2.

1
2 INTRODUCTION TO NON-
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

IMPORTANCE OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) IN FRACTURE

MECHANICS
Fracture mechanics is an engineering discipline which relates quantitatively the size
of a crack or crack like defect in an industrial component to the fracture toughness of
the material of the component and to the stresses under which the component is to
work. Figure 2.1, which is known is the triangle of integrity, shows the three factors
that form the basis of the application of fracture mechanics.
Fracture mechanical calculations will be as precise as the three inputs (Figure 2.1).
The accurate quantitative measurement of the flaw size, the fracture toughness of the
materials and the applicable stresses are therefore of vital importance.

Figure 2.1 Triangle of integrity

One of the important applications of fracture mechanics is the life predication of a

component if a flaw is detected during the pre-service inspection (PSI) or during in-
services inspection (ISI) of the component. The flaw characteristics which are to be
precisely measured non-destructively for accurate life predication of the component
are flaw nearness to the surface, flaw height or through thickness, flaw type, length of
the flaw and rate of propagation of the flaw. Some of these characteristics are
illustrated in Figure 2.2
a= Distance of the top edge of the flaw form scanning surface
h= Height of the flaw

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 Figure 2.2 Flaw Characteristics

In relation to fracture mechanical application the selection of NDT techniques is

based on the following factors:
a) Planar flaws are more dangerous than volumetric flaws
b) Surface flaws are more dangerous then the internal flaws and,
c) Flaw height (through thickness) is the most critical dimensions that need to be
measured accurately.
Any NDT programme that are to be used for the life predication of a component,
therefore, must include NDT methods that detects surface flaw, methods that detects
internal flaws and methods that will measure accurately the height of the flaws.

2.2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)

Non-destructive testing is the use of physical methods which will test materials,
components and assemblies for flaws in their structure without damaging their future
usefulness. Compared to destructive testing (DT) methods, NDT methods are indirect
in nature that is the physical attribute, which is to be measured, is not measured
directly. The measurement of the physical attributed is co-related with the
measurement of some other physical quantity. NDT methods, therefore, require to be
performed by highly trained, experienced and skilled manpower. On the other hand
since these methods are non-destructive in nature so these can be performed before,
during and after fabrication. NDT methods are also less expensive and time
consuming than destructive methods.

2.3 COMMONLY USED NDT METHODS

2.3.1 VISUAL TESTING (VT)
Visual inspection is one of the most common and most powerful means of non-
destructive testing. Visual testing requires adequate illumination of the test surface
and proper eye-sight of the tester. To be most effective visual inspection does
however, merit special attention because it requires training (knowledge of product
and process, anticipated service conditions, acceptance criteria, record keeping, for
example) and it has its own range of equipment and instrumentation. It is also a fact
that all defects found by other NDT methods ultimately must be substantiated by
visual inspection. Visual testing can be classified as direct visual testing and remote
visual testing. The most common NDT methods MT and PT are indeed simply
scientific ways of enhancing the indication to make it more visible. Often the
equipment needed is simple (Figure 2.3) a portable light, a mirror on stem, a 2 x or 4
x hand lens, one illuminated magnifier with magnification 5x or 10x. For internal
inspection, light lens systems such as borescopes allow remote surfaces to be

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 examined. More sophisticated devices of this nature using fiber optics permit the
introduction of the device into very small access holes and channels. Most of these
systems provide for the attachment of a camera to permit permanent recording.
2.3.1.1 Applications of Visual Testing
The applications of visual testing include:

a) Checking of the surface condition of the test specimen

b) Checking of alignment of matting surfaces

(B)
(A)

Video Bore scope or intra scope Magnifying glass usually magnification 2-3 X

Figure 2.3 Various optical aids used in visual inspection.

c) Checking of shape of the component

d) Checking for evidence of leaking
e) Checking for inner surface defects

2.3.1.2 Advantages of Visual Testing

Some of the advantages of visual testing are as follows:

a) Testing is simple
b) Testing speed is high
c) Cost is low
d) Less Training
e) Testing is possible while test object is being used
f) Permanent records are available when latest equipments are used

2.3.1.3 Limitations of Visual Testing

Some of the limitations of visual testing are as follows:

a) Can detect only surface flaws
b) Eye resolution is weak
c) Cost of the some equipment is high
d) Eye fatigue

2.3.2 LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface
discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material.

