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Sociology Textbook

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100% found this document useful (8 votes)

10K views402 pages

Sociology Textbook

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Holly Bainbridge

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bereska

symbaluk
sociology in Action
a canadian perspective
Stay organized and efficient with MindTap—a single destination with all the course material and study aids you need
to succeed. Built-in apps leverage social media and the latest learning technology to help you succeed.
Offering personalized paths of dynamic assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution that
turns cookie-cutter into cutting-edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.

Edition
Third

nelson.com
ISBN-13: 978-0-17-672506-8
ISBN-10: 0-17-672506-7

9 780176 725068
THIRD Edition

SOCIOLOGY
IN ACTION
A Canadian Perspective

Diane G. Symbaluk, PhD

Sociology Department
Grant MacEwan University

Tami M. Bereska, PhD

Sociology Department
Grant MacEwan University

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Copyright © 2019, 2016 by Nelson All rights reserved. No part of Library and Archives Canada
Education Ltd. this work covered by the copyright Cataloguing in Publication Data
herein may be reproduced,
Printed and bound in Canada transcribed, or used in any form Symbaluk, Diane, 1967-, author
1 2 3 4 21 20 19 18 or by any means—graphic, Sociology in action : a Canadian
electronic, or mechanical, including perspective / Diane G. Symbaluk, PhD,
For more information contact Sociology Department,
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Every effort has been made to 1. Sociology—Canada—

trace ownership of all copyrighted Textbooks. 2. Sociology—Textbooks.
material and to secure permission 3. Textbooks. I. Bereska, Tami M.
from copyright holders. In the event (Tami Marie), 1968-, author II. Title.
of any question arising as to the use HM586.S95 2018 301.0971
of any material, we will be pleased C2017-907529-2
to make the necessary corrections in C2017-907530-6
future printings.
ISBN-13: 978-0-17-672506-8
Additional credits for recurring ISBN-10: 0-17-672506-7
images: Sociology in My Life:
franckreporter/iStock; Sociology in
My Community: PatCamera/iStock;
Sociology in Words: filadendron/
iStock; Sociology Online: Rawpixel
.com/Shutterstock; Sociology in
Practice: iStock/Thinkstock; Sociology
On Screen: iStock/Thinkstock;
Sociology in Music: PeopleImages/
iStock.

A Unique Learning System xii

Preface xvi
About the Authors xxiv

Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit 1

Chapter 1: Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 2
Chapter 2: Applying Sociological Research Methods 22

Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations 45

Chapter 3: “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 46
Chapter 4: Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 66
Chapter 5: Social Inequality in Canadian Society 88
Chapter 6: Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 110

Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives 133

Chapter 7: Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 134
Chapter 8: Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 156
Chapter 9: Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 178
Chapter 10: Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 198
Chapter 11: Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 220
Chapter 12: Health and Illness: Is It “
Lifestyle” or Something More? 240

Part 4 Our Changing World 265

Chapter 13: Social Change: Collective B
ehaviour and Social Movements 266
Chapter 14: “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 286
Chapter 15: Globalization: The Interconnected World 310

Glossary 330
References 341
Index 367

vi NEL

A Unique Learning System xii QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

METHODS 31
Preface xvi

About the Authors xxiv SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS 34

Experiments: What Is Causing This? 34

1
Surveys: What Is Your Opinion on This? 35
Interviews: What Can You Tell Me
Part about This? 36
Secondary Data Analysis: What
Practising Sociology: Inferences Can Be Made from These Data? 38
Your Sociological Toolkit 1 Ethnography: What Is It Like to Be
a Member of That Group? 39
Systematic and Participant Observation:
Chapter 1: Seeing and Acting What Is Happening? 40
Through the Lens of Sociology 2 Multiple Methods and Mixed Methods 42

2
THINGS ARE NOT WHAT THEY SEEM 3

WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? 6 Part

Comparing Sociology and Other
Disciplines 7 Society and the Self:
BUILDING YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL
The Foundations 45
IMAGINATION: YOUR SOCIOLOGICAL
TOOLKIT 9 Chapter 3: “I Am Canadian”:
Empirical Research Methods 9 What Is “Canadian” Culture? 46
Sociological Theorizing 9 TYPES OF CULTURE 47
Core Sociological Theoretical
Defining Culture 47
Perspectives 9
Material and Nonmaterial Culture 48
Critical Thinking 15
Using Your Sociological Toolkit 17 HOW CULTURE SHAPES OUR
UNDERSTANDINGS 49
Chapter 2: Applying Sociological Language as a Precursor to Shared
Understandings 49
Research Methods 22 Norms as Regulators of Shared
WHY SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH IS Behaviours 52
IMPORTANT 23 Values as Shared Ideas 54
Common Sense and Scientific Reasoning 23 FUNCTIONALIST AND CONFLICT
Sociology as a Scientific Method 23 PERSPECTIVES 56
Sociological Reasoning 24
Ideal Versus Real Culture 57
Goals of Sociological Research 25
Traditional Beliefs Versus Modern
THE SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROCESS 27 Practices 57
Steps for Conducting Sociological Subcultures and Countercultures 58
Research 27 HOW IS CANADIAN CULTURE UNIQUE? 59
THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS The Abundance of Canadian Symbols 59
IN RESEARCH 29 The Prevalence of High Culture and
Popular Culture 60
Human Mistreatment 29
The Tri-Council Policy Statement 30 CRITICAL VIEWS OF POPULAR CULTURE 61

NEL v i i

3
Resocialization: More Than Starting Over 85

Part
Chapter 5: Social Inequality
in Canadian Society 88 The Micro and Macro
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION: SANCTIONED
of Our Everyday Lives 133
SOCIAL INEQUALITY 89
Closed Systems of Stratification 89 Chapter 7: Sex, Gender, and
Open Systems of Stratification: Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 134
The Class System 91
ELITE DISCOURSES OF SEX, GENDER,
WEALTH AS A MEASURE OF AND SEXUALITY 135
SOCIAL CLASS 93 Moving Outside Elite Discourses 136
Canada’s Income-Based Class Structure 94
GENDER: THE CONSEQUENCES
Net Worth and Class Structure 95
OF HAVING BEEN BORN FEMALE
Poverty and Class Structure 97
OR MALE 141
Negative Consequences of Social
Inequality 101 Different Educational Experiences 142
Different Occupational Experiences 145
POVERTY AS A FEATURE OF Different Economic Experiences 147
CANADIAN SOCIETY 103 Different Family Experiences 147
Poverty Reduction 104
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY 151
WHY ARE THERE CLASSES Functionalist Theories 151
IN SOCIETY? 105 Conflict Theories 151
Stratification Is Beneficial 105 Interactionist Theories 152

v i i i detailed table of contents NEL

WHAT IS A FAMILY? 180 Chapter 11: Social Control,

Structural, Functional, and
Emotional Definitions 180
Deviance, and Crime 220
SOCIAL CONTROL 221
CHANGING FAMILIES 182
Declining Marriage Rates and Delayed WHAT IS DEVIANCE? 222
Onset of Marriage 183 Deviance and Crime 223
More Common Law Unions 183
More Divorces 184 CRIME 223
More Lone Parents 184 Types of Crimes and Laws 224
More Same-Sex Couples 185 Crime Classifications and Statistics 225

NEL detailed table of contents i x

Chapter 12: Health and Illness: DEFINING COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR 267

Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 240 Collective Behaviour in Localized
Crowds 268
THE SOCIOLOGY OF HEALTH AND Explaining Collective Behaviour in
ILLNESS 241 Crowds 270
Dispersed Forms of Collective
PATTERNS OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS 242 Behaviour 271
Historical Patterns 242
Contemporary Patterns of Mortality SOCIAL MOVEMENTS 276
in Canada 243 Claims and Claims Making 277
Dimensions of Social Change 278
THE “ACTUAL” CAUSES OF ILLNESS: Types of Social Movements 278
THE ROLE OF LIFESTYLE 245
Tobacco Use 245 Value-Added Theory 280
Alcohol Use and Misuse 246 Resource Mobilization Theory 281
Poor Diet and Physical Inactivity 248 New Social Movement Theory 282
Summary 250

THE “FUNDAMENTAL” CAUSES Chapter 14: “Going Green”:

OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS: SOCIAL Environmental Sociology 286
INEQUALITY 251
SOCIAL FACTORS POSING
Socioeconomic Status 251
ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES 287
Ethnic Inequality and Health 253
Summary 254 Human Overpopulation 287
Industrialization 290
HEALTH CARE 254 Urban Sprawl 292
The Health Care System Today 255 Overconsumption of Resources 292

SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY 258 GROWING AWARENESS OF

Functionalist Perspectives: ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 296
The Sick Role 258 The First Wave of Environmentalism 296
Interactionist Perspectives: The Second Wave of
The Cultural Meanings of Health Environmentalism 297
and Illness 259 Environmental Sociology 299
Conflict Perspectives: The Consequences Human Exemptionalism and New
of Power and Inequality 259 Ecological Paradigms 299
Feminist Perspectives: Women’s Health Functionalist Perspectives: Ecological
and Illness 260 Modernization 301
Postmodern Perspectives: Knowledge, Critical Perspectives: The Treadmill
Power, and Discourse 260 of Production 301

x detailed table of contents NEL

NEL detailed table of contents x i

The Sociological Toolkit

The essence of sociology lies in the sociological imagination, a cognitive skill that
enables individuals to identify the links between the micro level of individual expe-
riences and choices and the macro level of larger sociocultural forces. This text-
book highlights the tools that are necessary to develop that skill: empirical research
methods that create verifiable knowledge, sociological theories that explain that
knowledge, and critical thinking that enables us to evaluate and to e xtrapolate
from that knowledge.

Empirical Research Methods

and Sociological Theories
Representative of the discipline of sociology, figuRE 4.4
academic research based on empirical research Experiences of Being Electronically Bullied, by Age and Gender

methods and sociological theories constitute the 100%

Female Male Overall

foundation for each chapter. Proportion bullied at least once

80%

60%
51%
47% 45%
44% 43%
40% 40% 41%
40% 36% 37% 38%
33%

20%

0%
12–14 15–16 17–18 All ages
Age in years

Source: © 2017 MediaSmarts and PREVNet, Ontario, Canada, Young Canadians’ Experiences with Electronic Bullying, http://www.mediasmarts.ca. Quoted with
permission. Found at http://mediasmarts.ca/sites/mediasmarts/files/publication-report/full/young-canadians-electronic-bullying.pdf, p. 10.

dEviAnCE And sOCiAL COnTROL On YOuR CAmPus

Your Sociological Toolkit:
more likely to become depressed and think about com-
mitting suicide) and an increase in health issues (e.g.,
they experience sleep problems and anxiety) (Zastrow
criminal activities—all of which are socializing influ-
ences. The media are often highly beneficial because
they connect us with others, help maintain social rela-
walking across your campus, you can see
messages about the actions that are considered Critical Thinking in Action
& Kirst-Ashman, 2016). tions, inform us about important local and international
events, and provide us with entertainment. However,
as you will learn more about in Chapter 6, the media
acceptable or unacceptable and forms of social mEdiA are not neutral—media companies are profit-based and
control. As you walk across campus looking for
“the strange in the familiar” (see Chapter 1), look
closely at the following: the posters located on
Research has formats
Media are communications found that target that
audiences in print (e.g., newspapers, magazines, and
mass critical thinking does construct reality and shape our perceptions in particular
ways so that we come to believe certain messages (e.g.,
bulletin boards; the physical structure of campus
buildings (e.g., the behaviours that are expected, not automatically develop
books) or electronic format using audio and/or images
(e.g., movies, radio, television, the Internet). Some con-
with a postsecondary about politics, gender, vio-
lence, and consumerism), media: Communications
condoned, frowned upon, or prohibited in particular
locations); the university’s policies and regulations;
and the social interactions of people (e.g., in
education—it
agent of our time, trumping even requires
sider the media to be the most influential socialization
practice. In each chapter,
the family, given that
often with negative impli-
cations and outcomes
that target large audiences
in print or in electronic
format using audio and/or
they now permeate all aspects of our lives (including for both individuals and
classrooms, hallways, library, cafeteria, fitness
centre, pubs).
a families)
boxand titled will continue to Your Sociological
do so throughout our Toolkit: Critical society as a whole.
images.
DeiMosz/Shutterstock.com

Think Outside the box: What behaviours or Thinking in Action provides students with specific
characteristics are socially constructed as acceptable
or unacceptable on your campus? What formal and
informal measures of social control are directed
opportunities to think critically about particular
NEL CHAPTER 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 79
at those deemed to be unacceptable? Are those
behaviours rare? Do they cause harm? Do “most
people” on campus disapprove of those actions? Do
issues by evaluating, questioning, or deconstructing
As you have learned in this chapter, social control is
not just directed at “some people”; it is directed at
they violate norms (and if so, whose norms)? Who
has the power to claim that those behaviours are
04_Ch04.indd 79
certain pieces of knowledge or claims to truth or 1/12/18 7:35 AM
each one of us, for a variety of reasons. Simply by unacceptable?
by extrapolating from the material addressed in the
body of the chapter to a broader question or social
“deviant” and in need of social control. The powerful
then also have the means to enforce those measures
appearance when we walk down the street. Because of
this perception of ongoing monitoring, we eventually
problem.
of social control, whether in creating criminal laws, monitor our own behaviours—we weigh ourselves
legislating physical appearance (as with Bill 62 on the once a week or slow down when we see the speed
wearing of conspicuous religious attire, which you limit sign on a given street. Self-surveillance has been
learned about in Chapter 3), police “carding” of black studied with a wide range of topics, including distin-
high school students in Toronto, or viewing mem- guishing between responsible gambling and problem
bers of racialized groups as “police property” (Hayle, gambling in our lives or the caution that gender non-
Wortley, & Tanner, 2016; Reiner, 2013). conforming individuals must use in choosing a public
From a postmodern perspective, Foucault (1995) restroom (Bender-Baird, 2016; Miller et al., 2015).
focused his attention, in part, on the internalization Feminist theories draw attention to facets of devi-
of social control. He focused on why we often don’t ance such as the differential standards that women
have to be controlled by others but actually control and men face in determining what is considered
xii our own behaviours through self-surveillance. We live
in a society where we are constantly monitored, or at
deviant and the varying experiences they have of
being socially typed as
NEL
least feel that we are being monitored, through surveil- deviant and subjected to self-surveillance:
lance cameras, photo radar, bureaucratic mechanisms measures of social con- Monitoring our own
behaviours in order to
that influence everything from who is/is not allowed trol. For instance, they prevent being considered
Copyright
to drive to what2019
class Nelson Education
you must take Ltd. All
as a prerequisite Rights
point out thatReserved.
what are May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
deviant.
for another
may course, and strangers
be suppressed from judging our physical
the eBook and/orconsidered
eChapter(s). acceptable
Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
restorative justice, an approach based on informal the Tsuu T’ina Peacemaker Court in Alberta (estab-
processes that emphasize healing and the reparation lished in 2000), the Cree-speaking and Dene-speaking
of harm that offenders have caused victims and com- courts in Saskatchewan (introduced in 2001 and 2006
munity members rather than focusing on punishing respectively), the Gladue Court in Ontario (which com-
the offender (Elliot, 2011; Woolford, 2009). In this menced in 2001 and was expanded to three courts in
approach, the offender is required to assume respon- 2007), and the First Nations Court in British Columbia
sibility for his or her actions and to attempt to make (which opened in 2006) all utilize sanctioned tradi-
Four some distinct
kind of restitution but tocomplementary
the victim (such as a formal ways
apology). Restorative justice also emphasizes the need
tional forms of dispute resolution (Whonnock, 2008).

of practising sociology to involve all of the stake-

TimE TO REviEW
holders in the process of
Unique to this
Restorative justice:
textbook, four different settings
justice (victims, offenders,
within which the sociological
toolkit An canapproach be used
to justice are highlighted: in theory , in practice , in• my
On community
what bases ,doandabolitionists call for the
and other members of
emphasizing healing and
in my life. This approach is especially
reparation of harm. the community). effectiveFinally, for helping students understandcriminal justice system?
overhauling of the
how sociology relates
It begins withto
fear their
purports that repeated exposure to television violence
has cumulative effects on viewers. everyday
restorative
game use. livesprevious
justice
The task force examined and
rests how
on academic
review and synthesize the literature on violent video
meta-
• Whatsociology
is peacemaking
(i.e., criminology?
and a sense of vulnerability that one will become a analyses (studies that combine the effects of multiple
based in theoretical
victim of violence, and
then progresses to the point whereempirical research)
studies) along with various types ofapplies
research con- to real life.
• What are the premises on which
people believe that the world is more dangerous than ducted since 2009, such as experimental and longi-
restorative justice rests?
Canada, 2017. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister

it really is, termed the mean world syndrome. This can tudinal studies. Taken together, the findings show a
/institutions/001002-4007-eng.shtml, (c) Correctional Service

lead people to seek out more protective measures consistent relationship between violent video use and
than are actually warranted, such as greater govern- increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive thoughts,
of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2017.

ment intervention (Gerbner et al., 2002), and explains and aggressive feelings. Moreover, violent video game
Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge, http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca

in part why some Canadians endorse things such as use is associated with decreases in prosocial behav-
curfew bylaws to keep adolescents off the streets at iour, empathy, and sensitivity toward aggression (APA
night and perhaps why some people feel they need to Task Force on Violent Media, 2015).
carry handguns for protection. Although a sizeable body of research finds short- yOur SOCiOLOgiCaL TOOLkiT
and long-term negative effects of media violence,
SOCiOLOgy iN THEOry
Your Sociological Toolkit: Sociology in Theory
summing uP LEssOns LEARnEd other related questions and issues continue to some-
what undermine these results. For instance, are we
AbOuT mEdiA viOLEnCE certain we have a handle on what exactly constitutes
sTaken
ections highlight
shows us thatcertain
exposure to pieces of research by
LO7 EXPLAINING DEVIANCE
together, research an act of aggression in the media? Does it need to
media violence teaches people about violence (e.g., include intent to harm? Do we include all psycholog-
fhow
ormally trained
to enact it), can academics.
lead to desensitization (where ical and physical forms of aggression—the coworker

AND SOCIAL CONTROL

we are less affected by it), and can lead to the even- who starts a nasty rumour about someone in order
tual acceptance of violence. The propensity to become to get ahead; the athlete’s game play? Is violence in
violent develops over time with media exposure. For a video game the same as violence on TV? Is a stab-
example, short-term effects include increased physical bing the same as a shooting? Besides the issue of how
and verbal aggression as well as increased aggressive
thoughts and emotions. Long-term effects include an
violence should be defined or measured, most of the
effects are indirect and are difficult to establish for
A variety of theories are used to analyze criminal-
increased risk of engaging in physical assaults and
even spousal abuse (e.g., Anderson et al., 2003).
any given person. In many cases, other unmeasured ized and non-criminalized forms of deviance. Like
risk factors could be accounting for the increases in
Most video games contain violence, and the vast
majority of youth ages 12 to 17 play them (Lenhart
aggression. Also, although most people are exposed to the study of families, wherein some theorizing is
considerable amounts of media violence on a regular
et al., 2008). A task force on violent media composed basis, relatively few people behave aggressively in the done from within the core theoretical perspectives
of leading research scientists was created in order to real world. Hence, some scholars continue to argue
Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge, Maple Creek, Saskatchewan. in sociology (e.g., functionalist theories), but other
yOur SOciOLOgicAL TOOLkiT

sOCiOLOgy in PRACTiCE
232 PART 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

mOniTORing CHiLdREn’s EXPOsuRE TO viOLEnCE ractice

Your Sociological Toolkit: Sociology in P
Various efforts have been made to try to monitor practice, which has been in effect since 1997, dem-
children’s exposure to violence, including the use
of V-chips and other program-blocking technology
onstrates how collective efforts can promote social
change because the ratings were first developed by
boxes consist of applications of sociological
designed to allow parents to customize what their
children view at home. All Canadian stations (even
a group called the Action Group on Violence on Tel-
evision (AGVOT) (Canadian Broadcasting Standards concepts for policy development.
if they air an American show) include show ratings Council, 2017).
and blocking technology embedded in the broadcast
11_Ch11.indd 232 1/12/18 7:40 AM
signal. Symbols and icons appear on screen to denote Think Outside the Box: In what ways does the
program content that includes violence, coarse Internet pose challenges for monitoring children’s
language, sexuality, and/or mature themes. This exposure to violence?

