daily food needed by
different people varies according to age, sex, state of health and occupation.
a. Growing child
A growing child needs a lot of proteins for the synthesis of protoplasm which is essential for
growth and development. A growing up child needs a lot of carbohydrates which is a source of
energy. Energy is needed for the numerous metabolic reactions taking place in the body. More
vitamins and mineral salts are needed to protect the child from deficiency diseases. Grown up
persons need less of proteins, carbohydrates and mineral salts.
b. Sex of a person and nutritional needs;
Generally males need more energy than women because in men the basal metabolic rate for
men is higher than in women. Basal metabolic rate is the rate at which the body uses energy
when at rest. One reason why the basal metallic rate is higher in males is that in males sperm
production is going on all the time. The other reason is that males have less fat for insulation
than females. Females on the other hand need less carbohydrate. Males need more proteins
and one reason for this is the synthesis sperms.
c. Occupation and nutritional needs;
A manual worker needs more carbohydrates for energy because their work involves pulling,
drugging and lifting heavy things. He or she needs more proteins to repair and replace worn out
cells. Furthermore, a manual worker needs more vitamins and mineral salts to protect him or
her from diseases. A sedentary worker works in an office and much of his or her work involves
sitting down. A sedentary worker needs less proteins and carbohydrates as they use less
energy. Over eating of carbohydrates by a sedentary worker leads to a nutritional disorder
called obesity.
d. A pregnant woman and nutritional needs ;
A pregnant woman needs a lot of carbohydrates because she is supporting an extra weight. She
needs a lot of proteins for the synthesis of cells in the body of the foetus in her womb. She
needs a lot of calcium for the formation of bones in the foetus, iron for the formation of red
blood cells in the foetus and other minerals for the needs of the foetus. She needs more
vitamins to protect herself and the foetus against diseases. For a pregnant woman whatever
she eats, she shares with the foetus and the foetus’ needs are satisfied first.
e. A lactating woman and nutritional needs;
A lactating woman needs more of all the nutrients for a balanced diet so that there is enough
for herself and for the production of high quality milk.
f. A sick person and nutritional needs
When a person falls sick due to pathogen infection, dietary needs rise as one recovers. This is
because more proteins are needed to replace and repair damaged cells. More carbohydrates
are needed to generate energy to synthesise protoplasm. More mineral salts to replace lost
mineral salts and vitamins to protect the body from new infection

SAPROPHYTIC NUTRITION:
65
  In this mode of nutrition the organism feeds on the dead and decaying organic matter. The
organism secretes enzymes onto the dead organic matter. The enzymes digest the
substrate and the soluble nutrients of digestion are then absorbed by the organism. This is
called extracellular digestion. One such organism that carries out saprophytic nutrition is
the bread mold or rhizopus.
The Structure of Rhizopus or Mucor

Rhizopus has filaments called hyphae. Some of these hyphae grow horizontally forming a
woolly network called mycelium. A horizontal hypha is called a stolon while a vertical hypha is
called a sporangiophore. The hypha that grows into the substrate is called a rhizoid.

Functions of the parts of Rhizopus:

a. The hyphae (stolons and rhizoids);
These secrete enzymes onto the substrate which digest the complex food substances into
smaller soluble ones so that they can be easily absorbed by hyphae.
b. Sporangiophore ;
This is a vertical hypha it supports the sporangium and conducts nutrients to the spores in
the sporangium.
c. Sporangium;
The sporangium houses the spores. When spores mature they are released and are blown
by the wind to new areas where they germinate if they land on a suitable substrate.

Importance of saprophytic nutrition:

Saprophytic nutrition is very important in nature as it decomposes dead organic matter and
helps to remove the dead organisms from the environment. It also unlocks the elements from
the bodies of dead organisms so nutrients can be recycled. Some moulds like penicillium are
used in the production of antibiotics like penicillin which is used to treat diseases like syphilis.
Saprophytes like yeast are used in baking, beer brewing and production of daily products like
cheese.