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This method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a
liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain predetermined
time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is
then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains in the
discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the
location, size and nature of the discontinuity. The process is illustrated in Figure 2.4.
Penetrants used in liquid penetrant are either visible dye penetrant or fluorescent dye
penetrant. The inspection of the presence of indications dye visible by penetrant is made
under white light while inspection of presence of indications by fluorescent dye

Figure 2.4 Different stages of liquid penetrant process

penetrant is made under ultraviolet (or black) light under darkened conditions. The
liquid penetrant processes are further sub-divided according to the method of
washing of the specimen. The Penetrants can be: (i) water-washable, (ii) post-
emulsifiable, i.e. an emulsifier is added to the excess penetrant on surface of the
specimen to make it water-washable, and (iii) solvent removable, i.e. the excess
penetrant is needed to be dissolved in a solvent to remove it from the test specimen
surface.
In order of decreasing sensitivity and decreasing cost, the liquid penetrant processes
can be listed as:
a) Post emulsifiable fluorescent dye penetrant.

b) Solvent removable fluorescent dye penetrant.

c) Water washable fluorescent dye penetrant.

d) Post emulsifiable visible dye penetrant.

e) Solvent removable visible dye penetrant.

f) Water washable visible dye penetrant.

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2.3.2.1 Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing
Some of the advantages of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:

a) Relatively low cost.

b) Highly portable NDT method.

c) Highly sensitive to fine, tight discontinuities.

d) Fairly simple method:

e) Can be used on a variety of materials.

f) All surface discontinuities are detected in one operation, regardless of orientation.

2.3.2.2 Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Testing

Some of the limitations of liquid penetrant testing are as follows:

a) Test surface must be free of all contaminants (dirt, oil, grease, paint, rust etc.)

b) Detects surface discontinuities only

c) Cannot be used on porous specimens and is difficult to use on very rough

surfaces.

d) Removal of all penetrant of all penetrant materials, following the test, is often
required.

e) There is no easy method to produce permanent record.

2.3.3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING (MT)

Magnetic particle testing is used for the testing of materials which can be easily
magnetized. This method is capable of detecting open to surface and just below the
surface flaws. In this method the test specimen is first magnetized either by using a
permanent or an electromagnet or by passing electric current through or around the
specimen. The magnetic field thus introduced into the specimen is composed of
magnetic lines of force.

Figure 2.5 Basic principle of magnetic particle testing

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 Whenever there is a flaw which interrupts the flow of magnetic lines of force, some of
these lines must exit and re-enter the specimen. These points of exit and re-entry form
opposite magnetic poles. Whenever minute magnetic particles are sprinkled onto the
surface of such a specimen, these particles are attracted by these magnetic poles to
create a visual indication approximating the size and shape of the flaw. Figure 2.5
illustrates the basic principles of this method. Depending on the application, there are
different magnetization techniques used in magnetic particle testing. These techniques
can be grouped into the following two categories:

Direct Current Flow Techniques: These are the techniques in which the current flows
through the test specimen and the magnetic field produced by this flow of current is
used for the detection of defects.

Magnetic Flux Flow Techniques: In these techniques magnetic flux is induced into the
specimen either by the use of a permanent magnet or by flowing current through a coil
or a conductor.

2.3.3.1 Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing

Advantages of magnetic particle testing include the following:

a) It does not need very stringent pre-cleaning operation.

b) Best method for the detection of fine, shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic
material.