NEL CHAPTER 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 127

yOur SOCiOLOgiCaL TOOLkiT

06_Ch06.indd 127
Your Sociological Toolkit: Sociology in 1/12/18 7:37 AM
sOCiOLOgY in mY COmmuniTY
My Community boxes demonstrate how
s ociological principles can be transmitted YOuTH COnFROnTing THE sTigmA
OF mEnTAL iLLnEss
to nonacademic audiences. Mental illness (which is discussed in the chapter stigmatization. Resources are available to assist youth
on health and illness) affects the majority of on high school and university campuses to set up
Canadians, either directly (through the experience their own Jack.org chapters; currently, there are more
of mental illness) or indirectly (through having than 100 chapters across Canada. The organization
a relationship with someone who has a mental makes available toolkits, TEDx talks, funding
illness). Nevertheless, mental illness continues to be opportunities, and guest speakers for local chapters
stigmatized in society, characterized by damaging and holds an annual cycling event to raise funds (Jack
media portrayals and overwhelmingly negative public Ride). As an organization “designed for young people
attitudes (Goodwin & Tajjudin, 2016; Mental Health by young people,” its goal is to “end the stigma of
Commission of Canada, 2016; Parrott & Parrott, mental illness in our generation.”
2015). The organization Jack.org (https://www
.jack.org) is “the only national network of young Think Outside the box: Does your campus have
leaders transforming the way we think about mental a Jack.org chapter? What other resources are available
health.” They use peer-to-peer engagement to on your campus to resist the stigmatization of mental
provide information on mental illness, as well as its illness and facilitate positive mental health?

yOur SOCiOLOgiCaL TOOLkiT

Goffman (1963) spoke of a similar process, problems; mothers of school shooters; those involved
sOCiOLOgY in mY LiFE
Life & Castro-
whereby people who engage in certain acts or who in criminal activity; and members of certain religious
Your Sociological
have particular Toolkit:
characteristics face stigmatization in Sociology in My
groups (Halushka, 2015; Keene, Cowan,
society; that is, they become treated as “outsiders” Baker, 2015; Melendez, Lichenstein, & Dolliver.,
mY FAmiLY boxes
once they areare applications
labelled of sociological
as such. Those individuals
may respond to stigmatization in a number of ways,
2016; Moore, Stuewig, knowledge
& Tangney, 2016; Sohrabi &
Farquharson, 2016) (see Sociology in My Community).
The opening quotation in this chapter suggests that
families are of the utmost importance in determining
life if and when we marry or enter a common-law rela-
tionship, have children, get divorced, remarry, acquire
to one’
ranging from s own
trying to hidepersonal life
that stigmatized charac-
teristic to developing a lifestyle around it and publicly
experiences.
Interpretive theories involving processes such as
labelling and stigmatization, then, explain how we
who we are, creating the frameworks on which our additional children through remarriage, have our children embracing it. Thus, the person who often drinks to come to understand certain behaviours, characteris-
lives are built. Families are at the core of our socializa- move out of the family home, and become grandpar- excess may try to prevent detection by using mouth- tics, and people (including ourselves) as deviant, as
tion experiences throughout our lives. In childhood, our ents. We spend a considerable amount of time and wash or drinking vodka out of a water bottle, or alter- well as how we learn to respond accordingly. Critical
parents and other family members are key socializing energy interacting with and thinking about our families.
natively may be known to friends as throwing the best theories explain why some people’s understandings of
agents, providing us with some of the knowledge and
life skills we will carry with us throughout our lifetimes. Think Outside the Box: How would you describe
parties because of a well-stocked bar. deviance have more of an influence in society overall,
We undergo further socialization in the context of family your family? The process described in labelling theory and are accepted by larger numbers of people, and end up
Goffman’s notion of stigmatization are similar in that reflected in society’s institutions (e.g., the criminal
they propose that once our deviance has been detected, justice system, the education system, the mass media)
people begin to treat us differently, with implications (Bereska, 2018) (see Critical Thinking in Action).
for how we feel about ourselves and the choices we
LO1 WHAT IS A FAMILY? The census definition has changed a great deal over make for future actions. Although this process was
CRiTiCAL THEORiEs
the years, which means that caution must be exercised initially applied to studies of criminal activity, it
The term “family” is used so regularly that we often when comparing data about families over time. For is now used to under- Conflict theories propose that structures of power deter-
take it for granted. Each of us can easily list the indi- instance, couples living in common-law relationships stand diverse groups of mine which behaviours or characteristics are defined
NEL
viduals whom we consider family, but we may not were not integrated into the definition until 1981, stigmatization: A Unique Learning System x i i i
people who are nega- and treated as deviant. Although the various conflict
find it as easy to extrapolate from that list to a more same-sex couples were not included as common-law The process by which tively labelled or stigma- theories describe that structure of power in distinct
general definition of “family.” Definitions vary with individuals are excluded
partners until 2001 or as married spouses until 2006 because of particular
tized: ex-cons trying to ways (see Chapter 1), they all agree that holding
the specific context and the specific needs or interests (after same-sex marriage was legalized), and stepfami- behaviours/characteristics. enter the labour force; power enables groups to define their own behaviours
of the2019
Copyright groupsNelson
involved. Education
For instance, federal benefits
Ltd. All Rights
liesReserved. May
were not included as anot be entity
distinct copied,until scanned,
2011. or duplicated, in whole people or in part.
with Due to electronic
financial as “normal”rights, somethe
while defining third partyofcontent
behaviours others as
may bepolicy outlines a precise legal definition of family that
suppressed from the eBook and/or
may differ considerably from how you define family.
The census
eChapter(s). Nelson definition
Educationis structural—that
reserves the is, itright to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
defines families on the basis of particular statuses (e.g.,
Additional Features
The Sociological Toolkit is the organizing framework of the text. The following special features
also characterize it:

02
LEARning ObjECTivEs LO1 THINGS
CHAPTER & OuTCOmEs THEY SEEM
“I’ll believe it when I
After completing this chapter, students
• Learning Objectives and Outcomes are numbered should be able to do the following:
you heard someone s
self? Although we o
Applying Sociological
statements about the intended k
nowledge and/or can see for ourselves
Research Methods
skills students should be able to demonstrate LO1 Describe the bidirectional relation-
matically trust what w
following a thorough reading of the chapter. television screen like
ship between individual choices you were asked what
The Learning Objectives and Outcomes run and larger social forces. screen, your initial re
throughout the body of the chapter to encourage But if you took a clos
LO2 Define “sociology” and identify the more than meets the
critical, focused reading. role of the sociological imagina- very different. Walk u
Immigration status is also associated with co-residence. at it from a centimet
Young adults who were the first generation tion.in their FiguRE 8.1
families to be born in Canada were more likely to be
Bicultural Adaptation Patterns
realize that what first
co-residing with parents; furthermore, the effects of
LO
ethnicity decline the longer a family3has been
Elaborate
on the similarities and
living in
and columns of pixel
Canada (Jeong et al., 2014).
differences between sociology Identifies with
and
If you looked even m
Heritage Culture
what first appeared to
other
inTERgEnERATiOnAL RELATiOnsHiPsrelated disciplines. Yes No
Identifies
combination of red, g
Parents in some ethnic groups may engage in stricter or Integration National
with National Yes not what they seem.
LO
Pattern Pattern
more lenient parenting practices than 4 parents
ethnic groups. This means that the impactList
in other
and describe Culture the tools that are
of parenting
No
Ethnic Diffuse Now shift your a
used to develop the sociological Pattern
practices on child outcomes may vary across ethnic
groups (Ho, Bluestein, & Jenkins, 2008). A large body
Pattern
clothes you wore to

“ ”
imagination.
MrIncredible/Shutterstock
of research has found that very strict parenting styles are
Source: Adapted from J. W. Berry, J. P. Phinney, D. L. Sam, & P. Vedder (2006). say personal choice l
associated with child obedience in the short term but in
Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with the long term are associated with rebellion, aggression,
Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation
across national contexts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. clothes. But if you no
a purpose.
LO
lower grades in school, and substance 5 useContrast
(Baumrind,
positivist, interpretive, can see that many of t
(Zora Neale Hurston)1 • Opening quotations begin each chapter; they
1968, 1991). More recently, researchers have found that
this association varies across ethnic groups andand iscritical
not
The first adaptation
approaches
pattern , where youth to
pattern is the integration
theo-
identify with both their her- very similar to yours (
are intended to spark the reader’s interest and set
associated with negative child outcomes in families
from many current immigrant cultures, such rizing.
as Chinese,
itage culture and their
new, national culture.
many other people ha
Indian, Pakistani, and Korean (Ho et al., 2008). The second pattern is
bicultural: Participating suggesting that ther
NEL the tone for the chapter by highlighting a central
One aspect of intergenerational relationships the ethnic pattern, with
in two distinct cultures
simultaneously.
individual preference
LO or paradox that is pertinent to the
that is unique to immigrant families
concept, issue,
6 is the
Outline the core assumptionsintegration
potential
conflict that can arise between parents who attained
youth identifying
marily with their heritage
pri- of pattern:
Identifying with both one’s to ask you why you ar
adulthood in their nation of origin and theirthe functionalist,
children, culture. Youth conflict,
who orient symbolic heritage culture and one’s
you might give me a s
02_Ch02.indd 22 1/12/18 7:29 AM topic covered in that chapter.
who may have come to Canada while still quite young
or who may have been born in Canada. interactionist,
These youth
themselves primarily to
the new, feminist,
national cul- and post-
new, national culture.

And indeed, unless s

Ethnic pattern:
are bicultural: they have been exposed tomodern
the family’s perspectives.
ture are following the Identifying primarily with
heritage culture within the home, yet they are part of national pattern. Finally, one’s heritage culture. dent against your will
the new, national culture when outside the home (see those who are confused national pattern: this morning, and ti
LO 7 demands of what
Sociology on Screen). about how they should Identifying primarily with
Bicultural youth may respond to theIdentify be adaptingcritical to thinking
their isnew, national culture.
one’s certainly is your choi
two cultures in a number of ways. One study and explain
of 5,000 its
bicultural importance.
experiences Diffuse pattern:
Uncertainty about which
than first meets the ey
immigrant youth from 30 ethnic backgrounds now are following a diffuse
living in 13 different countries found four different pattern (see Figure 8.1).
culture(s) one should or
should not identify with.
stances more closely,
LO8
adaptation patterns (Berry et al., 2006). Adaptation patterns have
Describe the four different ways
as pixels of coloured l
that sociology can be practised.
• Sociology on Screen boxes discuss documen-
taries and/or fictional films that illustrate key sOCiOLOgY On sCREEn
concepts and processes.
gEnERATiOn OnE
The CBC documentary Generation One: Living in Two with a younger generation of bicultural youth. She
Worlds looks at the experiences of bicultural youth. It finds that although there have been many changes
follows journalist Nahlah Ayed, who is the first genera- in Canadian society since she was in high school, the
tion in her family to be born in Canada, as she returns struggles with identity that bicultural youth face are
to her high school in Winnipeg, Manitoba, to speak similar to her own at that age.

NEL CHAPTER 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 163

If we look closely, we ca
08_Ch08.indd 163 the eye in this image.
1/12/18 7:38 AM

NEL CHAPTER 1 Seeing and Acting T

sOCiOLOgy in musiC

viOLEnCE in musiC
Violence is also prevalent in the music industry, incor- males toward their girlfriends. For example, “Love the
01_Ch01.indd 3
porated into the lyrics of songs that top the Billboard Way You Lie” contains the confession “I laid hands on
charts. Although violent lyrics can be found in all
popular music genres (from country to metal to pop),
her,” and in the now-notorious suicide song “Stan,”
featuring Dido, we hear the line “Hey, Slim, that’s my
• Sociology in Music boxes look at music that
rap and hip-hop have been the focus of considerable
attention. Popular rapper Eminem has topped the
girlfriend screamin’ in the trunk,” shortly before Stan
drives his car off a bridge. In a study by Burgess, Dill, illustrates the importance of sociological con-
charts various times with songs such as “Not Afraid,” and Wright (2009), college students reported that the
“Lose Yourself,” and “Love the Way You Lie,” fea-
turing Rihanna. Much of Eminem’s music contains
most common representations of women in rap songs
they listened to were “ho” (or “whore”), “bitch,” and
cepts in everyday practices.
references to violence between males, and some songs “slut” and that rappers were most likely to rap about
include references to acts of violence committed by “sex,” “drugs,” “money,” “women,” and “violence.”

of violence in movies, on TV programs, and in video consumer interest, movie sequels tend to have more
games. The nightmares children may initially have killings presented in more dramatic, highly sensation-
when they see something scary are real. But over time, alized ways as we move from earlier versions to the
the same children will be less emotionally impacted more current ones (e.g., the Saw and Scream series)
by observing on-screen violence and, in all likelihood, (Dinozzi, 1997). If you don’t believe this, try counting
x i v A Unique Learning System
will eventually join the masses who don’t think twice the number of murders in the first movie in a violent NEL
about the violence they may be seeing in movies, in series compared to one of its sequels. More people will
video games, or even on the evening news. Research die and/or be killed in much more gruesome ways in
now shows that desensitization is physiological as the sequels. The effects of violence over time are also
well, in that 2019
Copyright people Nelson
who view more
Education Ltd. Allaccounted
media violence RightsforReserved.
by the cultivation
Maytheory.
not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
have lower rates of blood pressure when faced with
may beviolence
media suppressed
comparedfrom thewith
to people eBook and/or CuLTivATiOn
less exposure eChapter(s). Nelson THEORyEducation reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
tion with stable low death rates, which are largely a process known as urban sprawl, wherein natural lands
attributable to higher socioeconomic status or wealth, are converted to human uses (residential, commercial,
health, education, and gender equality. This results in transportation). Urban centres and the areas surrounding
zero population growth or even a declining popula- them become the main hubs for activities that contribute
tion. Postindustrial societies tend to be service based; to global pollution (Wali, Evrendilek, & Fennessy, 2010).
much of the working population is employed in areas
such as finance, health-
care, or sales rather than OvERCOnsumPTiOn
in industry. Countries that
urban sprawl:
A process by which rapid have completed the demo-
OF REsOuRCEs
urban growth necessitates In countries that have reached advanced stages of
the conversion of natural
graphic transition to Stage
land for human-made uses. 4 include Italy, Germany, industrial development, much of the population
Belgium, and Sweden. is concentrated in and around large urban centres,