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Other types of saprophytic nutrition
Other types of saprophytic nutrition include Symbiosis, Mutualism, and Parasitism
Revision questions
Question 1
The diagram below shows the human alimentary canal

a. Name parts G, H, I, E and F

b. In which lettered part does most of the absorption of digested substances in solution
occur?
c. Name enzymes secreted in the region E

Question 2
(a) Describe how the products of fat digestion enter a person’s blood.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
The diagram below shows apparatus at the start of an experiment to investigate the
digestion of an emulsion of fat droplets in water by enzyme A.

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The pH indicator is green in a pH of 7, blue when the pH is above 7 and red when it is
below 7.
The apparatus is kept at 40 °C for 20 minutes during which time the indicator changes
from green to red.
(b) (i) State the identity of enzyme A. ................................................................................
(ii) Explain why the apparatus was kept at 40 °C.
.................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
(c) Name the products of digestion of the emulsion by enzyme A.
...............................................................................................................................
(d) Describe the processes which led to the change in pH.
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

Question 3

The diagram below shows some food just before it enters the stomach and the same
food as it leaves the stomach four hours later

(a) On the diagram label structures K and L.

(b) The food consisted solely of meat and potatoes. By placing ticks (✓) in the
appropriate boxes in the table below to show how the major components of the food
compare at positions M and N.

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The diagram below shows the same food at O, and 24 hours later, at P.

(c) (i) Explain what has happened to the protein between O and P.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
(ii) Name the region of the alimentary canal which will contain fibre in the highest
proportion and give reasons for your answer.

Region of alimentary canal .........................................................................................

Reasons ....................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
Question 4

The diagram below shows diagrammatically the action of enzymes on two different food
molecules

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(a) Identify the molecules shown in the diagram
D ......................................................
E ......................................................
F ......................................................
(b) Identify enzyme G. ......................................................
(c) It has been found that fresh pineapple contains an enzyme that can be used to make meat
more tender.
(i) Explain why the pineapple is placed on the meat a few hours before, rather than during,
cooking.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

(ii) Suggest the name of the enzyme and how it tenderises the meat.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................

Question 5

The diagram below shows the part of mycelium of the fungus Rhizopus.

a. Give the name and state a function of the part labeled A.

b. Name part B and describe why the reproduction related with it is asexual?
c. The nutrition of Rhizopus is explained as being the saprophytic.
d. What does the word saprophytic signify?
e. Describe the significance of saprophytic nutrition in the overall scheme of nature.
f. Saprophytic nutrition is a form of the heterotrophic nutrition. What does the word
heterotrophic signify?
g. Name the other form of nutrition used by some fungi.

RESPIRATION:
All cells in living organisms need energy. The energy is obtained from glucose by a process
called respiration. This process takes place in cells hence it is called cellular respiration or tissue
respiration. Respiration is a process by which glucose present in the living cells is oxidized to
release energy. The aim of respiration is to release energy in the cells. The energy released is
used for;
a. Muscle contraction to bring about movement of bones and peristalsis, blinking of eyes
70
 b. Protein synthesis to form new protoplasm
c. Cell division that lead to growth or production of sex cells
d. Active transport to absorb and move substances across membranes
e. Movement of nerve impulses along nerve cells
f. Maintenance of a constant body temperature in mammals and birds

Types of respiration
There are two types of tissue respiration namely aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration is a type of respiration in which oxygen is used to completely oxidize
glucose to release energy. The products of aerobic respiration are energy, carbon dioxide and
water vapour. Most plants and animals respire aerobically. Aerobic respiration is a more
efficient form of respiration because it releases a lot of energy compared to anaerobic
respiration. The following equation represents the process of aerobic respiration.