Circular Magnetization Techniques Longitudinal Magnetization Techniques

Figure 2.6 Different ways of magnetization

c) Fast and relatively simple NDT method.

d) Generally inexpensive.

e) Will work through thin coating.

f) Highly portable NDT method.

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 g) It is quicker.

2.3.3.2 Limitations of Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing

Some of the limitations of magnetic particle testing include the following:

a) Material must be ferromagnetic.

b) Orientation and strength of magnetic field is critical.

c) Detects surface and near-to-surface discontinuities only.

d) Sometimes large currents are required.

e) Burning of test parts is a possibility.

f) Parts must often be demagnetized, which may be difficult.

2.3.4 EDDY CURRENT TESTING (ET)

This method is widely used to detect surface and subsurface flaws, to sort materials,
to measure thin walls from one surface only, to measure thin coatings and in some
applications to measure case depth. This method is applicable to electrically
conductive materials only. In the method eddy currents are produced in the product by
bringing it close to an alternating current carrying coil. The alternating magnetic field
of the coil is modified by the magnetic fields of the eddy currents. This modification,
which depends on the condition of the part near to the coil, is then shown as a meter
reading or cathode ray tube presentation. Figure 2.7 gives the basic principles of eddy
current testing.
There are three types of probes (Figure 2.8) used in eddy current testing. Internal
probes are usually used for the in-service testing of heat exchanger tubes. Encircling
probes are commonly used for the testing of rods and tubes during manufacturing.
The uses of surface probes include the location of cracks, sorting of materials,
measurement of wall and coating thickness, and case depth measurement.

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 Figure 2.7 Generation of eddy currents in the test specimen

Surface Probe Internal (Bobbin) Coil External Coil

Figure 2.8 Types of probes used in eddy current testing
2.3.4.1 Applications of Eddy Current Testing
This method is used:

a) For the detection of defects in tubings

b) For sorting materials

c) For measurement of thin wall thicknesses from one surface only

d) For measuring thin coatings and

e) For measuring case depth

2.3.4.2 Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

Some of the advantages of eddy current testing include:

a) Does not require couplant

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 b) It gives instantaneous response.

c) Is extremely sensitive to flaws.

d) High scanning speeds can be used.

e) Is very accurate for dimensional analysis of flaws or coating thickness.

2.3.4.3 Limitations of Eddy Current Testing

Some of the limitations of eddy current testing include the following:
a) The theory requires a good academic background in electrical principles and in
mathematics.

b) Extremely sensitive to surface variations and therefore requires a good surface.

c) It is applicable to conductor materials only.

d) Difficult in use for ferromagnetic material (e.g.) not reliable on carbon steel for
the detection of subsurface flaw.

e) Its depth of penetration is limited.

2.3.5 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD (RT)

The radiographic testing method is used for the detection of internal flaws in many
different materials and configurations. An appropriate radiographic film is placed
behind the test specimen (Figure 2.9) and is exposed by passing either X-rays or
gamma rays through it. The intensity of the X-rays or gamma rays while passing
through the product is modified according to the internal structure of the specimen
and thus the exposed film, after processing, reveals the shadow picture, known as a
radiograph, of the product. It is then interpreted to obtain data about the flaws present
in the specimen. This method is used on wide variety of products such as forgings,
castings and weldment.

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 Figure 2.9 Arrangement for radiographic testing method

2.3.5.1 Advantages of Radiographic Testing

Some of the Advantages of radiographic testing include:

a) It can be used to inspect large areas at one time.

b) It is useful on wide variety of materials.

c) It can be used for checking internal malstructure, misassembly or misalignment.

d) It provides permanent record.

e) No calibration needed on the job site.

f) Devices for checking the quality of radiograph are available.

g) Interpretation of radiographs can be done in comfortable conditions.