ETHniC inEquALiTy less for women. There are variations in morbidity and
sOCiOLOgY OnLinE Sociology
• And HEALTH Online boxes
Inuit, or highlight particular
mortality among Indigenous groups (First Nations,
Métis), on- or off-reserve, and rural/remote
Socioeconomic status is one of the two primary versus more urban place of residence (Reading &
ebsites that demonstrate
w key concepts and
Halseth, 2013).
fundamental causes of health and illness. Ethnicity is
dEsmOg CAnAdA Some of the factors affecting Indigenous health
the other. The relationship between ethnic inequality
Desmog Canada is a nonprofit society that provides example, Saskatchewan is the first province to sign provide in-depth examples of
are related topics discussed
to socioeconomic
and health is especially evident in health patterns for status—income in
inequality, low-quality employment, and lower levels
Indigenous populations and for recent immigrants to
an online news forum on issues dealing with energy an agreement for the development of geothermal
and the environment. Here you can learn more about
how major developments in the oil and gas industry
power. Geothermal power is a renewable and zero-
emission process whereby water heated by the Earth’s
Canada.
the chapters. of education (Reading & Halseth, 2013). But colo-
nization has had an impact on the health of Indig-
negatively impact Canada’s environment and can core is used to activate a generator that produces indigEnOus HEALTH: THE LEgACy enous people that goes well beyond socioeconomic
share your views and opinions. You can also find electricity (SaskPower, 2017). See https://www status to deeper issues arising from colonization,
OF COLOnizATiOn coercive cultural change, and altered relationships
out about new directions in the energy sector. For .desmog.ca.
On average, Indigenous populations face higher mor- with the land (Chandler & Dunlop, 2015; Reading,
bidity and mortality than non-Indigenous populations; 2015). In Indigenous populations, control of destiny
this is the case not only for Indigenous populations is affected not only by lower levels of socioeconomic
in Canada but also in the United States, Australia, status but also by a long history of laws and federal
292 PART 4 Our Changing World NEL
and New Zealand (Reading & Halseth, 2013). In policies that have imposed control over treaty status,
Canada, Indigenous populations are more likely to marriage and divorce, education, place of residence,
experience degenerative diseases such as diabetes, medical treatment, housing, and more (see Sociology
heart problems, cancer, and emphysema (Gionet & in the News).
majority are South Asian, Chinese, or black (Morency Roshanafshar, 2013). They are also more likely to Inadequate housing on many reserves and in
TimE TO REviEW
et al., 2017). die from accidents, and their life expectancies are some rural/remote areas (where almost half of the
14_Ch14.indd 292 1/12/18 7:42 AM
Most of the population (61 percent) are at least an average of five years less for men and seven years Indigenous population lives) creates health hazards
• Sociology in the News boxes contain media
• What is ethnicity, and how do objective
and subjective ethnicity differ? third generation in Canada, meaning that they, their
parents, and at least one grandparent were born in
coverage illustrating how sociological concepts
• What are the origins of the concept of
“race,” and in what way is race socially
Canada. Twenty-one percent of the population are for-
eign-born, having immigrated from another country.
constructed?
andis the
• What processes are presented in statements made
nature of the relationship
Those countries are increasingly likely to be non-
European, with the top three source countries being sOCiOLOgy in THE nEWs
between the concept of race and
to the public.
racialization?
the Philippines, China, and India (Morency et al.,
2017). It is projected that by 2036, between 25 and
• Who are visible minorities and racialized 30 percent of Canada’s population will be foreign-born FROm THE dAvis inLET TO nATuAsHisH
groups? and between 34 and 40 percent will be members of
Until 1967, the Innu in Labrador lived nomadic lives. also formed to help resolve the community’s social
racialized groups. Almost half of Canadians will either
In 1967, the federal government relocated them to a problems.
be foreign-born or the first generation in their families permanent settlement in order to better provide ser- However, critics point out that to this day, many
to be born in Canada (Morency et al., 2017). Toronto vices for them. Told that they would be given comfort- social problems persist. Within just a period of a few
is the city of choice for the largest proportion of immi-
LO2 CONTEMPORARY grants and will continue to be. By 2036, between 77
able homes and schools and access to healthcare, they
were relocated to a distant island off the coast, where
months in 2017, two youth committed suicide (in a
population of only 936 people). Although the commu-
ETHNIC PATTERNS and 81 percent of Torontonians will either be foreign-
born or the first generation in their families to be born
their way of life completely changed.
The government did not keep its promises.
nity voted to ban alcohol back in 2008, recently RCMP
officers reduced the frequency of baggage checks with
Hundreds of years of immigration have made Canada in Canada (Morency et al., 2017). Instead, the Innu were left to endure overcrowded people coming into the community (via ferry in the
an ethnically diverse nation. People in Canada report As a result of immigration, more than 200 lan- living spaces that lacked running water, reliable summer and by air in the winter). As a result, bootleg-
more than 200 different ethnic origins (Morency, guages are reported as mother tongues and/or as lan- heating, and flushable toilets (White, 2017). Sub- gers are bringing alcohol into the community (charging
Caron-Malenfant, & MacIsaac, 2017). Around guages spoken at home (see Chapter 3). Due to longer stance use was rampant, family violence increased, $300 for a single bottle), and alcohol abuse is increasing
4 percent of Canadian residents report an Aboriginal and the suicide rate was the highest in the world. The (White, 2017). One community leader says that boot-
histories of immigration to Canada, the most common
(i.e., Indigenous) identity; of these, 61 percent are situation came to a head in 1993, when a videotape leggers and drug dealers are “… killing our youth and
mother tongues are English (58 percent of the popu- surfaced of three teenagers sniffing gasoline and killing our culture and killing everything we hold pre-
First Nations, 32 percent are Métis, and 4 percent are lation) and French (21 percent) (Houle & Corbeil, screaming to a tribal police officer that they wanted to cious.” Community leaders say that a combination of
Inuit (Morency et al., 2015). Nineteen percent of the 2017). Seventeen percent of the Aboriginal (i.e., die. Subsequently, the federal government agreed to factors are necessary for healing, including cooperation
population belong to a racialized group; of these, the Indigenous) identity population speak an Indigenous relocate the Innu back onto the mainland. This finally from law enforcement in preventing bootlegging, more
occurred in 2002, when the community of Natuashish resources to treat addiction and give young people
was formed. The Labrador Innu Healing Strategy was hope, reduced isolation, and cultural reclamation.

sOCiOLOgY in WORDs

NEL CHAPTER 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 253

“AbORiginAL” AnD “inDigEnOus”
The Constitution Act (1982) defines “Aboriginal In 2007, the United Nations Declaration on
peoples of Canada” as those who are Indian
(subsequently referred to as First Nations), Inuit, or
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was passed.
The declaration entrenches “the rights of Indigenous • Sociology in Words boxes include either the
Métis. Because the term “Aboriginal” is entrenched peoples to live in dignity, to maintain and strengthen
testimony of people who experience sociological
12_Ch12.indd 253 1/12/18 7:41 AM
in the constitution, many federal government their own institutions, cultures and traditions and
policies and federally funded research (such as to pursue their self-determined development, in
through Statistics Canada) continue to use the term
“Aboriginal.” Nevertheless, the term “Indigenous”
keeping with their own needs and aspirations”
(United Nations, 2007). When the member states concepts first-hand or in-depth explanations by
is more appropriate, with important social, political, of the United Nations voted on this resolution,
and legal implications. In 2015, Prime Minister
Justin Trudeau changed the name of the ministry
there were 177 votes in favour and four opposed;
those opposed were Canada, Australia, New
theorists who study sociological issues.
of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Zealand, and the United States. Thus, using the term
to the Ministry of Indigenous and Northern Affairs. “Indigenous” instead of “Aboriginal” acknowledges
Similarly, on June 21, 2017, he announced that Indigenous peoples’ fundamental rights, as outlined
National Aboriginal Day would henceforth be National in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Day. These were important symbolic steps. Indigenous Peoples (Joseph, 2016).

Also included for student review are the following features:

• 1 6 0Chapter Summaries are succinct examples of the kinds of responses students are
PART 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

expected to provide in relation to the learning objectives and outcomes.

• Time to Review questions at the end of each main section highlight key points
08_Ch08.indd 160 1/12/18 7:38 AM

and provide students with a built-in test of their mastery of the material before
they proceed to the next section.
• Margin Definitions provide definitions conveniently located in the text
margin beside the section where the term is first introduced. Students can prac-
tise their understanding by accessing the interactive flashcards online.
• Recommended Resources provide references for additional readings, films,
and other sources related to the issues pertinent to a given chapter.
• For Further Reflection questions present opportunities to examine chapter content
in more detail and to demonstrate a personal understanding of the key concepts and
processes discussed in the chapter.
• A Glossary of all key terms is included at the end of the text.

NEL A Unique Learning System x v

Introduction them what students need to know by the time they

finish a course in introductory sociology. The fol-
Sociology is about the real world. It can be thought lowing nine themes emerged as overall directives for
of as the most comprehensive social science1—one what students should learn about in an introductory
that provides a systematic means for understanding sociology course:
the interconnectedness among people, among insti-
tutions, and between individuals and the society in 1. The “social” part of sociology, or learning to
which they live. A major objective of our textbook is think sociologically
to give you the tools to help you develop your socio- 2. The scientific nature of sociology
logical imagination2 so that you can see how you (and 3. Complex and critical thinking
other people) influence and are influenced by society; 4. The centrality of inequality
so that you can view social issues from a variety of dif- 5. A sense of sociology as a field
ferent perspectives and critically evaluate those per- 6. The social construction of ideas
spectives (including your own); and so that you can 7. The difference between sociology and other
extrapolate from the empirical and theoretical research social sciences
presented in this textbook to the real-world issues you 8. The importance of trying to improve the world
or others experience every day. The sociological imag- 9. The important social institutions in society
ination is not merely an intellectual exercise; it is the Our goal as authors was to provide a founda-
foundation for social action. We hope that by the time tion on which those objectives can be met by those
you finish this textbook, you will be better equipped teaching introductory sociology, whether in class-
to engage in effective social action in the context of rooms, online, or in other distance learning environ-
your own families, communities, and professions, as ments. The feedback of our reviewers was invaluable
well as in the context of larger social problems, such to our efforts.
as social inequality and environmental degradation.

Overall Goal of Organization

Part 1: Practising Sociology: Your Sociological
This Book: Helping Toolkit provides students with a framework for
Students Acquire how to think sociologically. Beginning in Chapter
1, you will start to see the fundamental connection
the Fundamentals between individual choices and larger social forces,
a connection that lies at the heart of the sociological
of Sociology imagination. Chapter 1 explains why the sociological
Persell, Pfeiffer, and Syed3 surveyed 44 preeminent imagination is important—in the 21st century, per-
leaders in sociology (including American Sociological haps more important than ever before—and outlines
Association [ASA] presidents, regional presidents, the tools that will help you build your own sociolog-
and national grant recipients in sociology), asking ical imagination (empirical research methods, socio-
logical theories, critical thinking). Empirical research
1G. Delanty, Social Science: Philosophical and Methodological methods are presented in detail in Chapter 2. These
Foundations, 2nd ed. (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2005); G. methods help us move beyond commonsense ideas to
Delanty, “Sociology,” in Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, ed. G. Ritzer
(Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007), http://www.blackwellreference.com.
appreciate the scientific nature of sociology as a dis-
2C.W. Mills, The Sociological Imagination, 40th anniversary ed., ed. C.W.
cipline that provides answers to important questions.
Mills (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2000), 3–24.
Part 2: Society and the Self: The Foundations
3C.H. Persell, K.M. Pfeiffer, and A. Syed, “What Should Students has four chapters that constitute a foundation of soci-
Understand After Taking Introduction to Sociology?” Teaching Sociology ology as a discipline. Chapter 3 highlights the cul-
35, no. 4 (2007): 300–14. tural context of our social experiences and outlines

xvi NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
the basic components of culture. Chapter 4 addresses However, they tend to treat the sociological
the role of socialization in the emergence of our own imagination as an end in itself rather than as
identities and the identities we ascribe to others, as a means to an end. When Mills spoke of the
well as the social structure within which socializa- sociological imagination, he emphasized its
tion occurs. Chapter 5 discusses social inequality as centrality in creating informed and active citi-
a challenge for many people and as a stable feature of zens. By focusing on the sociological imagina-
Canadian society. In the 21st century, the mass media tion and social action, this textbook provides
are a key source of information and have come to play the impetus for students to become more
a central role in connecting members of society to socially aware and more active as citizens in
one another. So this section of the textbook ends with their communities, in society, and in the world.
a chapter about the mass media, including a critical Whether they become parents, teachers, com-
look at how they shape our perceptions. munity league soccer coaches, entrepreneurs,
Part 3: The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday or social activists trying to create meaningful
Experiences has six chapters that focus on various social change, students will see the value in
aspects of students’ own experiences. Chapters 7 and utilizing their own sociological imaginations.
8 consider the implications of sex, gender, and sexu- • The prevalence of social inequality. From the
alities, as well as ethnicity, for who we are and who stratification of Canadian society into distinct
others say we are, as well as for socioeconomic status, and unequal social classes to the differen-
discrimination, and family life. Chapter 9 helps us tial treatment of men and women based on
appreciate the influence, diversity, and changing socially constructed gender differences, this
nature of Canadian families. Chapter 10 focuses on book teaches students about the centrality of
the various ways we come to know what is “true”— social inequality. Throughout, we emphasize
through religion, science, and the modern education how social inequality is built into Canadian
system—and the ways in which all three are socially society and how various processes and struc-
constructed. Chapter 11 explores the myriad ways tures lead to its reproduction in subsequent
that people (including ourselves) are subjected to generations.
measures of social control on a daily basis, such that • The socially constructed nature of society.
we are identified as deviant—sometimes in noncrim- Whether we are debating how to define the
inal ways, other times in criminal ways. Chapter 12 family, how to describe deviance, how to
describes patterns of health and illness, with an measure poverty, or even how many sexes
emphasis on “lifestyle” factors and social determi- exist, this book highlights ways in which key
nants of health, as well as the prevention and treat- concepts we tend to take for granted are actu-
ment of illness in the broader context of health care ally social constructions contingent on specific
systems. historical contexts and the needs or interests of
Part 4: Our Changing World discusses the particular groups.
importance of collective action, social movements, • Ways to engage students and instructors. Stu-
and globalization for effecting widespread change. dents need to see the relevance of sociology in
Chapter 13 discusses social change as brought about their everyday lives as well as how this trans-
by various forms of collective behaviour and social lates into related careers. Similarly, instruc-
movements. Chapter 14 focuses on ecological issues tors need to find ways to embed sociological
and environmental sociology as part of a global call concepts in students’ interests and course
to action for sustainable development. Chapter 15 curriculum paths. We include particular peda-
describes historical precursors to globalization; out- gogical features to help bring sociology alive;
lines technological, economic, political, cultural, and we then translate social issues from theory into
social characteristics of globalization; and assesses practice and finally into the public and per-
the relative merits and drawbacks of globalization. sonal domains. A variety of boxes are included
to help students and instructors see the links
between individuals and society and the
Underlying Themes overall applicability of the discipline of soci-
ology as a means for facilitating social change.
• The impetus for social action. All introduc- These boxes highlight films, music lyrics, web-
tory sociology textbooks mention C. Wright sites, media stories, first-hand testimonies, and
Mills’s concept of the sociological imagination. the actions of individuals or groups.

NEL Preface x v i i

Chapter Highlights Chapter 2: Applying Sociological

and What’s New to This Research Methods
• Goals of sociological research
Edition • Steps for conducting sociological research
A key change in the third edition is that in all chapters, • Ethical conduct for research involving humans
a critical thinking question (Think Outside the Box) • Distinguishing between qualitative and quanti-
has been added to the Critical Thinking in Action tative methods
box, as well as the other toolkit boxes: Sociology in
My Life, Sociology in My Community, and Sociology New to the Third Edition . . .
in Practice. These questions enable students to engage This chapter has been updated to include new
more deeply with the material, and instructors might studies demonstrating the array of approaches used
use the questions to facilitate class discussion or as in sociology (e.g., evaluation research, empower-
short written assignments. For users of MindTap, ment research, decolonization research, and par-
sample answers or points to consider are provided for ticipatory action research). It now includes current
each of these questions. Listed below are some of the research on social media (e.g., Facebook, Instagram),
topics and issues covered in specific chapters along distracted driving (texting), organized crime, fear of
with descriptions of key changes integrated into the cancer recurrence, and rights involving end-of-life
third edition. circumstances.

Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Chapter 3: “I Am Canadian”:

Through the Lens of Sociology What Is “Canadian” Culture?
• What is sociology? • Language as a precursor to shared
• What can I do with a degree in sociology? understandings
• Comparing sociology and other disciplines • Norms as regulators of shared behaviours
• The value of the sociological imagination • Values as shared ideas
• The beginner’s guide to critical thinking • Popular culture and high culture

New to the Third Edition . . . New to the Third Edition . . .

This chapter introduces the idea of the sociological Additional information on language diversity and
toolkit. Just as a hammer and a saw enable an indi- usage in Canada is provided, including recent attempts
vidual to build a shed in the backyard, empirical to preserve Cree via immersive schooling, the use of
research methods, sociological theories, and critical unique “Canadianisms,” and the incorporation of

x v i i i Preface NEL

NEL Preface x i x

Chapter 8: Race and Ethnicity: Chapter 10: Learning What is

Defining Ourselves and Others “True”: Religion, Science, and
• Ethnicity, race, racialization, and visible minorities Education
• Contemporary ethnic patterns
• Bicultural adaptation patterns • The origins and meaning of “truth”
• Media frames of ethnicity • Implications of religious affiliation
• Prejudice and discrimination • The transition to scientific truth
• Scientific knowledge as constructed
New to the Third Edition . . . • The role of education in modern society
In the third edition, the statistics on current ethnic pat-
New to the Third Edition . . .
terns, the economic experiences of Indigenous people
and immigrants, and hate crimes are updated. New The chapter includes new examples, such as Stephen
examples of discrimination include the Saskatoon Harper’s and Donald Trump’s muzzling of government
police starlight tours, police carding of racialized scientists and reduced funding for climate change
groups, and the hashtag activism of Black Lives research and epigenetics as a paradigm shift affecting
Matter. In addition to revised boxes, there are three sociology. There is new material on debates over reli-
new boxes: Spencer Wells’s TED talk (“A Family Tree gion in public schools, current research questioning
for Humanity”) and the affiliated genographic project whether religiosity is associated with greater philan-
of the National Geographic Society; a CBC documen- thropy, expanded discussion of Indigenous education
tary about bicultural youth in Canada; and the macro- and curriculum, and updated statistics on religious
level implications of using the term “Indigenous” in patterns. In addition to revised boxes, there are sev-
place of “Aboriginal.” eral new boxes: Indigenous science, petitions for an
inclusive education in Quebec, and the group People
for Education.
Chapter 9: Canadian Families:
Past, Present, and Future Chapter 11: Social Control,
• Contemporary trends in Canadian families
• Is the family declining? Deviance, and Crime
• The commodification of children arising from • Are you socially controlled?
new reproductive technologies • Social control and deviance
• The effects of colonization on Aboriginal families • Forms and patterns of crime
• Racialization within the criminal justice system
New to the Third Edition . . . • Theories of deviance and crime
In addition to updated statistics on contemporary
trends in Canadian families, the chapter includes New to the Third Edition . . .
expanded discussions of family violence and social The concept of social control serves as the frame for
exchange theory (within the context of dating and this chapter, emphasizing the myriad ways in which
relationships between adult children and their par- we are all subjected to social control on a daily basis—
ents, especially when adult children live in the family and correspondingly, the ways in which we are all
home). New examples include the money that families socially typed as deviant in some way. In the third edi-
spend on their pets and debates over when it is appro- tion, new examples include WannaCry ransomware,
priate to use reproductive technologies. In addition extremist groups, and the carding of black youth

x x Preface NEL

NEL Preface x x i

x x i i Preface NEL

NEL Preface x x i i i

Diane G. Symbaluk
Like many students, I found sociology quite by accident. While trying to find
a course that would fulfill a Canadian content requirement for a B.Ed. degree
en route to a teaching career, I stumbled across an introduction to sociology
course advertised with descriptive words such as “people,” “society,” “fami-
lies,” and “deviance” that sounded interesting. I could never have known then
that my tendency to say “don’t assume” and “don’t take people for granted”
underscored the beginnings of the development of my sociological imagina-
tion. After completing an Introduction to Sociology, my interest was piqued;
I switched to the sociology program, where I earned a B.A., followed by an M.A.
and a Ph.D. I went on to teach sociology full-time at Grant MacEwan University,
where I continue to teach a range of courses: introductory sociology, social psy-
chology, criminology, and social research methods. I love teaching, and I appre-
ciate my students even more. They have inspired me to write resources that
will contribute to their success, including study guides, manuals, Web-based
course tools, and especially this textbook. I am also interested in student ratings
of instruction and student assessments of instructors’ character strengths—
the focus of my current research interests. I constantly re-evaluate my initial
assumptions of people and social situations while maintaining allegiance to
the Chinese proverb: He who says it cannot be done should not interrupt the
person who is doing it.