Glucose + oxygen energy + carbon dioxide + water

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2880Kj

Anaerobic respiration on the other hand is a type of respiration by which living organisms
obtain energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen. During this process glucose is only
partially oxidized. In plants glucose is broken down to alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide and
in the process releasing a small amount of energy. In plants anaerobic respiration is called
fermentation. Anaerobic respiration in plants is very important because it is used to brew beer.
In case of animals, glucose is broken down to lactic acid and releasing a very small amount of
energy. The following equations represent anaerobic respiration in plants and animals;

Animals:
Glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy

C6H12O6 2CH3CH (OH) + 150Ki

In plants:
Glucose alcohol + Carbon dioxide + small amount of energy
C6H12O2 C2H5OH + CO2 + 210Kj

Anaerobic Respiration in Human Beings;

When a person is doing a physical exercise such as running he or she breathes fast and deeply.
After the exercise the person may continue to breathe fast and deeply. This is because during
the exercise the contracting muscles use more energy and this demands a lot of oxygen to
oxidize the glucose in the tissues to release the energy. But the lungs are not very efficient in
extracting oxygen from the air breathed in. Consequently there is a deficit of oxygen in the cells
and this situation is called oxygen debt. But at times exercising or running must continue for
some time, the energy to continue the exercise comes from anaerobic respiration. The glucose
presents in the muscles beak down in the absence of oxygen to produce a little energy to help
the person exercising continue. When glucose breaks down in anaerobic respiration it also
produces lactic acid. The person continues to breathe deeply and fast after the exercise to
71
supply oxygen so that lactic acid is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water vapour. In
other words the person is paying for the oxygen debt. The equation may be written as follows

Glucose lactic acid + small amount of energy.

Effect of lactic acid in muscles;

The effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise is that it causes muscle cramps or
rheumatism and this can lead to fainting in athletes who are not trained hard before the race.
Lactic acid produced in animals is not toxic and it is temporarily stored in muscles. Later when
oxygen becomes available, lactic acid is completely oxidized to water vapour and carbon
dioxide releasing energy

Anaerobic Respiration in Bacteria and Yeast;

When bacteria or yeast feed on glucose they produce alcohol, carbon dioxide and heat
(energy). This is called fermentation. Fermentation is very useful in the beer brewing industry.
Alcohol is toxic to plants. The word equation for anaerobic respiration is written below.

Glucose bacteria or yeast Alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy (heat)

The difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration are summarized in the table below:

Substance Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Oxygen Is used to produce energy Not used to produce energy
Energy A lot of energy is released Very little energy is released
Carbon dioxide Is produced in both plants and Only produced in plants, yeast and bacteria
animals during fermentation
Lactic acid Not produced during aerobic Produced in animals only and it is n ot toxic
respiration
Water Produced as water vapour Not produced
Alcohol Not produced Only produced in plants, yeast and bacteria
during fermentation and it is toxic to plants

The production of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy from respiration is not used immediately by the organism. It is temporarily stored in a
chemical substance called Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is formed when a phosphate group
is chemically attached to another chemical substance called adenosine diphosphate (ADP). The
formation of ATP from ADP is an energy consuming reaction and this energy comes from the
breakdown of glucose. Due to is energy value ATP is very unstable. When there is need for
energy the enzyme ATPase catalyses the breaks down of ATP to release the same amount of
energy as was used when it was being formed.

ATP is important because it stores energy. The amount of energy released when glucose breaks
down is huge and the cell cannot use all of it at once otherwise the cell may get damaged. ATP
therefore stores and releases energy in smaller chemical units for convenient and safe use. ATP
stores energy in form of chemical energy which is usable by the body. The breakdown of
glucose to release energy is a long and slow process. This may not supply enough energy when
72
it is needed fast. Being very unstable, ATP breaks down fast and makes energy readily available
for use.

Gaseous exchange;
Gaseous exchange is concerned with how a living organism obtains oxygen from the
environment and release carbon dioxide to the environment. There is a continuous exchange of
these gases between the organism and its environment. The movement of these gases into and
out of the organism is by diffusion. Diffusion gradients are always maintained between the
environment and the organism because the cells of the organism are always using oxygen and
producing carbon dioxide. This means that in the cells of the organism there is low oxygen
concentration and high concentration of carbon dioxide and in the environment there is high
concentration of oxygen and low concentration of carbon dioxide.