2.3.5.2 Limitations of Radiographic Testing

Some of the limitations of this method are:

a) X-Rays and gamma-rays are hazardous to human health.

b) It cannot detect planar defects readily.

c) Access to both sides of the specimen is required.

d) Thickness range that can be inspected is limited.

e) Certain areas in many items cannot be radiographed because of the geometric

consideration.

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 f) Sensitivity of inspection decreases with thickness of the test specimen.
g) It is more costly.
h) It cannot be easily automatic.
i) It requires considerable skill for the interpretation of the radiographs.
j) Depth of discontinuity not indicated.
2.3.6 ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
Ultrasonic inspection is a non-destructive method in which high frequency sound
waves are introduced into the material being inspected. Most ultrasonic inspection is
done at frequencies between 0.5 and 20 MHz, well above the range of human hearing
which is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The sound waves travel through the material with
some loss of energy (attenuation) due to material characteristics. The intensity of
sound waves is either measured, after reflection (Pulse echo) at interfaces (or flaw) or
is measured at the opposite surface of the specimen (Pulse transmission). The
reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws.
The degree of reflection depends largely on the physical state of matter on the
opposite side of the interface, and to a lesser extent on specific physical properties of
that matter, for instance, sound waves are almost completely reflected at metal-gas
interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at metal-liquid or metal-solid interfaces.
Ultrasonic testing has a superior penetrating power than radiography and can detect
flaws deep in the test specimen (say up to about 6 to 7 metre of steel). It is quite
sensitive to small flaws and allows the precise determination of the location and size
of the flaws. The basic principle of ultrasonic testing is illustrated in Figure 2.10.
2.3.6.1 Applications of Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing method is:
a) Mostly used for detection of flaws in materials
b) Widely used for thickness measurement
c) Used for the determination of mechanical properties and grain structure of materials

d) Used for the evaluation of processing variables on materials

(a) (b) (c)

Pulse echo technique Through transmission Immersion technique
technique.
Figure 2.10 Common Ultrasonic testing techniques

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2.3.6.2 Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing
Some of the advantages of ultrasonic testing are:

a) It has high sensitivity which permits detection of minute defects.

b) It has high penetrating power (of the order of 6 to 7 metres in steel) which allows
examination of extremely thick sections.

c) It has a high accuracy of measurement of flaw position and size.

d) It has fast response which permits rapid and automatic inspection.

e) It needs access to only one surface of the specimen.

2.3.6.3 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing

Some of the limitations of this method are:

a) Unfavourable geometry of the test specimen causes problems during inspection.

b) Inspection of materials having undesirable internal structure is difficult.

c) It requires the use of a couplant.

d) The probe must be properly coupled during scanning.

e) Defect orientation affects defect detectability.

f) Equipment is quite expensive.

g) Very highly skilled manpower is required.

h) Reference standards and calibration required.

i) Rough surfaces can be a problem and surface preparation is necessary.

2.3.7 ULTRASONIC ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT

Ultrasonic attenuation is the gradual loss of ultrasonic energy as it travels through a
material. Such losses are due to sound scattering or absorption. In metallic specimen,
localized metallurgical conditions related to microstructure and grain size greatly
affect the amount of attenuation that will occur. Because of the relationship between
attenuation and the metallurgical condition of a test specimen, a great deal of
information about material properties may be obtained by employing ultrasonic
longitudinal wave attenuation measuring technique. This method can be reliably used
to detect initial hydrogen attack that is manifested in decarburization or appearance of
micro-cracks at grain boundaries.
The block diagram of the ultrasonic test system used for ultrasonic attenuation
measurement is given in Figure 2.11. Apart from suitable ultrasonic measurement
system, proper selection and preparation of the locations at which measurements are

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to be taken is important. Properly trained, skilled and experienced manpower is the
other requirements to obtain valid ultrasonic attenuation values.

Figure 2.11 Ultrasonic Attenuation Measurement Systems

The in-service component which has undergone hydrogen attack will render higher
ultrasonic attenuation values than the unused component.

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