Tami M. Bereska
I began university as a psychology major. I had never even heard of sociology.
But then I made my discovery. A discipline in which you could study families,
teenagers, television shows, popular music, crime, and white supremacists—
wow! Who could have ever believed that learning could be so interesting? Soci-
ology grabbed me and has never let me go. Since obtaining my M.A. and Ph.D.
in sociology, I’ve studied all sorts of interesting topics: adult and adolescent
series romance novels (e.g., Harlequin, Sweet Valley High), what being a “real
man” means in young adult novels for boys, and representations of Scientology
in movies and on TV. Popular culture, deviance, and youth fascinate me. Along
with my love of sociology is a love for teaching undergraduate students. I had
my first opportunity to give a university lecture as a teaching assistant while
working on my M.A. My supervisor had to be away, and he asked me to lecture
in his Social Organization class, with 180 students. As someone who had always
hated giving presentations in class, I was terrified. But 10 minutes into my lec-
ture, I knew this was what I wanted to do with my life. I’ve since taught courses
ranging from deviance to social psychology, with class sizes as small as four and
as large as 400. The pleasure I derive from connecting with students has also
led me to write textbooks—first, a book on deviance and social control and
now this book, one that will bring the fascinating world of sociology to those
students who, like me, may have never even heard of sociology.

xxiv NEL

Your
Sociological
ESB Professional/Shutterstock

Toolkit

CHAPTER 1:
Seeing and Acting Through the Lens
of Sociology
CHAPTER 2:
Applying Sociological Research Methods

NEL

Seeing and Acting Through

the Lens of Sociology

“ ”
Arthimedes/Shutterstock

It can be said that the first wisdom of sociology is this—

things are not what they seem.
(Berger, 1963, p. 23)

NEL

Ruslan Ivantsov/Shutterstock

If we look closely, we can see that there is more than meets

the eye in this image.

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
of a road, an array of social factors and experiences Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2009). The impact
has contributed to your choice to become a university of the economy on postsecondary enrollment is readily
or college student. When you begin to consider the apparent. But more subtle influences on the decisions
ways that society shapes your personal choices, you we make come from society’s expectations, or norms. By
are starting to practise sociology by seeing the strange virtue of growing up in a specific family in a particular
in the familiar (Berger, 1963). society at a certain time in history, we learn how we are
When examining your choice to become a student, supposed to act. Whether or not we actually behave in
you might first consider specific people who influenced accordance with those norms, we are still aware of what
your decision, such as the family members and friends those expectations are.
who supported, encouraged, or demanded that option. In Canada today, a postsecondary education is
You could then go on to look at some of the more per- normative in that it corresponds to norms about the
sonal social and economic resources that enabled you to kind of education people need before entering the
become a university or college student—a student loan, workforce. In contrast, had you been a young Canadian
a Registered Education Saving Plan (RESP), or parents woman in the 1950s, a university education would not
who support you. The personal resources you have avail- have been normative; instead, society’s expectations
able are important factors that underlie your ability to were that you should marry young, have children, and
pursue a postsecondary education. But using a sociolog- be a full-time homemaker. Sometimes society’s norms
ical perspective requires you to analyze even beyond your are so powerful that they influence formalized rules,
own family, friends, and resources. In much the same such as policies and even the law. For example, if you
way that many of your classmates chose to wear similar were a Jewish Canadian before the end of the Second
clothing to you, many others have elected to attend uni- World War, the doors of many universities would have
versity or college alongside you. In the 2014–2015 aca- been closed to you, regardless of your academic ability
demic year, more than 2 million students were registered and desire to pursue a university education. Similarly,
in undergraduate programs in Canadian universities and if you were an Indigenous person in the early 20th
colleges (Statistics Canada, century, the residential school that you would have
2016). That means more been forced to attend by law would not have given
Strange in the than 2 million people— you the education necessary to gain entrance to a uni-
familiar: Instead of
assuming that people’s with different families, sets versity. And although the opportunity for a university
actions are determined of friends, and personal education is available to everyone in the 21st century,
solely by personal choice,
looking for the ways that
resources—all made the sociologists point out that the ability to take advan-
society shapes those same personal choice that tage of that opportunity is not equally available to all
choices. year! Explaining this fact (see Sociology in My Life).
General in the requires you to extend your The essence of sociology is this connection
particular: The broader sociological gaze beyond between individual experiences and larger social forces
social patterns that are your own life to larger that exist outside the individual (see Figure 1.1). This is
reflected in the actions of
individuals.
sociocultural and socio- also known as the relationship between the micro level
economic forces affecting and the macro level. Thus far, we have examined ways
Norms: Society’s many people simultane- that larger social forces (the macro level) influence indi-
expectations for how we
are supposed to act, think, ously, or seeing the general vidual experiences (the micro level). However, the rela-
and look. in the particular (Berger, tionship is bidirectional, in that your personal choices
Normative: Behaviours,
1963). also have an impact on the people around you, your
appearances, and thoughts For instance, after community, and your workplace—what sociologists
that correspond to the worldwide economic refer to as agency. When enough people make similar
society’s norms.
recession in 2008 that choices or acquire support for particular decisions, the
Micro level: The level of limited job opportunities, macro level is affected—either the status quo is sup-
individual experiences and undergraduate enrollments ported or social change occurs. Social movements can
choices.
increased by 4.1 percent occur, and school practices and policies, workplace cul-
Macro level: The level in 2009 and by another ture and policies, social programming, legislation, and
of broader social forces. 3.6 percent in 2010 over larger cultural norms can all be affected.
Agency: People’s the previous year; eco- For instance, when the authors of this book were
capacity to make choices, nomic downturns motivate in elementary school in the mid-1970s, it was rare for
which then have an impact
on other people and on the
people to improve their children to eat lunch at school; children either had to
society in which they live. educational qualifications go home for lunch (regardless of whether there was
and skills (Association of an adult there to supervise them), or they walked to a

4 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Sociology in My Life

THE IMPACT OF LIFE CHANCES

Think about your own background for a moment— enjoyed similar resources or encountered similar
the neighbourhood you lived in while growing up, obstacles in your path. Max Weber (1864–1920), one
your parents’ jobs, your lifestyle. If the two photos of the founders of the social sciences as a distinct
below represent two ends of a continuum, where area of study, referred to these varying opportuni-
would you locate your own childhood background— ties that people face as life chances (1978). Social
closer to the photo on the left (i.e., extreme poverty) stratification, inequality, race, ethnicity, and gender
or to the photo on the right (i.e., attending a private are just some of the factors that affect one’s life
school)? Do individuals who grow up in these very chances. You will learn more about all of these
different types of neighbourhoods have the same factors in later chapters.
freedom to go to university? Is that opportunity
equally available to both of them? Think about Think Outside the Box: What other areas of life, in
the resources it takes to go to university or college addition to education, might be affected by the life
and the obstacles that can prevent it. Perhaps you chances reflected in the above photos?

SpeedKingz/Shutterstock
Discha-AS/Shutterstock

nearby care provider’s place. If there was an unusual cir-

Figure 1.1 cumstance (e.g., the caregiver had to be at an appoint-
ment), then the parent would write a note to the teacher
Personal Choices and Social Forces and request that the child be permitted to eat lunch at
school that day under the teacher’s supervision or be sent
to a classmate’s home. Less than a decade later, processes
and procedures had been developed around the need
for lunch-hour supervision. Why did such a dramatic
change occur in such a relatively short time? Because
economic and social
Social Forces Personal Choices
factors changed the Life chances: The
lives of parents, and opportunities an individual
then the changing has in life based on
various factors, including
lives of parents made stratification, inequality,
changes in school race, ethnicity, and gender.
practices necessary.

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 5

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The assumption that mothers were at home to modification. If we consider why a particular person gets
make lunch for their children was based on family a tattoo or a piercing, the answer may tell us something
patterns that existed in previous decades, when most specific about that one individual, such as that he or she
middle-class married women were full-time home- is a risk taker. But when we consider the nature of body
makers. This began to change in the 1960s and modification in general, we learn about larger social
1970s, when more married mothers began to enter relationships. We learn about workplace norms, in that
the paid labour force. The changing choices of par- people must hide their body art in certain workplaces
ents elicited changes in the environment outside but not others (Timming, 2015). We also learn about
the family. But at the same time, larger sociocul- interpersonal relationships, such as in the historical and
tural factors were contributing to parental choices. contemporary practice of memorial tattoos (DeMello,
More mothers were entering the workforce because 2016). Similarly, we learn about norms governing gender.
of changes in the economy that necessitated dual Women with tattoos are perceived more negatively than
incomes for many families, as well as the influence men with tattoos, especially if they are middle-aged
of the women’s movement, which emphasized the (rather than younger) and their tattoos have masculine
importance of female equality. The media also played designs (Musambira, Raymond, & Hastings, 2016). We
a role in the evolution of a “risk society” through identify allegiances to certain subcultures since tattoos
their coverage of missing children cases, which con- can indicate membership in particular gangs. We even
tributed to growing concerns about children being learn about the ideologies of subcultures—for example,
sent home unsupervised. a “Poison-Free” tattoo on a member of the Straightedge
Thus, when we look at people’s experiences, subculture signifies commitment to a substance-free life-
the micro level and the macro level are intertwined. style (Straightedge Worldwide, 2017).
Recognizing the myriad ways in which they are inter- Mills (1959/2000) did not see the sociological
twined requires using something sociologists distinc- imagination as an intellectual tool to be used solely
tively call the “sociological imagination.” by sociologists (or even by students in sociology
classes); he proposed that society as a whole needed its
TIME TO REVIEW citizens to look for the links between the macro and
micro levels. In fact, Mills criticized many of his fellow
• What do sociologists mean when they sociologists for spending their time intellectualizing
say that “things are not what they seem,” in the ivory towers of academia and for not assuming
and what are some examples? any personal responsibility for improving society. The
• What type of relationship exists sociological imagination is not just about thinking; it is
between the micro level and the macro also about action. That action might be at the level of
level? Provide some examples of this your everyday life, where paying attention to the rela-
relationship. tionship between individual choices and larger social
forces will make you a more informed parent, voter,
teacher, office manager, or team member. But it might
also be at a more macro level of social action, trying
LO2 WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? to improve some aspect of your community or even
Sociology is the systematic study of society using the society as a whole (see Sociology in Words).
sociological imagination. The connection between the Berger (1963) describes sociologists as profes-
micro level and the macro level is the essence of the sional people watchers who are gripped by curiosity
sociological perspective. C. Wright Mills (1916–1962) whenever they find themselves “in front of a closed
defined the discipline of sociology on the basis of the door behind which are human voices” (p. 21). In
sociological imagination, order to build knowledge and facilitate social action,
which involved looking sociologists use the sociological imagination to study
Sociology: The for the “intersections of just about anything that is related to people—social
systematic study of society
using the sociological biography and history” inequality, the economy, politics, media, families,
imagination. (1959/2000, p. 7), tracing gender, sexualities, ethnicity, deviance, crime, social
Sociological
the linkages between indi- movements, and the environment, just to name a few.
imagination: The vidual experiences and The ability to use your sociological imagination,
ability to perceive the larger sociocultural forces. see the strange in the familiar, and look for the general
interconnections between
individual experiences and
For example, we can use in the particular translates into a considerable breadth
larger sociocultural forces. the sociological imagi- of potential careers. Unlike some university programs
nation to explore body that train students for specific jobs upon graduation

6 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

WHEN IS THE TIME TO “COMMIT SOCIOLOGY”?

What are the root causes of terrorism? This question overrepresented as victims of violence was of less value
was asked by Justin Trudeau in April 2013. He asked it than apprehending and punishing individual criminals.
because of two recent incidents—a terrorist bombing Why is it important to “commit sociology”?
at the Boston Marathon and the arrest of two men Fletcher (1971) argued that sociology is of “central
for conspiring to attack a Via Rail train in Canada. importance in and for our time” (p. 5). Several
Prime Minister Stephen Harper criticized Trudeau for decades later, his argument is stronger than ever:
raising this question, saying, “… this is not a time
We would like to eliminate from society
to commit sociology” (Fitzpatrick, 2013). In Harper’s
war, poverty, crime and delinquency.… We
view, understanding the causes of terrorism was of
would like to improve matters; to remove
less value than apprehending and punishing individual
these obstacles to social justice; and would
terrorists. Of course, since that time, there have been
therefore like to know the underlying causes
many more terrorist attacks in countries around the
of these social facts. Then, on the basis of
world, such as Kenya, Iraq, France, and England.
this knowledge, if we could get it, we would
One year later, Harper made a similar point
like to formulate effective social policies
regarding another social issue. In response to
and institute political reforms.… [We must]
demands for a national inquiry into missing and
establish reliable knowledge on the basis of
murdered Indigenous women, he “urged Canadians
which to act. For we quickly learn that we
away from understanding missing and murdered
can only effectively change the nature of
aboriginal women as a ‘sociological phenomenon’
society … if we know what that nature is.*
and instead suggested Canadians ‘view it as a crime’”
(Kaye & Béland, 2014). Once again, he argued that *R. Fletcher, The making of sociology: A study of sociological theory,
understanding the reasons why Indigenous women are Vol. 1. London, UK: Thomas Nelson and Sons, pg. 36, 1971.

(e.g., teacher, accountant), an education in sociology

provides its graduates with a knowledge base and a set of
skills that apply to a variety of careers (beyond sociology
professor). Graduates have a deep understanding of
community, social, and cultural issues; knowledge of
group dynamics, public policies, and community devel-
opment; skills in gathering and analyzing data; and the
ability to problem solve and think critically. Graduates
may work with clients of community or social service
agencies, develop or administer programs for commu-
nity agencies or governments, conduct research in the
public or private sector, and much more.
© Love, Jason, jlvn685, CartoonStock.com

LO3 Comparing Sociology

and Other Disciplines
As you may have already noticed in some of your classes,
similar topics are covered in different disciplines. For
example, you may have studied families in a psychology,
anthropology, or even political science course—and
you will also learn about families in your sociology
course. Many of the topics studied by sociologists are

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
also analyzed by researchers in other social science dis- political scientists analyzed structures of governance,
ciplines—culture and cultural variations (anthropology and economists studied the production and consump-
and cultural studies), political forces (political science tion of goods and services. The attention of scholars
and development studies), occupational and economic within each of these disciplines was focused on a cer-
forces (economics and political economy), families tain part of society. In contrast, sociologists studied all
(family studies and social work), and media (psychology, of these parts of society while using a wider range of
cultural studies and communications). What are the dif- research methodologies and theories (Delanty, 2005,
ferences, then, between sociology and the other social 2007). Hence, sociology can be thought of as the most
science disciplines? comprehensive of the social sciences.
Scholars within the discipline of sociology were not However, sociology goes a step further and pro-
the first to study society. Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun’s poses that society is more than a compilation of history
work (1332–1406) is recognized as a significant fore- plus government plus the economy (and so on). There
runner to sociology. He studied the structures and is a web of interconnectedness among its parts—they
processes of power in different societies (ranging from interact in particular ways, and the nature of that inter-
desert tribes to nations). He proposed that as societies action contributes to any social phenomenon, such
grew in size, labour was no longer used for survival but as social problems (e.g., terrorism and environmental
rather for the pursuit of luxury for society’s wealthy and destruction) or even more mundane aspects of everyday
powerful (Weiss, 1995). Sociology as a discipline later life (e.g., tattooing and social media use). What governs
emerged in a particular context of place and time. It a sociological approach is an analysis of these interac-
can be traced to a historical period that includes the tions and an emphasis on tracing the linkages between
French Revolution (1789–1799) and the accompa- individual experiences and larger sociocultural forces.
nying Enlightenment. This was a time of rapid social, Although distinct disciplines were formed in the
political, and economic change—cities increased in early 20th century, the 21st century is characterized by
size, there was the transition to a wage economy, abso- greater postdisciplinarity (Urry, 2000). This means that
lute monarchies were threatened, the power of religion the differences among disciplines are less apparent.
declined, and the power of science grew. For some more For example, today sociology and anthropology both
politically and socially active scholars, these social, study premodern and modern societies, although in
political, and ideological changes illustrated that ordi- varied ways (Delanty, 2005, 2007).
nary citizens could create large-scale transformations in In addition to blurred boundaries between disci-
society. For other scholars, the question was one of how plines, the 21st century is also characterized by greater
it was possible for society not to crumble in the midst interdisciplinarity (Delanty, 2005, 2007), where scholars
of these massive changes. Intellectuals sought to under- in a variety of disciplines work together to better under-
stand and explain social change and its consequences. stand social phenomena. For instance, globalization
Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who coined the term is not associated with a specific discipline but rather
sociology, suggested that empirical research and theory brings together diverse groups of scholars, including
should be used in pursuit of this goal. The sociological sociologists, economists, and political scientists (you
perspective developed out of philosophy, economics, will learn more about globalization in Chapter 15).
history, psychology, and law. Many of the well-known Interdisciplinarity has created new disciplines as well,
scholars who are referred to as “sociologists” because such as women’s studies, cultural studies, and family
their work is central to sociology (and whose work studies. University departments that are affiliated with
will be presented at various points in this book) were, these areas of study will often include faculty members
in fact, not “sociologists” by training. For example, who are sociologists, economists, political scientists,
Max Weber’s training was in economic history, Karl historians, social psychologists, and philosophers.
Marx’s in philosophy, and Émile Durkheim’s in educa-
tional thought and philosophy. With that knowledge,
they sought to understand social change and what TIME TO REVIEW
made “society” possible in the face of change.
• What is sociology, and what is the role of
The sociological perspective emerged in the 19th
the sociological imagination?
century; the formation of distinct disciplines is a more
recent phenomenon. In the 20th century, distinct • Who should be using the sociological
boundaries were constructed around bodies of knowl- imagination, and for what purpose?
edge and the subject matter of specific disciplines • How is sociology related to other
(Delanty, 2005, 2007). Thus, while historians studied disciplines?
the past, anthropologists studied premodern societies,