Characteristics of gaseous exchange surface areas

The gaseous exchange surface areas are moist so that the gases can easily dissolve in the layer
of moisture before diffusing across the membrane. The membranes are one cell thick. This
reduces the diffusion pathway and increases the rate of diffusion. The gaseous exchange
surface areas form an extensive exchange surface to increase the overall surface area for
gaseous exchange. They are surrounded by a dense network of blood capillaries. These blood
capillaries ensure a continued removal of carbon dioxide from the blood and a continuous
supply of oxygen into the blood.

Gaseous exchange in man:

Multi cellular organisms such as man need an elaborate respiratory system so that oxygen is
transported to each and every cell. And at the same time waste products of respiration such as
carbon dioxide and water vapour are removed from cells and transported the gaseous
exchange surface to be expired to the atmosphere.

The respiratory system in man

Gaseous exchange in man takes place in the lungs. The lungs are connected to the atmosphere
through the bronchi, the trachea and the nose. The nose, trachea, bronchi and lungs from the
respiratory system in man. The diagram below shows the respiratory system in man.

73
Parts and functions of the respiratory system in man;
Nose-
The nose has two openings called nostrils. These link the trachea to the atmosphere. The nose
has hairs and mucus. The functions of the nose are;
(i) To filter the air that we breathe in using the hairs
(ii) The mucus traps the bacteria and dust which are later expelled from the nose by
blowing
(iii) The nose also warms the air as it passes through it and the olfactory organs
Trachea-
The trachea is made up of incomplete rings of cartilage. These rings keep the trachea open all
the time. Like the nose the trachea has hairs called cilia and its walls secrete mucus. The
function of the incomplete rings of the trachea is to prevent the trachea from collapsing.
The function of the cilia is beat upwards (waft upwards) the mucus, dust and bacteria and the
function of mucus is to trap dust and bacteria that could have been breathed in together with
air.
Bronchi and bronchioles-
Like the Trachea; the bronchi and bronchioles are made of incomplete rings of cartilage
containing cilia. Their walls also produce mucus.
Alveoli (air sacs)-
These are one cell thick structures found at the end of the bronchioles. Their function is to
exchange gases.
The diagram below shows the trachea with incomplete rings of cartilage. The goblet cells
produce mucus

74
BREATHING MECHANISM IN MAN:
The movement of air into and out of the lungs is brought about by changes in the volume of the
thorax. The changes are caused by the contraction and relaxation of the inter-costal muscles
and the diaphragm.
The diagram below shows the parts associated with breathing.

Breathing in;
Breathing in is also called inspiration or inhalation. During breathing in external inter-coastal
muscles contract while the internal inter-coastal muscles relax. The rib cage moves up and
outwards while diaphragm contracts and flatten. This movement of the rib cage and the
diaphragm increases the volume of the thorax cavity. The air pressure inside the chest cavity

75
reduces causing air from the atmosphere to move into the lungs. The diagram below shows
inspiration in man.

Breathing out;
Breathing out is also known as expiration or exhalation. During breathing out the internal inter-
coastal muscles contract while the external inter-coastal muscles relax. The rib cage moves
down and inwards while the diaphragm relaxes and curves upwards i.e. becomes dome shape.
These movements decrease the volume inside the thorax cavity. The air pressure inside the
lungs increases and the extra amount of air inside the lungs is forced out into the atmosphere.
The diagram below show breathing in.

Gaseous exchange in the alveoli;

In man gaseous exchange take place in the alveoli or air sacs. The lungs are made up of millions
of tiny pocket like structures called air sacs. These are located at the end of the bronchioles.
The air sacs are one cell thick and surrounded by a dense network of blood capillaries.