8 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
LO4 BUILDING YOUR theorizing and critical theorizing reject the positivist
assumption that there are objective “laws” governing
SOCIOLOGICAL the way society works. Instead, they emphasize the
cultural and historical specificity of all processes.
IMAGINATION: YOUR Interpretive approaches focus on understanding—
SOCIOLOGICAL TOOLKIT the ways that people come to understand themselves,
others, and the world around them. They presume
If the sociological imagination is the foundation of soci- that human beings are “self-interpreting animals”
ology, and if it is necessary for effective social action from (Taylor, 1985, p. 45), constructed and shaped through
your own personal micro level to society’s (or the world’s) culture. Here, the goal of sociology is to describe the
macro level, where does it come from? In the same way role culture plays in creating people and societies and
that you need a variety of tools to build a shed in your how people come to think about their positions within
backyard (e.g., hammer and saw), several tools, when that culture and their relations with other people. For
used in an array of settings, will enable you to develop instance, interpretive theorizing might explore what
your sociological imagination: empirical research masculinity means to men who have been convicted
methods, sociological theories, and critical thinking. of hate crimes.
Critical approaches explore the role that power
plays in social processes, the reason why some people’s
Empirical Research Methods understandings of the world become dominant (such
As was pointed out earlier, “reliable knowledge” as through being reflected in legislation); it then ties
(Fletcher, 1971, p. 36) must serve as the basis of that knowledge to emancipation—empowering subor-
social action. Empirical methods are used to create dinated groups in society. For example, critical theo-
that knowledge. Sociological research methods are rizing might analyze how members of certain social
empirical because, through direct observation of the groups are subordinated in society in many ways,
social world, they generate findings that can be veri- including through being victimized by hate crimes—
fied by other members of the academic community. In and emphasize the importance of changing society in
Chapter 2, you will learn more about the steps in the order to end that subordination.
sociological research process and the systematic proce- Positivist, interpretive, and critical approaches to
dures that comprise its empirical methods. theorizing give rise to a number of specific theoretical
perspectives (or frame-
works) in sociology. Some
LO5 Sociological Theorizing address the micro level, Empirical methods:
Data collection that
The data gathered using empirical methods are emphasizing individuals produces verifiable findings
explained using sociological theories. Sociological as the basic component and is carried out using
theorizing was central to explaining changes during of society, whereas others systematic procedures.
the French Revolution and continues to be crucial to emphasize the macro level, Theory: A set of
understanding and explaining society. focusing on social institu- propositions intended
to explain a fact or a
A theory is a set of propositions intended to explain tions as the basic compo- phenomenon.
a fact or a phenomenon. Theorizing can be thought of nent of society.
as “puzzle-building” (Bengston et al., 2005, p. 5), trying Positivist: An approach
to theorizing that
to fit the pieces of some social phenomenon together in emphasizes explanation
order to reveal a cohesive picture. There are three dif- LO6 Core and prediction.
ferent approaches to theorizing: positivist, interpretive,
and critical (White, Klein, & Martin, 2015). Sociological Interpretive: An
approach to theorizing
Positivist approaches stem from the natural sci- Theoretical that focuses on the ways
ences and have an interest in objective explanation people come to understand
and prediction. In the social sciences, such approaches Perspectives themselves, others, and the
world around them.
are used to examine relationships between variables The core theoretical per-
in an effort to learn more about how society works, spectives in sociology are Critical: An approach to
theorizing that explores
enabling subsequent improvements in the social envi- the functionalist, conflict, the role power plays in
ronment (Ashley & Orenstein, 2001). For example, symbolic interactionist, social processes and
emphasizes the importance
knowledge of factors that contribute to hate crimes feminist, and postmodern of knowledge being tied to
can lead to the development of more effective preven- perspectives. One easy emancipation.
tion and intervention efforts. In contrast, interpretive way to help you consider

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 9

Zerbor/Shutterstock
the nature of the viewpoint maintenance of social
depends on the person who order. Society is made
is wearing them. Finally, up of norms and values
some lenses are nontraditional, (i.e., criteria by which
such as those created we determine whether
through laser surgery or According to the functionalist framework, every structure in something is right or
the fragmented lens of a society plays a necessary role in keeping society together. wrong, such as the prin-
kaleidoscope. ciple of equality), and
those norms and values exist because most people
agree they should exist. When problems emerge with
The Functionalist Perspective one or more of the main foundational structures (i.e.,
Functionalism, also known as structural function- should it become dysfunctional), consensus is threat-
alism, takes a positivist approach to theorizing. It has ened, which puts society as a whole in peril. Since the
its origins in the early development of sociology. Its focus is on stability and social order, the functionalist
overriding concern is with how social order is main- perspective assumes that in most cases, other struc-
tained, especially during times of significant societal tures will adapt to restore order, just as when the edu-
change. Through this “rosy” lens, everything in society cation system started to assume responsibility for the
works to restore order and noon-hour supervision of children.
balance. It is a macro-level Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) is recognized as
Manifest functions:
An intended function of perspective, in that society one of the founders of sociology and of the function-
one of society’s structures. is perceived as comprising alist view. Moving from a smaller community to the
Latent functions: An
a number of structures large city of Paris during the peak of industrialization,
unintended function of one (e.g., institutions such as he saw rapid social change first-hand and elaborated
of society’s structures. the family, economy, edu- on what happens when society changes too rapidly.
Values: Collectively cation, government, and Rapid social change, such as what was seen in Europe
shared criteria by which religion), each of which after the French Revolution and later during indus-
we determine whether fulfills important functions trialization, creates what Durkheim labelled anomie,
something is right or
wrong.
that keep society run- a mass feeling of normlessness, or uncertainty
ning smoothly—similar about what the rules are in this unfamiliar situation
Dysfunctional: One to the manner in which (Durkheim, 1933, 1951). The concept of anomie can
of society’s structures no
longer fulfills its function in a house of cards, each also be applied to the aftermath of large-scale natural
effectively. card plays an important disasters that have an impact on a region’s infrastruc-
Anomie: A feeling of
role in maintaining the ture; examples of this include Japan’s earthquake in
normlessness. stability of the stack as 2011, the Fort McMurray wildfire in 2016, and the
a whole. flooding in many parts of Canada in 2017.

1 0 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

comprising a small group of powerful people at the

top of society and a large group of powerless people
at the bottom. Those at the top control the resources
and hence have a vested interest in structuring society
in such a way as to keep the large group of powerless Conflict theorists propose that society comprises a small
people at the bottom. Allowing more people to reach the group of powerful people at the top of the social hierarchy
top would mean having to share resources with them. and a large group of powerless people at the bottom.

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 1 1

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
thus, conflict occurs within groups as well (Engels, of George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) and Herbert
1884/1972). In workplaces, some individuals have Blumer (1900–1987). You can think of the interac-
more power than others to control aspects of the work tionist perspective as a way to look at the world through
environment. Even within families, some members regular, clear lenses. Society is depicted as comprising
have more power than others by virtue of controlling individuals who are engaged in various forms of com-
the economic or emotional resources. munication, through words, facial expressions, ges-
In later chapters, various conflict theories will be tures, and clothing (Blumer, 1969; Mead, 1934). These
applied to specific topics. For example, conflict theo- symbolic forms of c ommunication come to mean
rists highlight how education reproduces the existing particular things to certain people based on common
social order and poses significant disadvantages for shared understandings that develop between them—
particular groups in society (see the chapter on reli- much like after many years of marriage, spouses can
gion, science, and education). And in the chapter on often finish one another’s sentences.
globalization, dependency theory proposes that rela- Communication can be direct, such as between
tionships of exploitation have emerged between devel- people who are in the same room, talking on the
oped nations and underdeveloped nations, which telephone, texting one another, or having an email
have been exploited for their natural resources, such exchange. It can also be indirect, such as when
as gold, coffee, and oil. actors, directors, writers, journalists, news anchors,
Conflict theories do more than merely analyze and musicians communicate to an audience at home.
social inequality. Just as some lenses may become During our lifetimes, as we communicate with others,
lighter under certain conditions, conflict theo- we come to attribute meaning to our experiences and
ries propose that conditions of inequality can be thereby develop particular perceptions of, under-
changed to eliminate that inequality; this draws standings of, and reactions to ourselves, other people,
attention to a “brighter” view of society. In his and the world around us. Our understandings grow
description of the evolution of world economic sys- and change over time and from situation to situation
tems, Marx described a time in the future when the depending on with whom we are communicating.
proletariat would rise up to unite and fight their Significant others —the specific people who
oppressors. The notion of praxis—the responsibility are most important to us, such as parents, partners,
that scholars have to provide subordinated groups children, close friends, or maybe even our favourite
in society with the knowledge they need to end their professors—play an important role in our socializa-
powerlessness—was emphasized in Marx’s early tion, the lifelong process by which we acquire the
work. Thus, the conflict framework is tightly linked knowledge and skills for everyday life in society. We
to practice, such as large-scale social movements can say we have passed through all of the main stages
(e.g., the Civil Rights, women’s rights, and LGBTQ of socialization once we have developed what Mead
rights movements). (1934) called a generalized other. The generalized
The conflict and functionalist perspectives other is not a specific person but rather an overall
both emphasize the macro level. Other frameworks sense of people’s expectations; even if we are not in the
focus on the micro level—that is, the people who presence of someone who is important to us, we may
make up society rather than the institutions. One still care about what “others” think of the way we look
of these perspectives is the symbolic interactionist or act. This reflects our ability to take into account
perspective. more than just our individual perspective, or the per-
spectives of specific people we care about, but also
The Symbolic the perspectives of a multitude of nameless, faceless
Praxis: The responsibility people. For example, when getting ready for a date,
that scholars have to Interactionist
provide subordinated and
you might wonder what your best friend would say
marginalized groups in
Perspective about your new fragrance (i.e., significant others) or
society with the knowledge The symbolic interac- what “people” (none of whom you personally know)
they need to be able to end
their powerlessness.
tionist perspective (also will think when you walk into the restaurant in the
known more simply as clothes you are considering wearing (i.e., generalized
Significant others: the interactionist perspec- other).
People who are important
to us. tive) takes an interpretive Within sociology, the symbolic interactionist per-
approach that analyzes spective has been applied to an array of topics, from
Generalized other: An how we develop under- how we come to develop a particular ethnic or gender
overall sense of people’s
expectations. standing. It is attributed identity to how being labelled in a negative way can
to the pioneering work influence deviant behaviour. This array of topics

1 2 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Feminist Perspectives
Feminism is “the system of ideas and political prac-
tices based on the principle that women are human
beings equal to men” (Lengermann & Niebrugge,
2007a, para. 1). This may be a taken-for-granted
assumption for most of you, but as you will see in a
later chapter, it is a relatively recent idea in world his-

Bettmann/Getty
tory and is still not accepted by all. Feminism includes
social and political practice, as well as academic work,
both empirical and theoretical. Feminism and soci-
ology have had a relationship since the discipline’s Feminism is represented not only by academic theories but
beginnings, and that relationship rests on feminist also social and political activism.
social and political practice.
Marianne Weber (1870–1954), and more. Like
FEMINISM AND SOCIOLOGY: THE EARLY YEARS Martineau, besides being scholars, they were socially
A history of sociology often reads as if it were a history and politically active.
of male scholarship. However, women have played an Feminist sociologists in the early years viewed
important role in the development of the discipline. sociology as “a project of social critique in which
During the “first wave” of feminist sociology (1830– research and theory had a morally necessary focus
1930), women who were engaged in feminist practice on the description, analysis, and correction of social
were attracted to this new social scientific field. Their inequality” (Lengermann & Niebrugge, 2007b, p. 10).
practical efforts at emancipation (e.g., the right to vote) But they were also highly diverse in terms of the forms
and a discipline that used scientific methods to solve of inequality they focused on, the research methodolo-
social problems seemed a natural fit (Lengermann & gies they used, and the balance of empirical research
Niebrugge, 2007a, 2007b). and theory in their work. Feminist sociology is equally
Female sociologists of this time were well-known diverse today (if not more so); this is evident when we
public figures and were recognized by their male peers focus our attention on feminist theory.
in sociology. The scholar most commonly recognized
as a female founder of sociology is Harriet Martineau
(1802–1876). In addition to her sociological research FEMINIST SOCIOLOGY TODAY
and writing, she was an essayist and intellectual critic; Because of the diversity that characterizes feminist
she also wrote novels and children’s books. She trans- theory, feminist perspectives are difficult to discuss in
lated Auguste Comte’s work into English and wrote an overview. Various feminist theories are labelled lib-
the first major statement of method in sociology. In eral, radical, socialist, or post-colonial, and the list goes
her career, she wrote eight major books, published on (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2014). They can differ consid-
more than 200 articles, taught sociology, and was a erably. Some propose that men and women are inher-
member of the American Sociological Society. At the ently similar, with differences emerging only due to
time of its writing, her book Illustrations of Political socialization; others claim that men and women are
Economy (1832/2004) even outsold Charles Dickens’ inherently different, highlighting female “nurturance”
books. Her scholarly work was strongly intertwined and male “aggression.” Some focus exclusively on the
with practice. She was a speaker for social reform, not experiences of women,
only for women but also for trade unionists, immi- whereas others empha-
Feminism: The system
grants, blacks, and the working class (Lengermann & size the ways that tradi- of ideas and political
Niebrugge, 2007b). tional gender roles and practices based on the
A generation later, Martineau was followed by a patriarchy (i.e., legal and/ principle that women are
human beings equal to
long list of female scholars who associated themselves or social power vested in men.
with the discipline of sociology: Beatrice Potter Webb males) affect both men and
(1858–1943), Anna Julia Cooper (1858–1964), Jane women. Feminist theo- Patriarchy: Legal and/or
social power that is vested
Addams (1860–1935), Charlotte Perkins Gilman rizing is done within other in males.
(1860–1935), Ida B. Wells-Barnett (1862–1931), theoretical perspectives as

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 1 3

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
well (e.g., symbolic interactionist). But despite the dif- feminist theory and practice and is now integrated into
ferences in feminist theorizing, there are some areas of other areas of study and practice as well, such as edu-
widespread agreement, described below. Like the con- cation, human services, and policy development.
flict perspective, feminist perspectives draw attention Feminist practice ranges from the micro level to the
to the “darker” side of society (i.e., inequalities based macro level. At the most micro of levels, it can inform
on gender), while also highlighting the “brighter” pos- how individuals make choices and carry out their
sibility of social change to reduce these equalities. everyday activities, as well as the ways in which they
First, feminist perspectives contend that academic interact with their partners or socialize their children.
research has traditionally been androcentric (or male- At the community level, feminist practice is the founda-
centred) and that it has failed to adequately study wom- tion for various programs, such as “women in science”
en’s experiences, instead treating men’s experiences as summer camps that encourage girls to pursue further
the normative “human” experience. The androcentric education in science. At a more macro level, it underlies
bias is also evident in the manner in which the prolific changes in school curricula, such as the courses that are
work of female sociologists in the early years was subse- made available to male and female students, as well as
quently erased from the histories of sociology that were the content of school textbooks. At the most macro of
developed in the mid-20th century and that were repro- levels, feminism is the foundation for large-scale social
duced in Introductory Sociology books for many decades movements, such as those that resulted in some women
to come (Lengermann & Niebrugge, 2007a, 2007b). attaining the right to vote in federal elections (1918)
Second, these perspectives assume that society is struc- and being legally declared “persons” (1929).
tured on the basis of gender, and therefore that people’s Feminist research and theorizing have been con-
experiences are also structured on the basis of gender. ducted on topics that will be addressed throughout
Males and females are often treated differently (e.g., par- this book, including the portrayal of women in the
ents buy trucks for their sons and dolls for their daugh- media, feminist critiques of science, feminist perspec-
ters) and often face differing expectations regarding their tives on religion, and analyses of globalization. But
behaviour (e.g., women should not get tattoos, and if even more fundamentally, because gender is one of
they do, they should not have masculine designs). And the bases on which all societies are structured, gender
third, these perspectives attest that research and theory is often addressed even when a specific “feminist”
must be intertwined with practice—the fundamental theory is not being applied.
objective underlying all critical theories. There is a considerable range of work within
Canadian sociologist Dorothy Smith (1987, feminist perspectives. Similarly, the last theoretical
2005) is a foundational figure in contemporary femi- perspective to be presented—the postmodern frame-
nist theory, with her work reflecting all three of these work—also comprises many divergent viewpoints
assumptions. As a young scholar in the 1960s, trying and is even less cohesive than the feminist framework
to balance her work in the male-dominated academic (Downes, Rock, & McLaughlin, 2016).
world with her role as a single parent, she realized that
her experiences and view of the world differed from
those of her male colleagues. Based on that experience, The Postmodern Perspective
she proposed that because men and women have occu- The discipline of sociology emerged from the significant
pied different positions in society, they have developed social change that accompanied the French Revolution
different viewpoints. The standpoints of women, as a and the Enlightenment, with the functionalist per-
marginalized and oppressed group, have been ignored spective explaining how social order could be main-
or derided. Smith argues that central to feminist theory tained during such times. The postmodern perspective
and practice is listening to women’s voices and experi- emerged from another time of significant social change,
ences. More broadly, she proposes that because people’s the post–Second World War era. Postmodernists point
experiences of larger social structures are dependent out the ways in which our lives have dramatically
on their standpoints (e.g., women’s compared to changed since the war. Before and during the war,
men’s), the only way to understand (and change) those Western societies were industrial, based primarily on
structures at the macro level is to understand people’s manufacturing products (e.g., tables and refrigerators).
everyday lived experiences at the micro level. The Since that time, they have largely lost their industrial
assumption that scholars base and now primarily produce ideas and images.
must explore the social As we go about our daily lives, we are bombarded by
Androcentric: Male- relations that structure an endless array of ideas and images communicated
centred, failing to account
for women’s experiences. people’s everyday lives through movies, music, advertisements, and other
has expanded beyond forms of media. There are so many messages that it

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
can be difficult to know where to turn our attention! Throughout this text, the postmodern perspective
In this regard, it might be easy for you to think of the will be represented in diverse forms, such as in relation
postmodern perspective as viewing the world through to the media, religion, science, and education. In prac-
coloured contact lenses of your choosing, a technologi- tice, postmodern ideas underlie some forms of social
cally modified lens (e.g., via laser surgery), or even the activism (e.g., environmental and anti-globalization)
fragmented lens of a kaleidoscope. as well as media literacy efforts. For a review of the
Arising from this view of postwar society are two key assumptions of the core theoretical frameworks,
forms of postmodernism: skeptical and affirmative refer to Figure 1.2.
(Rosenau, 1992). Skeptical postmodernism proposes
that these social changes have created inescapable
TIME TO REVIEW
chaos and meaninglessness; because this form of post-
modernism precludes the possibility of any meaning • What tools are used to develop the
in the world, it has not played a significant role in sociological imagination?
sociology. In contrast, affirmative postmodernism sug-
• What are the differences among
gests that the manner in which society has changed
positivist, interpretive, and critical
means that we cannot rely on grand, overarching theo-
approaches to theorizing?
ries of society (such as functionalist and conflict) or
broad categories of people (such as generic labels such • What are the core assumptions of the
as “man” or “black”). Instead, affirmative postmod- functionalist perspective, and what
ernists focus on the local and specific, deconstructing happens when society changes too
what is perceived as “knowledge” and asking ques- rapidly?
tions of that knowledge. • What are the core assumptions of the
In addition to skeptical and affirmative postmod- conflict perspective, and what is the role
ernism, post-structuralist theories are sometimes cat- of praxis?
egorized as belonging to the postmodern framework,
• What are the core assumptions of the
although this is widely disputed (in this book, the cat-
symbolic interactionist perspective,
egory “postmodern” includes post-structuralist theo-
and how are significant others and the
ries). Post-structuralist theories are exemplified by the
generalized other involved?
work of Michel Foucault (1978, 1980, 1977/1995),
who was one of the most influential social scientists • What is the relationship between
of the late 20th century. Making the claim that truth feminism and sociology, and why is it
is not “objective” but rather historically produced, more appropriate to refer to feminist
Foucault emphasized the relationship between knowl- theoretical perspectives in the plural?
edge and power. There are many different discourses • What are the different forms that
in society—that is, ways of understanding a specific postmodernism takes?
subject or social phenomenon. Which of those dis-
courses is perceived as valid depends on where the
competing discourses are located within the structure
of power. When a discourse emerges from a struc- LO7 Critical Thinking
tural location of power, it becomes an elite discourse In addition to empirical research methods and socio-
and is widely accepted. Consider the role of the media logical theories, the process of critical thinking will
“expert.” When significant social issues or news events help you develop your sociological imagination. To
are presented on a daytime talk show or the evening think “critically” about a source of information or
news, a sound bite from a token “expert” is often a particular issue does not mean to criticize it, as a
included. The role of that “expert” is to explain the parent may have once criticized the music you were
phenomenon to us, and we have a tendency to accept listening to. Rather, “critical thinking is that mode of
that explanation as valid knowledge simply because thinking—about any subject, content, or problem—
an “expert” has conveyed it. At a broader level, certain in which the thinker improves the quality of his or
types of knowledge are granted more legitimacy by the her thinking by skillfully
public than others. In 21st-century Canada, scientific taking charge of the struc-
claims to knowledge hold this role; however, in pre- tures inherent in thinking Discourses: Ways
and imposing intellectual of understanding a
Enlightenment Europe, as well as in some cultures particular subject or social
today, religious claims to knowledge were granted the standards upon them” phenomenon.
most legitimacy in the eyes of the public. (Scriven and Paul, cited in

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 1 5

Functionalist Framework—Émile Durkheim

• A macro-level perspective that views society as comprising a number of structures,
each of which fulﬁlls important functions that keep society operating smoothly.

Conflict Framework—Karl Marx/Max Weber

• A macro-level perspective that describes society as characterized by conﬂict and competition over
resources that are distributed unequally.

Interactionist Framework—George Herbert Mead/Herbert Blumer

• A micro-level perspective that depicts society as consisting of individuals engaged in various forms of
communication that come to have particular meanings.

Feminist Framework—Harriet Martineau

• A micro- or macro-level perspective that assumes society is structured on the basis of gender.

Postmodern Framework—Michel Foucault

• Skeptical postmodernism proposes that the nature of social change has created inescapable
chaos and meaninglessness, while afﬁrmative postmodernism suggests that we can no longer rely
on overarching theories of society or categories of people.

Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2015). But what, in in university, and one third show no improvement in
practice, does that actually mean? How do you do it? thinking after four years (Arum & Roksa, 2010). In
And in what ways is it different from the “thinking” other words, the development of critical thinking is
we do from the time we are small children? not inherent in a university education. Rather, critical
Most of us are not born with the inherent knowl- thinking requires practice, takes time to build, and
edge of how to think critically. Instead, we tend to think needs a classroom environment that facilitates such
dualistically and evaluate information or arguments practice; if the curriculum in a university classroom
as true or false, as accurate or inaccurate (Massengill, does not provide opportunities for critical thinking, stu-
2011). This is referred to as lower order thinking, based dents will find it difficult to develop (Arum & Roksa,
on memory, recall, and paraphrasing. This stands in 2010). But those students who are exposed to environ-
contrast to critical or higher order thinking, where we ments that give them the opportunity to practise it over
extrapolate information from one domain and apply it to an extended period of time do show significant growth
another. For example, with higher order thinking, you in higher order thinking (Rickles et al., 2013).
would be able to take your knowledge of Durkheim’s At a micro level, the ability to think critically helps
concept of anomie and apply it in your volunteer work you succeed in your classes and get as much out of
with the Red Cross following a local flood. Similarly, them as possible. Figure 1.3 provides a list of starting
you could extrapolate conflict theory’s discussion of the questions you can use to critically evaluate the mate-
mechanisms of inequality and oppression in order to rial in your class readings and lectures, as well as
evaluate issues of homelessness in your city. any information you may use for assignments. But to
Several empirical studies have found that most become a skilled critical thinker, practice is necessary
students begin university with lower levels of thinking outside the classroom as well. If you practise critical
(Arum & Roksa, 2010; Gerwing et al., 2007; Rickles thinking regularly, it will eventually become second
et al., 2013). Furthermore, half the students haven’t nature to you (see Sociology Online). At the macro
developed a higher order of thinking after two years level, critical thinking is linked closely to social action,

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Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
in the form of critical societies containing a mass of our actions, to develop and use our collec-
higher order thinkers: tive intelligence in doing so. (Foundation for
Critical Thinking, 2015)*
There has never been a more important
time to foster and develop critical societies. As you progress through this book, we ask you
With the dwindling of the earth’s resources, to try to think critically about the materials you are
with vast declines in natural habitats, with reading, the social issues being addressed, and, per-
impending extinction of growing numbers of haps most importantly, your own reactions to those
animals, with the melting arctic ice, with wars materials and issues. And because critical thinking
and hunger and hopelessness on the part of so requires practice, in each chapter you will find a
many, with all of the monumental problems Critical Thinking in Action box that gives you a specific
we face, it is vital that we turn things around opportunity to think critically about a particular issue.
and get them right. Whether and to the extent
to which they do will depend directly on
our ability to solve the complex problems
LO8 Using Your Sociological
before us, to follow out the implications of Toolkit
Practising sociology means using your sociological
imagination, a skill that is built using a variety of tools.
Figure 1.3 Empirical research methods are the means for creating
verifiable knowledge. Sociological theories provide a
The Beginners’ Guide to Critical Thinking larger context of explanation for that knowledge. And
critical thinking enables us to evaluate and extrapolate
Summarize the information that knowledge, as well as other forms of knowledge we
• What is the topic area of the information? encounter in our daily lives (e.g., through the media).
• What are the main ideas? These three tools, and the resultant sociological
• What are the conclusions? imagination, are used in an array of settings; in other
Evaluate the information
words, there are different ways you can practise soci-
ology (Clawson et al., 2007). Beginning in Chapter 3,
• Who is the target audience? How does the nature of
you will see the various settings within which the
the audience affect the presentation of the material?
• Are the ideas or points that are being made
sociological toolkit is used. Academic sociology com-
supported by evidence? prises the empirical research methods and sociological
• Is the argument balanced, or is it one-sided? theorizing conducted by formally trained researchers;
• Are you being persuaded to adopt a certain view? this type of sociology will be apparent throughout the
• Does language or tone reveal any biases? bulk of each chapter, with certain pieces of work high-
• Is the material well organized and well lighted in Sociology in Theory. Policy sociology refers to
communicated? the use of research, theorizing, and critical thinking
Respond to the information for policy development in governments, other public
organizations (e.g., public universities), and private
• What is your position on the topic? Upon what is
your position based?
organizations (e.g., community agencies); within
• Are there any other ways of looking at it? each of the substantive chapters, policy sociology will
• Can the main points or conclusions be applied to be highlighted in boxes titled Sociology in Practice.
other situations/events? In other words, are there Public sociology transmits sociological knowledge to
other “places” where you can see this same thing nonacademic audiences; for example, information
happening? about same-sex parents may be presented to daycare
• What are some of the potential real-world employees as part of their training package, or a soci-
consequences of the conclusions? ologist might be interviewed on the evening news
• What images of the subject matter are presented about a recent case of bullying. Public sociology will
in the argument? What might some of the be highlighted in Sociology in My Community boxes.
consequences of those types of images be?
Finally, private sociology is the application of sociolog-
• What did this argument make you think of? Did it
bring to mind something you have experienced?
ical knowledge to one’s own personal life; at various
Something else you have read? Something you
*Linda Elder & Rush Cosgrove, Critical Thinking, the Educated Mind, and the
have learned in another class? Something you have Creation of Critical Societies…Thoughts from the Past, Foundation for Critical
observed? Thinking, 2015. Found at: http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/critical-
societies-thoughts-from-the-past/762.

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 1 7

THE CRITICAL THINKING COMMUNITY

The Critical Thinking Community (http://www for researchers, teachers (K–12), university professors,
.criticalthinking.org) is an online community people in nursing and health care professions, and
operated by the Foundation for Critical Thinking, college and university students. You can find a wide
“an educational nonprofit organization, to promote range of specific information to help you become a
essential change in education and society through the skilled critical thinker: the intellectual standards that
cultivation of fairminded critical thinking” (Foundation are the essence of critical thinking; nine strategies for
for Critical Thinking, 2015). Besides offering an array practising critical thinking in your everyday life; how to
of research on critical thinking, it provides resources study and learn; and the art of close reading.

points, you will encounter boxes titled Sociology in My Sociology is the study of society using the socio-
Life, in which you are asked to consider some aspect logical imagination, and you can practise sociology
of your own experience in the context of the academic in myriad ways. You can analyze and evaluate any
material that has been presented. aspect of society, including the films, music, web-
sites, and news events that are part of your daily life.
Sociology is everywhere around you—the difficulty
TIME TO REVIEW you may come to face is learning to occasionally
turn off your sociological imagination so that you
• What is critical thinking, and why is it can simply enjoy a movie or a song without ana-
important? lyzing it!
• What are four different ways that As you begin seeing and acting through the lens of
sociology is practised? sociology, remember Berger’s (1963) message: Things
are not what they seem.

Chapter Summary
LO1 Describe the bidirectional relation- LO2 Define “sociology” and identify the
ship between individual choices role of the sociological imagination.
and larger social forces. Sociology is the systematic study of society using
Although we think of many of our own actions the sociological imagination. The sociological imagi-
in terms of personal choice, those choices are nation refers to the ability to see the interconnect-
embedded in and influenced by larger social forces. edness of individual choices and experiences (i.e.,
At the same time, the choices we make can have an the micro level) and larger social forces (i.e., the
impact on the people around us and on society itself. macro level).

1 8 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Recommended Resources
1. For an illustration of how something that seems as Review of Sociology and Anthropology 32,
personal as tattooing actually tells us stories about no. 4 (1995): 415.
social structures and processes, refer to D. Davidson 3. To see an example of public sociology, go to The
(Ed.), The Tattoo Project (Toronto, ON: Canadian Society Pages (https://thesocietypages.org/), an open-
Scholars Press, 2016). access social science project that applies the socio-
logical imagination to current issues and events.
2. To explore whether sociology is sufficiently “radi-
It includes articles, podcasts, and videos on crime,
cal,” see M. Porter, “You Call Yourself a Sociologist
politics, gender, race, and more.
and You’ve Never Been Arrested,” Canadian

NEL Chapter 1 Seeing and Acting Through the Lens of Sociology 1 9

2 0 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Applying Sociological
Research Methods

“ ”
MrIncredible/Shutterstock

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with

a purpose.
(Zora Neale Hurston)1

NEL

Sociology as a Scientific
Method
Sociology is considered a social science because as
a discipline it seeks to enhance our knowledge of
people and society using empirical methods (i.e., data

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 2 3

2 4 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

LO3 Goals of Sociological

Research
Sociological research generally rests on one of five main
purposes: to explore, to describe, to explain, to eval-
uate an area of interest, or to help empower a disadvan- Distracted driving is responsible for more deaths than
taged social group. The goal of exploratory research is impaired driving.

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 2 5

David M G/Shutterstock
tion (Adler & Clark, 2003). Statistics Canada collects
information on Canadians every five years in order to
describe the Canadian population on a variety of char-
acteristics, such as age. From the 2016 census, we learn
that there are now more than 5.9 million seniors (age 65
and older) and that the proportion of seniors is steadily Posting updates on Facebook reduces loneliness by providing
increasing. By 2036, we can expect seniors to comprise a sense of connectedness.
between 23 and 25 percent of the population (Statistics
Canada, 2017a). Census data also tell us that there are
more people age 55 to 64 (the age group where people Evaluation research is conducted in order to help
start to leave the workforce) than between 15 and 24 assess the need for or effectiveness of a social pro-
(the group entering the labour force) (Statistics Canada, gram. Evaluation research conducted to examine a
2016). This descriptive information is especially infor- social condition prior to the establishment of a pro-
mative for decision-making and plans involving retire- gram is called a needs assessment (Symbaluk, 2014). A
ment funds and Canadian pension reform. Although needs assessment asks, “What is the nature of this social
retirement might be a long way off for you, a lack of problem?” and “What resources are necessary to address
available funds for retirees over their remaining life this problem?” Evaluation research used to examine
course will directly impact the Canada Pension Plan existing programs is referred to as program evaluation
deductions taken off your paycheque for the duration (Symbaluk, 2014). A program evaluation is inter-
of your employment. ested in whether a program is working as intended.
Explanatory research is designed to clarify aspects For example: “Did the program achieve its goals?”
of a particular social phenomenon so that we can better and “Were the costs justified given the outcomes?” The
understand what kind of effects it has (or doesn’t Aboriginal Skills and Employment Training Strategy,
have). Deters and Mehl (2012) conducted an experi- in operation from 2003 to 2012, was designed to maxi-
ment to find out whether posting Facebook updates mize employment for Indigenous people in a variety
reduces loneliness. First, Facebook posts were moni- of sectors (e.g., oil and gas, mining, and construc-
tored for two months; also, the participants’ level of tion). The federal government plans to renew and
loneliness was assessed expand this initiative based on findings from program
using the UCLA loneli- evaluations (Government of Canada, 2016). An early
descriptive research: ness scale. Next, half evaluation demonstrated justification of expenditures
Describes features and
characteristics of a group, the participants (i.e., the based on the objectives met (e.g., skill development
event, activity, or situation. experimental group) were and enhanced employment opportunities) (Human
Explanatory sent daily email requests Resources and Skills Development Canada, 2009). A
research: Clarifies to update their posts. All more recent evaluation indicated positive outcomes
aspects of a particular participants were asked to for participants (e.g., increased employment and
social phenomenon.
regularly report on their increased earnings) and noted areas for improvement
Evaluation research: mood (i.e., happiness) (e.g., higher priority on current market demands and
Assesses the need for or and level of social con- specific areas of industry) (Employment and Social
effectiveness of a social
program. nectedness. At the end Development Canada, 2013).
of the week, loneliness Finally, empowerment research is undertaken in
empowerment was measured again. The order to improve conditions within a particular social
research: Examines
social settings and findings showed that indi- setting or for a particular group in society. Action
conditions to identify viduals who posted more research is one such strategy that generates knowledge
key issues and involves about an area of interest in order to bring about social
stakeholders for the
frequently on Facebook
purpose of improvement. were less lonely (Deters change. Action research is “carried out by a team that
& Mehl, 2012). encompasses a professional action researcher and the

2 6 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 2 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
strive to use measures that are reliable and valid. data? After you have the observations (or empirical
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. facts), what do you do with them? Data analysis
To show reliability, two different researchers should involves compiling observations into a format that
be able to come up with the same value for some- helps us learn more about the research problem.
one’s employment income. Validity has to do with The exact process depends on the research method
how well the measure represents the intended used. If interviews are used, then data analysis
concept (i.e., is it measuring what it is supposed involves carefully recording all of the verbal
to?). Employment income is a fairly valid measure responses (transcription) and then going back over
of how much money a person makes but may not them to identify common themes (a procedure
be a good indicator of how much money a person called indexing or coding). For example, it may turn
has because someone could inherit money, win out that people with higher incomes say similar
a lottery, have savings but no longer work for an things about life satisfaction (e.g., they report
income, receive a pension in lieu of an income, or having happy marriages and liking their jobs). If
have a very high debt load. the data are numerical (e.g., happiness ratings),
Once you’ve worked out the measurement analysis is conducted using a statistical software
issues, you can develop your research question into package (e.g., SPSS or PSPP) that provides descrip-
a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable research tive information, such as the number of people at
statement that includes at least two variables. For each income level, or compares the average life
example, a hypothesis for the relationship between satisfaction ratings for high- versus low-income
money and happiness might be: People who net a earners. Statistical software can also be used to
yearly salary of $100,000 or more experience higher compute correlation coefficients that quantify the
life satisfaction than people who take home $35,000 linear relationship between two variables. For
or less per year. After you’ve defined your interest in example, a Pearson r of .83 would depict a strong
a manner that is amenable to testing, you need to positive relationship between money and happiness
develop a research design. (i.e., as income goes up, correspondingly, so does
4. Research design: What is your proposed research design? a person’s self-perceived happiness). There are also
A research design is a detailed outline of all the software programs such as NVivo for nonnumeric
proposed components of a study. At a minimum, it unstructured data that can be used for coding the
should identify the research interest, whom or what content of interview responses into categories and
will be studied, and how data collection will take themes (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013).
place (i.e., a description of the research method, as 7. Draw conclusions: What do the data tell you?
discussed in the latter part of this chapter). A research Once the data have been collected and analyzed,
design usually contains other relevant details, such researchers draw conclusions by revisiting their
as how ethical guidelines will be adhered to (more original research question. Data on money and hap-
on this shortly) and, in piness help us better appreciate how complex the
Reliability: There is some cases, how a data relationship is. For example, a study using the first
consistency in the measure site will be accessed and Gallup World Poll, which was based on a represen-
for a variable of interest. left once the study is tative sample of people from 132 countries, tells
Validity: A measure is concluded. us that money does buy some degree of happiness
a good indicator of the 5. Data collection: How because increases in income are associated with
intended concept. will you collect your increases in life satisfaction; however, after a certain
hypothesis: A testable data? The next stage point, money no longer contributes to greater life
research statement that involves collecting the satisfaction. Essentially, once all of our basic needs
includes at least two
variables.
data (or observations) are met (i.e., adequate food, shelter, clothing, and
that form the basis some extras, such as entertainment), increasingly
research design: A of a study. In a study greater amounts of income begin to play a lesser
detailed outline of all of the
proposed components of on money and happi- role in happiness compared to nonmonetary consid-
a study. ness, you might survey erations, such as respect, autonomy, social support,
100 people to obtain and having a fulfilling job (Diener et al., 2010).
Data analysis:
Compilation of their incomes and Note that a correlation does not prove causation.
observations into a reported levels of life People with a lot of money might be very happy
format that helps us learn satisfaction. due to other factors, such as better health or the
more about the research
problem. 6. Data analysis: What attainment of higher education, which may impact
can you do with the earning ability and influence happiness. You will

2 8 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

2. Literature Review • What are the main steps in a research

process?
• What do sociologists mean when they
claim that a measure is “reliable”?
3. Narrowed Focus
• What sorts of information should you
include in a research design?