The air reaching the alveoli has a high concentration of oxygen and a low concentration of
carbon dioxide. The blood in the capillaries around the alveoli has low oxygen concentration
and a high carbon dioxide concentration. Oxygen dissolves in the layer of moisture and then
diffuses across the thin epithelium of the alveolus wall and across the thin wall of the capillary
into the blood. In the blood oxygen enters the red blood cell where it chemically combines with
haemoglobin to form an unstable compound called oxy-haemoglobin.
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On the other hand blood arriving at the alveoli from the heart has a higher concentration of
carbon dioxide and a lower concentration of oxygen. At the alveolus carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood plasma and enters the alveolus. From the alveolus carbon dioxide is breathed
out into the atmosphere. The diagram below shows an air sac or alveoli.

Experiment:
Title: Respiration
Aim: To find out the volume of air expired under forced exhalation when the lungs are fully
filled
Method: The experiment is set up as shown below

The person breathes in deeply and then forces out as much air as possible through the tube
into the bell jar containing water.

77
Observations and conclusion:
The volume of water pushed out of the bell represents the largest volume of air that can be
forced out of the lungs under forced exhalation. This volume is called vital capacity.

Explanations:
When at rest only a small volume of air of about 500cm3 is exchanged between the lungs and
the atmosphere. This volume is called tidal volume. Under forced inhalation the lungs can be
filled with extra volume of air. Under forced exhalation when the lungs are fully filled with air
the volume of air expired is also increased. This volume is called vital capacity. No matter how
much air is forced out of the lungs there will always be a small amount of air that remains in the
lungs. This volume is called residual volume. Residual volume is very important because it
prevents the lungs from collapsing. The residual volume and the vital capacity make up the lung
capacity

Effects of an exercise on the breathing rate;

During and immediately after an exercise; the breathing rate i.e. number of breaths per minute
increases and the person breathes in and out more deeply i.e. the volume of air breathed in
and out increases. This is important as it helps the respiratory system to supply more oxygen to
the tissues for respiration and produce more energy. It also helps to remove the produced
carbon dioxide from the tissues to be expired through lungs,

Composition of Inspired and Expired Air in man;

The air that living organisms such as man, fish, insects and plants inspire and expire contains
oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour, carbon dioxide and varying amounts of other gases. The
concentration of carbon dioxide in inspired and expired air in man can be investigated.
Experiment:
Title: Expired and inspired air
Aim: To investigate the concentration of carbon dioxide in inspired and expired air in man
Method: Lime water is put into two test tubes A and B. The two test tubes are then fitted with
glass tubes. The two test tubes are joined together using rubber tubes. A person is allowed to
breathe in and out through the mouth piece. The diagram below shows how the experiment
is performed.

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Observations:
After breathing in and out through the mouth piece for some time clear Lime water in test tube
B turned milky while the lime water in A remained clear.
Conclusions and Explanations:
Expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired air. Expired air from the lungs was
bubbled into the lime water in test tube B causing the lime water to turn milky. On the other
hand the air that was being inspired was coming from test tube A. this air did not turn lime
water milky. Notice also that in test tube B the glass tubing from the mouth piece dips into the
lime water while in test tube A the glass tubing from the mouth piece does not dip into the lime
water.
The percentage composition of gases between inspired and expired air in man is shown in the
table below
Gas Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nitrogen Water vapour
Inspired 20.9% 0.03% 78% Varies
Expired 16.% 4% 78% Saturated
Difference 4.9% 3.97% 0% -

The 4.9% difference in oxygen represents the amount of oxygen that diffused from the air sac
into the blood stream. Out of 21.9% of oxygen that enters the lungs only 4.9% enters the blood
stream from the lungs. This tells us that the lungs are not very efficient in extracting oxygen
from the air we breathe in.
The 3.97% difference in carbon dioxide represents the additional amount of carbon dioxide that
is produced by cells during respiration and passed on to the lungs to be expired

Adverse effects of air pollutants on health of human beings;

The pollutants of air include tobacco smoke, sulphur and carbon monoxide from burning fuels, dust and
soot. All these have an adverse effect on the respiratory system in human beings and consequently
affect the health of human beings.