4. Research Design

THE IMPORTANCE OF
5. Data Collection ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Human Mistreatment
6. Data Analysis History is replete with examples of how people have
been mistreated in a variety of medical, military, and
research contexts. For instance, atrocious medical
experiments were conducted in Germany on men,
7. Draw Conclusions women, and even children who were prisoners of war
in the Nazi era (1933–1945). In a well-known case,
about 1,500 sets of twin children were taken against
8. Report Findings their will to a physician named Josef Mengele (the
“Angel of Death”) in Auschwitz, where they were
subjected to abusive procedures and surgeries (e.g.,
removal of organs, attempts to change eye colour,
blood transfusions, injections of germs), often without
learn more about the role of wealth in subsequent
the aid of an anesthetic. Most of these children died
chapters as those who make more money benefit
(Lagnado & Dekel, 1991). Although Mengele fled to
substantially (e.g., they have higher educational
South America and managed to evade capture, many
attainment, more fulfilling jobs, better social sup-
other physicians, military officials, and political leaders
ports, superior health, and longer life expectancies).
were later tried in Nuremburg for their abusive actions
Sociological research does not always prove some-
and were eventually sentenced to death or long prison
thing so much as it helps us better understand it.
terms. Another outcome of the trials was the develop-
8. Report findings: How can you share the findings? A
ment of the Nuremberg Code, the first set of directives
research process concludes with a dissemination of
for human experimentation that detailed the impor-
findings. To further knowledge in an area of interest,
tance of obtaining prior consent, protecting partici-
researchers may present their findings at academic
pants from harm, and acknowledging subjects’ right to
conferences or write articles about their studies for
end participation (National Institutes of Health, 2017).
publication in peer-reviewed journals such as the
The unethical treatment of humans extends
Canadian Journal of Sociology. Each subsequent
beyond medical and military contexts to research in
study adds another dimension of knowledge to the
the social sciences, as evidenced by a series of experi-
general area of interest.
ments on obedience to authority conducted by Stanley
A research project may vary slightly from the process Milgram in the 1960s. In these experiments, partici-
described here depending on the exact nature of the pants believed they were giving harmful electric shocks
issue, the type of design selected, and the approach to another participant and were told by the researcher

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 2 9

THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

The famous Stanford prison study designed by Philip Sheridan, and Ezra Miller, gives viewers chilling insight
Zimbardo, Craig Haney, and Curtis Banks in 1971 to into the original study demonstrating the powerful
examine how participants would behave as “prisoners” effects of situational forces on individuals. It also illus-
or “guards” was recently reproduced as a Hollywood trates the need for researcher accountability in carrying
film. The Stanford Prison Experiment (2015), directed out research projects to ensure that ethical principles
by Kyle Patrick Alvarez and starring Billy Crudup, Tye established to protect human participants are upheld.

that it was essential they continue. Milgram’s (1963) where research is conducted using humans as partici-
procedures were highly criticized for making participants and where research may be funded by one of the
pants undergo unnecessary and unreasonable amounts three agencies.
of psychological harm (e.g., see Baumrind, 1964). Sim-
ilarly, Philip Zimbardo’s simulated prison experiment LO5 Ethical Conduct for
that took place in 1971 also caused harm, in this case
to college students, who in their roles as “prisoners” Research Involving Humans
suffered physical and psychological distress for several The underlying value of the TCPS 2 is respect for
days (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973). Even those human dignity expressed through three main prin-
serving as “guards” suffered in the knowledge that they ciples: respect for persons, concern for welfare, and
were behaving in sadistic ways toward fellow students justice (CIHR, NSERC, & SSHRC, 2014):
(i.e., prisoners). Seeing what was happening, Zim- 1. Respect for persons. Respect for persons “recognizes
bardo himself finally halted the study. Although ethical the intrinsic value of human beings and the respect
review processes at universities grew more stringent and consideration they are due” (CIHR, NSERC,
over time as a result of well-known experiments such & SSHRC, 2014, p. 6). This means that research
as these, highly standardized research ethics policies participants are granted “autonomy” or the right to
and review practices came into being only recently. decide whether and how they will be involved in
research. Voluntary participation or consent is gen-
The Tri-Council Policy erally obtained from research participants ahead of
time as a means to respect autonomy. In order for
Statement consent to be valid, the participant must be capable
In an effort to reclaim public confidence, promote of freely giving it and must be aware that consent is
research with humans, and, at the same time, defend ongoing and can be withdrawn at any time without
the dignity of those who serve as participants, penalty. Someone who is serving time in jail, for
Canada’s three federal research agencies—the Cana- example, may be informed that participation is
dian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Natural purely voluntary, but that person may believe
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada that noncompliance will have a negative impact
(NSERC), and the Social Sciences and Humanities on obtaining early parole. The onus is on the
Research Council of Canada (SSHRC)—jointly adopted researcher to protect those who may have limited or
the “Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct impaired autonomy. Voluntary participation is usu-
for Research Involving Humans” (TCPS) in 1998. The ally secured via a signed consent form that details
TCPS outlines ethical principles and includes a set of what the study is about, what participation entails,
guidelines that regulate research carried out by sociolo- what the risks and benefits of participation are, and
gists as well as researchers from other disciplines. The how anonymity and confidentiality are to be main-
policy has been updated several times since 1998, and tained. An early study by Laud Humphreys (1975)
the TCPS 2 (2014)2 now serves as the official policy has been described as somewhat of an ethical night-
for these agencies and universities throughout Canada mare in its failure to obtain informed consent from

3 0 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
men who unknowingly became research partici- broader social, economic, and cultural issues may
pants after having sexual relations with other men need to be considered. For example, colonialism
in public washrooms. The researcher pretended to has had profound effects on Indigenous cultures. In
be part of the action, serving as a voyeur lookout; addition, Indigenous people tend to have a collective
later, he followed those men to their vehicles to or group orientation rather than an individual one.
obtain their licence plate information. Almost a Hence, the well-being of a research participant may
year later, the researcher used that information to extend beyond one person to an entire community.3
obtain the men’s home addresses and showed up at 3. Justice. Finally, ethical principles include the pri-
their doors to conduct interviews with them about oritization of justice. Justice in this sense means
their prior sexual behaviours! that people will be treated fairly and equitably and
Where possible, participants should be anony- with respect. In some cases, we may wish to con-
mous, and if this is not possible, their identity duct research with vulnerable groups such as prison
should be kept confidential. Anonymity exists if a populations (especially if we want to learn more
researcher cannot link any individual response to a about crime processes, the criminal justice system, or
participant. Participants are anonymous when their people who have been labelled as criminals), children
names are left off questionnaires. Confidentiality has (e.g., to examine specific developmental phases in
to do with agreements regarding what will be done intelligence or socialization), and certain other social
with the information once it is collected (Sieber, groups (e.g., many Indigenous cultures are plagued
1992). Confidentiality is upheld when a partici- by high rates of violence and suicide and by high
pant is not identifiable in any way to the public. dropout rates from school). In such cases, researchers
A researcher may know the identity of an inter- may need to be especially careful to secure consent,
viewee, for example, but the participant’s name will explain the nature and purpose of the study, and
not be included in any published findings. Similarly, ensure that safeguards are built into the study to
no information will be released that might allow minimize potential harm and to uphold dignity.
others to infer the identity of the respondent, such
To familiarize yourself with the guidelines for con-
as a job description at a company where there is
ducting research with humans, try working your way
only one person in a particular role (e.g., director of
through the introductory tutorial (TPCS 2 Tutorial)
sales). In rare cases, participants cannot be informed
provided at the Government of Canada’s Interagency
of all of the essential details at the time of consent.
Advisory Panel on Research Ethics site; visit https://
For example, suppose that a researcher is interested
tcps2core.ca/welcome.
in whether students would be willing to lend their
notes to a fellow student who claimed he missed
class due to a work emergency. Disclosing this infor- TIME TO REVIEW
mation ahead of time to obtain consent would render
students more likely to help and would negate the • What is the underlying value of the
naturalism of the helping behaviour that is the focus TCPS 2 (2014), and how is this expressed
of the study. Debriefing, or the later disclosure of through its principles?
all relevant details, is mandatory in cases where par-
• What is the difference between ano-
ticipants cannot be told all of the information ahead
nymity and confidentiality as they
of time. Debriefing should occur as soon as possible
relate to the ethical treatment of human
and be treated as a “two-way educational process”
research participants?
wherein participants can receive further clarification
of any aspect of the study (Eyde, 2000, p. 61).
2. Concern for welfare. The well-being of research par-
ticipants is also a foundational ethical principle, LO6 QUALITATIVE AND
and researchers need to design studies carefully
so as to minimize the potential for harm. This is QUANTITATIVE METHODS
not always easy to anticipate in advance. Although Sociologists distinguish
we can appreciate how a physical activity, such as two main approaches Debriefing: The later
doing push-ups, might lead to possible injury, it isn’t to research depending disclosure of all relevant
always clear how someone might be affected psy- on the underlying pur- details in cases where
research participants
chologically (e.g., by something he or she disclosed pose of the research, the cannot be told all of the
during an interview, by something an experimenter type of reasoning used information ahead of time.
said, by one’s own performance results). Also, to frame the study, and

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 3 1

The Canadian Press/Mark Spowart

Researchers might also ask instructors to rate how they
feel about some of the potential disadvantages or have
students rate how they feel about certain perceived ben-
efits of published ratings (e.g., see Howell & Symbaluk,
2001). Note that a quantitative researcher already
knows what she or he is looking for and uses a tech-
nique that specifically addresses the hypothesis that has
been developed. A qualitative researcher, by contrast, Dance is a key feature of Indigenous cultures.
might be interested in finding out more about stu-
dents’ perceptions of instructors more generally. With
this broader, more inclusive research question in mind, make sense of the data in a manner that unveils the
the qualitative researcher might interview students to theory that ultimately explains the findings. You can
learn more about what they think of their instructors learn more about data interpretation and analysis in a
and the classes they take. Maybe particular themes will research methods course. For now, consider that existing
emerge in the feedback, such as a tendency to comment theories are important for informing data collection pro-
about instructor knowledge, organization, and appear- cesses and that new theories sometimes develop out of
ance. Further in-depth interviews with students might research findings.
help us better understand the nature of the comments. Note that qualitative and quantitative methods
Is it more important to have an organized instructor differ with respect to how data are collected and what
or a knowledgeable one? the data consist of. A qualitative researcher is likely
Rather than start with a to be the research instrument that collects data (e.g.,
Quantitative
methods: Methods foundational theory, qual- as an interviewer who gathers opinions in the form of
usually employed to test itative researchers may statements), whereas a quantitative researcher is likely
hypotheses based on provide room for a theory to use some kind of instrument, such as a question-
deductive reasoning and
numerical data.
to emerge from the obser- naire (to obtain opinions in the form of ratings, such
vations (i.e., the data), as levels of agreement) or some other measurement
qualitative methods: using a technique called device (such as a stopwatch to time endurance for an
Methods most often
employed to better grounded theory. exercise). Quantitative research generates numerical
understand social Grounded theory data that are amenable to statistical analysis. Since
phenomena using inductive “is a systematic strategy quantitative approaches tend to be deductive in nature,
reasoning and non-
numerical data. for moving from specific the research process is apt to be linear, with data col-
observations to general lection followed by data analysis. Qualitative research,
grounded theory: conclusions about dis- in contrast, often follows an inductive approach that
A systematic strategy
for moving from specific courses, actions, interac- involves gathering observations in the form of state-
observations to general tions, and practices” (Scott ments or images. The relationship between data collec-
conclusions about
discourses, actions,
& Garner, 2013, p. 88). tion and data analysis is more circular; while collecting
interactions, and practices. A qualitative researcher the data, the researcher may make note of an inter-
applies a series of steps to esting phenomenon (e.g., the interviewee brings up a

3 2 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Critical Thinking in Action

DECOLONIZATION AND INDIGENOUS RESEARCH

Research methods are not neutral in and of them- activities, while they draw on indigenous
selves; rather, they are data-gathering techniques cultural knowledge, are imagined, conceptu-
created by people with particular beliefs and cultural alized, and carried out within the theoretical
orientations. Researchers, in turn, interpret findings and methodological frameworks of Anglo-
obtained through methods by applying their own per- European forms of research, reasoning, and
sonal orientations, which in turn help construct reality interpreting. (p. 58)
and inform future research. As Gegeo and Watson-
Although researchers may not be able to carry out
Gegeo (2001) eloquently put it:
research in a truly neutral manner or ever gain a true
When outside researchers including anthro- insider’s perspective when learning about colonized
pologists write ethnographic accounts of groups and communities, they can choose to “decolo-
people’s knowledge(s), or construct theories nize” the research methods used to study them. Decol-
of other people’s cultures, they certainly con- onization is a process whereby research is conducted
stitute an epistemological community. But it in a manner that allows colonized, oppressed, or oth-
is not the epistemological community that erwise marginalized groups to express their views and
created the knowledge they are theorizing. concerns in whatever form is most relevant to them
In other words, anthropological theories of (Chilisa, 2012).
other people’s cultures are not indigenous
Think Outside the Box: In what ways might
theories of those cultures. Anthropological
articipatory action research serve as a good starting
p
accounts of other people’s cultures are not
point for decolonizing research methods?
indigenous accounts of those cultures, even
though they may be based on interviews with Source: D. W. Gegeo & K. A. Watson-Gegeo, “How we know”: Kwara’ae rural
villagers doing indigenous epistemology, The Contemporary Pacific, 13 (1),
and observations of indigenous community’s pp. 55–88, 2001.
individuals and societies. All of the foregoing

point that the researcher hadn’t thought of), and then using “audit trails,” which are transparent, verifiable,
the researcher may integrate that point into subsequent and detailed documents outlining how research deci-
interviews with the remaining participants. sions were made and how conclusions were reached
As with assessments of reliability and validity, throughout the research process (Liamputtong, 2013;
qualitative approaches must demonstrate rigour— Symbaluk, 2014).
that is, the trustworthiness of the research process and Although it is common practice to determine in
data collected. One of the main ways to achieve rigour advance whether you will be using a more qualitative
is through triangulation, that is, the use of multiple or quantitative approach, generally, it is the goal of
data-gathering techniques within the same study (e.g., the research (e.g., to explore the experiences of cancer
participant observation, interviews, and focus groups) survivors), the type of reasoning to be employed (e.g.,
in order to verify and substantiate the findings (e.g., a inductive or deductive), or some other factor (e.g., the
participant says something in an interview that is also availability of existing data
brought up by members of a focus group and that was or the willingness of partic- rigour: Trustworthiness
earlier observed by the researcher). Rigour in quali- ipants) that determines the of a qualitative research
tative research is also established through the “cred- exact method(s) used. In process and the data
collected.
ibility” of the research findings—that is, research is the next section, you will
credible when the participants’ views of reality closely learn about the specific triangulation: The use
of multiple data-gathering
align with how the researcher has conveyed them (this research techniques char- techniques within the same
is akin to validity) (Symbaluk, 2014; Tobin & Begley, acteristic of quantitative study.
2004). Finally, similar to reliability, rigour is enhanced and qualitative methods.

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 3 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
In an experiment, at least one variable is manip-
TIME TO REVIEW
ulated in order to see what effect it produces. An
• How does the purpose of quantitative independent variable is the presumed cause; this is
methods differ from that of qualitative the variable that is manipulated in an experiment. In
methods? Symbaluk et al.’s 1997 study, the social modelling of
pain was one of the independent variables. In this case,
• What are some other differences between social models were actors posing as previous partici-
qualitative and quantitative methods? pants who demonstrated how to perform an isometric
quadriceps exercise. Before completing the exercise,
participants were randomly exposed to a pain-tolerant
social model, a pain-intolerant social model, or a con-
LO7 SOCIOLOGICAL trol group social model. Three different versions of the
videotape constituted the experimental manipulation
RESEARCH METHODS (i.e., the independent variable). In each version, the
person demonstrating the exercise was believed to be a
Experiments: What Is previous participant; however, that person was actually
a social model who appeared to be either pain intol-
Causing This? erant (i.e., dropped a switch that stopped a timer indi-
An experiment is a deductive research method for testing cating the first sensation of pain at about 10 seconds
a hypothesis through the use of a carefully controlled into the exercise, displayed signs of pain throughout
environment and random assignment to conditions. the exercise, such as moaning and rubbing his legs,
Experiments are a means for carrying out explanatory and stopped early) or pain tolerant (indicated feeling
research based on positivist theorizing, which empha- the first instance of pain later on and displayed sim-
sizes objectivity. Experiments, which are used infre- ilar signs of pain during the exercise but lasted much
quently in sociology, typically take place in a laboratory. longer).
Any controlled environment (such as a classroom or an There was also a control group, which included
office) can be considered a laboratory. For example, in subjects who were not exposed to the independent
Symbaluk et al.’s (1997) study on pain endurance, the lab variable. Participants in this condition received the
was a seminar room at the University of Alberta in which same instructions via a videotape, except there was
participants completed an isometric quadriceps exercise. no information on the experience of pain or on how
This exercise involved sitting against a wall without a seat, long the social model lasted (instead, they saw a freeze-
legs positioned at a 90-degree angle, which causes lactic framed social model on the screen in the isometric sit-
acid to build up in the thigh muscles and produces pain. ting position, and a voice-over simply reiterated how
The hallmark of experimental designs is the ability to test to complete the exercise). The control condition helps
cause–effect relationships. establish what would normally happen in the absence
experiment: A This is possible owing to of the independent variable (i.e., how long the average
deductive research careful control over the person lasts at isometric sitting).
method for testing a environment (which rules The dependent variable is the outcome or vari-
hypothesis through the use
of a carefully controlled out extraneous, or unin- able that is measured in an experiment. In this case,
environment and random tended, variables that could pain endurance was the dependent variable and was
assignment to conditions. affect behaviour, such as measured in minutes and seconds. As it turned out,
independent distracting noises) and participants who were exposed to the pain-tolerant
variable: The presumed random assignment to con- model lasted significantly longer than those in the
cause or variable that
is manipulated in an
ditions (which eliminates control and pain-intolerant conditions (Symbaluk et
experiment. any individual differences al., 1997). Note that exposure to a pain-tolerant model
that may be present among increased pain endurance and that exposure to a pain-
control group:
Participants in an participants). For example, intolerant model lessened the ability to withstand pain.
experiment who are some people are natu- Since the environment was carefully controlled (i.e.,
not exposed to the rally more athletic than there was only one participant in the room at the time,
independent variable.
others. Random assign- the assistant monitoring the exercise did not know
dependent variable: ment spreads a relatively what the research hypothesis was or which condition
The outcome or variable even mix of athletic and the participant was assigned to, etc.), the only pos-
that is measured in an
experiment. nonathletic participants sible influence on the outcome was exposure to social
across all of the conditions. models (the independent variable).