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Tobacco smoke;
When one smokes, the inhaled air takes the same path as inhaled air. The chemicals that are produced
when tobacco burns are known to cause respiratory diseases. These chemicals include nicotine, tar and
carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide:
Carbon monoxide is a very poisonous gas. It readily combines with haemoglobin in red blood cells in
blood, and prevents oxygen from combining with haemoglobin. This causes oxygen starvation in the body
tissues and eventually causes death by suffocation. About 0.1% of carbon monoxide in the air is enough to
cause death.

It is therefore, not advisable to keep a brazier in a room where windows are closed because the carbon
monoxide from the brazier may accumulate in the room to dangerous levels. Young children should not
play in garages as they contain carbon monoxide from cars’ exhaust pipes.

Tar;
Tar is a dark black substance produced when tobacco burns. This substance irritates the lining of the
respiratory system causing inflammation of the lining leading to bronchitis. Tar can also weaken the alveoli
walls and when a person coughs the alveoli bust, this disease is called emphysema. Emphysema is a
disease where the air sacs break down and a patient coughs a reddish- brown substance. Emphysema
reduces the respiratory surface area and gaseous exchange is severely impaired.

Tar also destroys cilia (the hair that lines the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles) if the cilia are destroyed it
fails to sweep mucus up wards. This causes mucus to accumulate in the respiratory system and this may
result into a smokers’ cough.

Tar is carcinogenic i.e. it can cause cancer. Cancer is a condition in which there is an uncontrolled cell
division. The increasing number of cells produced form a swelling called a tumour. If this occurs in lungs it
is called lung cancer.

Nicotine;
Nicotine is a stimulant chemical found in tobacco, it speeds up heart beat and dilates blood vessels. It is
very addictive and people who smoke find it difficult to stop smoking once hooked to nicotine. It is harmful
to the respiratory system because it makes smokers to long for more tobacco despite the danger it poses to
their health.

Sulphur dioxide and Dust

Sulphur dioxide;
Suphur dioxide is produced when fossil fuels burn. When the oxide is inhaled it irritates the respiratory
surface and long exposure to the gas may lead to inflammation of the trachea and bronchi.
Dust;
Dust is the fine soil particles that are blown by wind. It makes mucus dirt and causes coughing.

Gaseous exchange in insects;

The body of an insect is covered by a water proof waxy material called Chitin. The chitin while
offering protection against dehydration also acts as a barrier to gaseous exchange. Gaseous
exchange in insects takes place through the openings found in the chitin of the thorax and
abdomen. The openings are called spiracles.

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Spiracles are directly connected to a network of fine tubes covering the whole insect body.
These tubes are called tracheae. Tracheae end in the tissues of an insect as very tiny tubes
called tracheoles. The tracheoles are the sites for gaseous exchange i.e. oxygen diffuses from
the tracheoles into the tissues and carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues to the tracheoles.
The diagram below shows part of the respiratory system in a typical insect

Experiment:
Title: Respiration in insects
Aim: To show that insects give out carbon dioxide
Method:
The live insects are put in conical flask joined to two test tubes containing lime water. One test
tube is connected to the test tube containing potassium hydroxide to absorb carbon dioxide

81
from the incoming air. The experiment is set up as shown below. Air is pumped through the
experiment as shown by arrows below

Observation:
After several hours the clear lime water in C turns milky while the lime water in B remains clear
Conclusion:
The lime water in C turned milky because of the carbon dioxide being respired by the insects in
the conical flask
Explanations:
The potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. The lime water in B is used to
check if the air from test tube A contains carbon dioxide. As insects respire the carbon dioxide
was drawn into test tube C by the suction pump.

Effects Pollution
Air pollution damages the spiracles and the tracheole system in insects. This reduces the
amount of gases exchanged between the atmosphere and the tissues in the insect’s body.

Gaseous exchange in fish;

Fish obtain oxygen from the air dissolved in water. The organs involved in obtaining oxygen
from air dissolved in water are the gills. The gills are found in the gill chamber called the
opercula cavity. The gills are covered by the semicircular flap called operculum. Each gill is
made up of a curved bony bar called gill bar or gill arch. Attached to the gill arch are a large
number of gill filaments and gill rackers. Gill rackers remove solid particles which could
otherwise damage the gill filaments

82
The gill filaments are surrounded by a lot of blood capillaries. The gill filaments provide a large
surface area for gaseous exchange. Oxygen is absorbed from the drawn in water and carbon
dioxide is lost to the water.
Breathing mechanism in fish;

The fish opens the mouth and lowers the floor of the buccal cavity. The operculum closes and
water containing dissolved oxygen enters the mouth. When water has entered, the mouth
closes, operculum opens and the floor of the mouth is raised. Water containing dissolved
oxygen is forced over the gills. Oxygen from water diffuses into blood capillaries in gill
filaments. Carbon dioxide from blood capillaries in gills diffuse out of capillaries and enter
water. The water containing carbon dioxide is forced out through the opened operculum.

Effects Pollution

Fish is affected by water pollutants. Both acidic and alkaline pollutants cause ulcers on the gills.
The gills get damaged and this greatly reduces the amount of gases exchanged between the
gills and the water.

Eutrophication is another form of water pollution that reduces the amount of oxygen in water.
In this condition fish suffocates

Gaseous exchange in plants;

The three main organs of a flowering plant involved in gaseous exchange are the leaf through
stomata, the stem through lenticels and the root. During respiration the leaf obtains oxygen
from the air through stomata and carbon dioxide from cells is expired through stomata. On

83
stems oxygen from the atmosphere diffuses through lenticels to get to the respiring cells while
carbon dioxide diffuses from respiring cells through lenticels to the atmosphere. In roots
oxygen from air in the soil diffuses into the roots and carbon dioxide from the respiring cells in
the roots diffuse out into the air spaces in the soil.

Experiment:

Title: Respiration

Aim: To investigate whether carbon dioxide is given off by a green plant

Method: The soil is sterilized and put in the pot. The pot is painted black. The plant is then
planted in the pot. The experiment is then set up as shown below.

Observations:
After several hours, the lime water in C turns milky while the lime water in B remains clear.
Conclusion:
The carbon dioxide that turns lime water milky in container C came from the respiring plant.
Explanations:
In plants respiration takes place all the time. During the day light time it appears as if plants do
not respire. This is because the carbon dioxide that is released during respiration is quickly
taken back into the leaf mesophyll cells for the process of photosynthesis. During night time the
carbon dioxide release during respiration is expired to the atmosphere because at night there is
no photosynthesis taking place.
In the experiment above the tin where the potted plant is put is painted black to prevent light
from reaching the plant which would induce photosynthesis. The soil is sterilized to kill soil
microorganisms so that there is no carbon dioxide coming from respiring microorganism.

Effects Pollution;
Sulphur dioxide in air can dissolve in rain water and form acidic rain. The acidic rain damages
leaves which contain the largest number of stomata. Dust from construction industry
accumulate on laves blocks the stomata from exchanging gases. Both sulphur dioxide and dust
severely reduce the amount of gases that enters and leaves the leaf which is the main
respiratory organ in green plants.

Experiment
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Title: Respiration
Aim: To show that germinating seeds of peas take in oxygen
Method:
The experiment was set up as shown in the diagram below

Observations:

As the seeds germinate the coloured oil drop is seen to move towards the germinating
seeds in the test tube

Conclusions and explanation:

Germinating seeds respire and as they respire they take in oxygen. The air trapped
between the germinating seeds and the coloured oil drop contains oxygen. As the
oxygen is being used up by the germinating seeds the amount of air between the
germinating peas and the coloured oil drop reduces and this reduces the air pressure
between the coloured oil drop and the germinating seeds. The atmospheric air pressure
pushes the coloured oil drop towards the germinating peas. Sodium hydroxide is used to
absorb the carbon dioxide produced by the respiring peas. The thermometer is used to
measure the temperature and respiration produces heat.

Experiment

Title: Respiration

Aim: To show that heat is released during respiration

Method: The experiment is set up as shown below

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Observations:

After four hours the thermometer reading in the flask containing dead and sterilized
barley seeds did not show any increase in temperature. After four hours the
thermometer reading in the flask containing growing barley seeds showed an increase in
temperature

Conclusions and explanations:

Respiration releases heat. Heat is a form of energy. The dead and sterilized seeds were
not respiring hence the temperature reading remained constant after four hours. Where
the seeds were respiring there was an increase in the thermometer reading

Experiment

Title: Respiration

Aim: To show that carbon dioxide is produced during anaerobic respiration

Method: One test tube contains clear lime water and the other test tube contains a mixture of
warm glucose and yeast solution. The two test tubes are joined together and left to
stand for 30 minutes. The experiment is set up as shown below.

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Observations and conclusion;

Bubbles of a colourless gas were seen bubbling into the clear lime water. After30minutes the
clear lime water turned milky and a smell of alcohol is detected in the test tube containing the
glucose yeast solution. This experiment shows that carbon dioxide and alcohol are produced
when yeast feeds on glucose solution.

Explanations:

When yeast is put in glucose solution and the mixture kept an optimum temperature it feeds on
the glucose solution producing carbon dioxide and alcohol. This is an example of an anaerobic
respiration. Lime water is used to see carbon dioxide is produced when yeast feeds on glucose
solution. This phenomenon is used in beer brewing industry. It is important to keep the
experiment at an optimum temperature because yeast contains enzymes that work at a
suitable temperature.

Revision questions

Question 1.

a) Explain how the lungs are provided with a continuous supply of clean atmospheric air
b) Describe and explain what might happen to a girl’s breathing rate as she climbs a
mountain

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Question 2

Fig 2.1 shows the structures involved in oxygen uptake in the lungs

Fig 2.1

a. Identify structures A, B and C in fig 2.1 [3]

b. Each statement below describes a process that occurs during breathing

c) Describe what happens to a molecule of oxygen as it moves from D to E in fig. 2.1 [3]

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d) Table 2.1 shows the percentage of oxygen in the inspired and expired air of a healthy
person

Table 2.1.

% of oxygen in % of oxygen in
inspired air expired air
20.5 16.5
Suggest and explain how these figures might be different for a person whose diet had
been deficient in iron over a period of several years [3]

Question 3

Fig. 3.1 shows a student involved in an experiment on breathing.

a) State three ways in which the air in the jar differs from atmospheric air [3]
b) Describe what occurs in the student’s thorax to cause air to be breathed out into the jar
[3]
c) By referring to the cells in the student’s body, suggest how the differences you mention
in (a) are brought about [2]

Question 4

a) Describe how anaerobic respiration in muscles differs from anaerobic respiration in

yeast.[3]
b) Describe the part played by the cells lining the trachea. [3]
c) Explain what may happen to the cells lining the trachea in a smoker, and how this may
affect the person’s healthy
d) Why does emphysema cause severe breathlessness?

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Question 5

The table below shows ventilation rates of an adult while resting and while exercising.

a) What is the volume of air exchanged per minute while exercising?

b) What does this volume while exercising represents?
c) State the significance of residual volume

Question 6

The diagram shows an investigation into the respiration of germinating seeds

a) State the function of soda lime

b) It is observed that the indicator fluid moves towards the test tube. Explain the cause of
this observation.

Question 7
The apparatus in the diagram is used to investigate whether carbon dioxide is given off by a
green plant.

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 a) State three precautions when setting up the experiment above
b) When does respiration occur in green plants

TRANSPORT IN FLOWERING PLANTS:

Flowering plants are put into two main classes called dicotyledonous pants and
monocotyledonous plants. Transport system in plants consists of two main parts namely the
transport of water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the leaves through the xylem
vessels and the transport of organic food substances made in the leaves and other green parts
of the plant to all parts of the plant through phloem sieve tubes. The xylem vessels and the
phloem sieve tubes form the vascular bundles.

Transport of water and mineral salts

Water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs through osmosis and dissolved mineral salts are
Absorbed from the soil by root hairs through active transport. The absorbed water and
dissolved mineral salts are conducted from the soil to the leaves through special plant cells
called xylem vessels.

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