3 4 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

© Streeter, Betsy, bst0013, Cartoonstock.com

The most serious limitation of this method is artifici-
ality. Rarely in a lab can you study the precise real-life
concepts or processes you wish to learn more about.
For example, suppose you are interested in severe acts
of violence committed against strangers. It is unethical
and impractical to imagine you will be able to control
the variable you are most interested in. Instead, you
might have to develop a simulated environment such
as an opportunity to enact violence against a stranger
in a video game. But will this really tell you about your
original research interest? Simulated acts of violence are
clearly not the same as actual ones; for example, partici- computed into percentages and other group statistics.
pants may be much more willing to commit acts of sim- A 2015 Supreme Court of Canada decision gave Cana-
ulated violence against fake video game opponents than dians certain rights regarding their end-of-life circum-
they would ever be to harm someone in real life. To stances. Researchers from the University of Lethbridge
overcome the artificial nature of a lab, which produces used an online questionnaire to examine opinions on
findings that are difficult to generalize to the real world, the practice of assisted death (Karesa & McBride, 2016).
researchers sometimes opt for field experimentation. Among other items, psychologists were asked for their
Field experiments are experimental designs con- opinion on individuals’ rights to receive assistance by
structed in real-life settings where the variables of choosing one of the following responses: “Yes, I believe
interest are more likely to occur naturally. However, the every competent adult should have this right,” “Yes, but
closer to the real world the research setting is, the less I believe it should be allowed only in certain cases and
able the researcher is to control the environment, and situations,” or “No, I do not believe anyone should have
factors other than the independent variable can have this right.” Ninety-three percent were in favour, with
implications for the findings (e.g., the weather might 52.4 percent of the participants reporting that everyone
influence how participants behave, or persons other should have this right and 40.5 percent indicating that
than the participants might enter the field of study). it should only be allowed under certain circumstances.
Interestingly, close to 50 percent also said they lacked
Surveys: What Is Your confidence in their perceived ability to assess the com-
petency of an individual who was terminally ill and
Opinion on This? about 45 percent felt they lacked sufficient training
Surveys are as common in social science research as (Karesa & McBride, 2016). These findings suggest that
they are in everyday life. You have probably completed end-of-life decisions will pose unique challenges for
some kind of survey by filling out a form on customer physicians and psychologists in the years to come.
service in a restaurant, by giving opinions over the Questionnaires can be administered in a number
phone to someone collecting views on an issue such of ways, including in person or over the telephone;
as the health care system, or by rating instructors and they can be facilitated by a researcher or an assistant.
classes you have taken as part of a larger process of They can also be self-administered, as in the case of
faculty evaluation. A survey is a quantitative research mail-outs and online questionnaires. In a face-to-face
method for gathering opinions or other details about or telephone survey, the
topics of interest from the perspective of respondents person administering the
using a questionnaire. survey asks questions of survey: A method of
gathering opinions using a
A questionnaire is an instrument that typically con- another (the respondent) questionnaire.
tains a series of close-ended or “forced choice” ques- and records the answers.
tions; participants are prompted to choose from a list Respondents are p ersons Respondents: Persons
who consent to provide
of answers. This is similar to what you encounter on who consent to provide survey answers.
a multiple choice exam. Answers are later coded and answers to surveys.

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 3 5

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Survey approaches are great for collecting a lot of rich,
Figure 2.3 detailed information in a relatively short time. If each
question represents a variable of interest, think about
An Important Note to Students how many relationships can later be examined from
answers given on a five-page questionnaire. Face-to-
A common exam error made by students is to con-
face and telephone surveys are especially useful in sit-
fuse random assignment with random selection. Try
to remember that random assignment has to do with
uations where establishing rapport may help acquire
how participants are put into the conditions of an participants or where questions require further clari-
experiment, whereas random selection refers to how fication (i.e., lack of understanding may be evident in
participants are obtained, primarily for use in survey the respondent’s facial expressions or tone of voice).
research. Self-administered surveys make it easy to use a wide
range of respondents (e.g., known offenders attending
a local program as part of their sentencing might con-
A researcher sometimes tries to select a representative sent to complete a questionnaire, or Internet users
sample of respondents—that is, a small group that from all over the world might consent to participate in
closely resembles the population of interest. For instance, an online questionnaire). Because anonymity can be
if the population of interest is a university’s student ensured with ease, surveys are also a good method for
body, which consists of 18,000 people, a representative obtaining information on very sensitive subjects (e.g.,
sample might include 100 randomly selected students: crimes or sexual behaviour).
most who attend full-time days, some who attend part- The biggest limitation of surveys is that it is dif-
time days, and some who take classes on weekends and ficult to verify the accuracy of the findings given that
evenings. Random selection means that every person in some respondents might lie or otherwise misrepre-
the population of interest has an equal chance of selec- sent the truth (e.g., exaggerate, forget things, or omit
tion (see Figure 2.3). A registrar’s office, for example, important information). Another potential problem
may maintain a listing of all the students who are cur- begins with the wording of a survey. In face-to-face
rently enrolled in at least one course at a particular and telephone surveys, a researcher may get the oppor-
university. Using a software program or other suitable tunity to clarify a question that has been posed; by
method (such as putting every name into a container, contrast, the instructions and wording on a question-
from which names are drawn one at a time until 100 naire are fixed. If respondents cannot properly follow
have been obtained), the researcher could end up with a the directions for how to complete the questionnaire,
randomly selected representative sample of students. In if they cannot understand certain questions, if some
some cases, the population of interest is not fully iden- questions are poorly worded, or if response categories
tifiable (as might be the case if you were interested in don’t closely approximate the actual experiences and
people who commit certain crimes because many crimes views of respondents, the responses obtained may not
go unreported, and even those that are reported may not be valid measures of the concepts being investigated.
result in a conviction). When it is not practical or even
possible to obtain a representative sample that is ran-
domly selected, researchers may opt for a sample of con- Interviews: What Can You
venience. For example, a researcher interested in the area Tell Me about This?
of sexual offending might administer a questionnaire to
a specific group of inmates in a particular maximum An interview is a verbal question-and-answer technique
security facility who are undergoing treatment for com- used to gather rich, detailed, first-hand information
mission of sexual assault crimes. about a phenomenon of interest. Structured interviews
are often conducted for descriptive research purposes.
For example, a researcher interested in video gaming
Strengths and might ask questions about frequency or duration of
representative
sample: A group that Limitations use, preferred type of games, and game features that a
closely approximates the
of Survey player likes or dislikes. Interviews range in s tructure
population of interest. from highly standardized to completely unstandard-
interview: A verbal
Research ized. A standardized or highly structured interview fol-
question-and-answer Survey methods are com- lows a set format of predetermined questions with no
technique used for monly used for descrip-
obtaining information on a
additional questions or clarification allowed. The inter-
topic of interest. tive purposes and have viewer reads a question, waits for the response, and
fairly high response rates. records it (e.g., “When was the last time you played a

3 6 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
video game?” Pause. The person says “last week,” and main difference between focus groups and interviews is
the interviewer goes on to the next question: “What that the responses obtained in a focus group are gener-
type of game was that?”). A standardized interview is ated through group discussions rather than individual
similar to a face-to-face survey, except with an inter- responses stemming from individual interviewees. For
view, the respondent gives whatever answer he or she example, one person in the focus group might make
wishes instead of responding in the limited-choice a comment that changes another respondent’s line of
fashion imposed by most questionnaires. Hence, the thinking to generate a response that would not have
answer to “What type of game was that?” as part of an resulted in an individual interview with that person.
interview could be “a video game,” “a shooting game,” In focus groups, the interviewer is usually called
a “war game,” or “Call of Duty: Infinite Warfare” (and a moderator. A moderator is responsible for intro-
the researcher will later figure out how to code that ducing the purpose of the focus group (e.g., what the
information). A person completing a survey usually research interest is, what information is being sought,
chooses from among a range of responses provided and what is expected of participants), outlining the
(e.g., “Which one of the following best describes the rules for how the interview session will unfold (e.g., a
kind of game you last played: an action game, a shooter question might be asked aloud, and then participants
game, or an adventure game?”). may be asked to respond in a particular order, one at
An unstandardized interview has no set format, so a time), managing short question-and-answer sessions
the order or wording of questions can be modified and (e.g., coaching to ensure that each participant gets a
the interviewer can add, change, or delete items as war- chance to speak and that others do not interrupt), and
ranted by the process (Lune & Berg, 2017). Unstruc- dealing with any unforeseen issues that might arise
tured interviews are most likely to be conducted for (e.g., someone might appear upset by something that
exploratory and explanatory purposes. In this case, an is said). A highly organized and skilled moderator is
interviewer might begin with something very open- essential for creating and maintaining positive group
ended and subjective, such as “Can you tell me about dynamics (Lune & Berg, 2017).
your experience with video gaming?” The nature of the
response received will largely determine what sort of Strengths and Limitations
question the interviewer poses next (e.g., a response
such as “Well, I’m currently addicted to Halo 6” might of Interviews
be followed by a question such as “Why do you con- Like surveys, interviews generate high response rates.
sider yourself addicted to that particular game?”). They also have this added advantage over question-
Unstructured interviews, also called qualitative inter- naires: the answers provided better reflect the respon-
views, tend to rely on interpretive theorizing because dents’ actual views. In addition, confusing questions
the emphasis is on how the respondents perceive and can be clarified during an interview to further increase
explain their own experiences. Semi-standardized the validity of responses. However, interviewing is a
interviews fall somewhere between these two versions two-way process, and for that reason, responses can
and allow for some clarification of items as well as flex- be greatly affected by a number of considerations per-
ibility in the order and wording of questions. taining to both the interviewer and the interviewee.
For example, how comfortable is the interviewee with
Use of Focus Groups: How Does the interviewer? How does the interviewee feel about
the subject matter, and how much of her or his time
the Group View This? is the interviewee willing to contribute to the research
Another way to conduct interviews is with focus groups project? Establishing good rapport with a participant
of six to 10 participants. Focus groups are especially is essential and may be accomplished using extra ques-
useful for gathering information at one time from a tions designed to put the respondent at ease and get
small group that shares some trait that is relevant to the him or her talking (e.g., “Have you heard about the
topic of interest. Focus groups are commonly used for new video game that was just released?”). In addition,
empowering or exploratory purposes and can be based an interviewer needs to be mindful of how questions
on interpretive or more critical forms of theorizing. are communicated and how information is elicited
For example, based on an interpretive framework, a from the interviewee (e.g., by speaking at a level that
researcher might include students in a focus group is appropriate to the respondent’s educational attain-
designed to learn more about effective study habits, ment and discussing issues in terms that can be readily
instructors in a focus group on best teaching practices, understood by the interviewee).
or recently retired employees in a group designed to The order of questions is also important. It is
learn more about disengagement from work roles. The best to begin an interview with a few easy-to-answer

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 3 7

text or portrayed in images. Content analysis may be

carried out using qualitative or quantitative methods
for a variety of research purposes. For example, to
better understand how the public health risks of mad
cow disease in Alberta in 2003 and E. coli water con-
Graffiti can be considered a form of artistic expression, a tamination in Ontario in 2000 were portrayed in the
type of vandalism, and even a source of data for sociologists. Canadian media, researchers looked at newspaper

3 8 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Strengths and Limitations

of Secondary Analyses
With secondary analysis, the data have already been col-
lected and are available. This saves a researcher many
Selfies are even more gender explicit and stereotyped than
long hours and probably dollars that would otherwise
advertisements in magazines. have been spent collecting first-hand data. Besides
being convenient, secondary analysis is one of the
few methods that is nonreactive and unobtrusive—in
articles following initial outbreaks. The results indi- other words, it does not involve gathering information
cated that how an incident was reported in the first directly from people whose responses may be affected
10 days “framed” subsequent media coverage (Boyd, by the very fact that they are taking part in a study
Jardine, & Driedger, 2009; Driedger et al., 2009). (e.g., a respondent might falsely state that she does not
Researchers also used content analysis to examine smoke in order to be perceived more favourably by the
unsafe-driving messages contained in 200 Cana- interviewer). The main drawback to this method is that
dian print and television advertisements. One study the data were collected for a purpose other than the
revealed that 18 percent of all ads, especially television intended study, so it may be biased or incomplete (i.e.,
ads, included unsafe or aggressive driving practices, missing variables of interest). This is especially likely
suggesting a need for government-imposed regulation when newspaper articles written from a particular per-
(Watson et al., 2010). Content analysis is an especially spective for a specific audience are later used in content
well-established technique for examining how men analysis. Because the researcher has no control over how
and women are portrayed in the media. Döring et al.’s the data were collected in the first place, it is d
ifficult to
(2015) content analysis on Instagram selfies discussed verify the accuracy of the information and—in the case
earlier showed that men and women choose to portray of existing statistics—to determine how variables were
themselves in highly gender-stereotyped ways. originally measured, collected, and coded.
If the goal of the research is to examine how lan-
guage is used (e.g., in the media to convey stereotypes
or to represent power), then the researcher is con- Ethnography: What Is It
ducting discourse analysis—the critical examination Like to Be a Member of That
of the ways in which language is used to convey social
constructions and social relations. Language is not seen Group?
as a simple or neutral medium for communicating infor- Since most qualitative
mation but rather as a domain in and through which approaches try to get at discourse analysis:
our knowledge about the world is actively shaped. the nature and meaning The use of multiple
Discourse analysis can involve the use of one or more of events, it only makes methods to critically
examine the ways in which
methods, such as transcribed conversations (conver- sense that some methods language is used to convey
sational analysis), oral narratives (narrative analysis), are needed for gathering social constructions and
and messages within images from specific genres (e.g., data in natural settings. social relations.
media discourse analysis). Because discourse analysis Ethnography is the broad historical analysis:
is concerned about context—that is, how language term for various forms The examination and
shapes meaning—secondary sources are almost always of fieldwork designed to interpretation of historical
forms of data.
included. For example, a researcher may examine med- describe everyday behav-
ical descriptions of an illness and media portrayals of iour in natural settings. Ethnography: Fieldwork
designed to describe
that illness besides carrying out qualitative interviews In some cases, fieldwork everyday behaviour in
with individuals who have the illness in order to learn is carried out in order natural settings.
more about how that illness is represented. to learn more about a

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 3 9

Sociology in Practice

EXPLORING ORGANIZED CRIME

Sally Atkinson-Sheppard (2016) spent more than three fashion, with crime bosses (mastaans) at the top oper-
years engaged in participant observation in order ating clearly defined businesses with political protec-
to learn more about Bangladesh’s organized crime tion, followed by street gangs, who are used by the
structure. As part of her fieldwork, the researcher bosses to control areas of the city, and street children
conducted 80 interviews and two focus groups with a at the lowest echelon, where they are used as “illicit
range of participants, including police officers, prison labourers” to carry out a multitude of crimes, such
officers, nongovernmental organization workers, as selling drugs and committing murder (Atkinson-
and community members. She also spent time with a Sheppard, 2016).
support organization in which she conducted work-
Think Outside the Box: What are some of the
shops and carried out group interviews with children
research benefits and drawbacks of spending long
involved in organized crime. Her findings revealed that
periods of time engaged in fieldwork?
organized crime in Dhaka operates in a hierarchical

particular subculture; in other cases, it is used to assess a about the play stage of development, a daycare facility
social problem within a particular group with the objec- or structured play group might be an appropriate place
tive of bringing about needed change. An ethnographer to observe children engaged in play. Another way to
is a social scientist who uses multiple methods over time conduct qualitative research in the field is through
in order to gather information about a group or culture participant observation. In participant observation, a
while participating (to a greater or lesser degree) in that researcher collects systematic observations while taking
group. Typical methods used by ethnographers include part in the activities of the group being observed. Some
observing people and practices, making detailed notes, groups and activities are not particularly amenable to
taking pictures, participating in events and activities investigation by outsiders. For example, members of
with members of a group, and conducting interviews. an outlaw motorcycle gang are generally unwilling
Refer to Sociology in Practice to learn more about a cross- to allow nonmembers access to their business deals
cultural ethnographic study of organized crime. or initiation rituals. Hence, a researcher may have to
join a group (or already be a member of that group) in
order to carry out a study.
Systematic and Participant
Observation: What Is Strengths and Limitations
Happening? of Field Approaches
In a systematic observation, a researcher directly The greatest advantage of field approaches is that
observes a social group or process but does not interact they allow researchers to study areas of interest in
with the participants (this natural settings. It doesn’t get more realistic than
systematic is also sometimes called that! Describing what a group is like is best done if
observation: nonparticipation obser- a researcher has gained an accurate understanding
A naturalistic but vation). Observational of the members’ own points of view. Participating
nonparticipatory method
for collecting data on a research is used by both in a group is one of the most straightforward ways
social group or process. qualitative and quanti- to develop rapport and to ensure that a researcher is
Participant
tative researchers and around when important events and behaviours take
observation: A can take place anywhere place. However, participation poses special challenges
naturalistic method for a group of interest is for researchers, who need to be skilled in observing
collecting systematic data
while taking part in a social
located. For example, for variables and people of interest while taking accurate
group or process. a researcher who is inter- field notes. Even if a researcher is only observing a
ested in learning more group (i.e., systematic observation), he or she will

4 0 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

TABLE 2.1
Sociological Research Methods
Method Question Key Features Strengths Limitations
• Experiment • What is causing • Control • Can test causality • Artificiality and low
• Lab this? • Random • Can isolate variable generalizability (lab)
• Field assignment • Realism but low
• Manipulation and control (field)
measurement of
variables

• Survey • What is your • Sample • High response rate • Validity

• Questionnaire opinion on this? • Series of questions • Rich, detailed • Respondent
information accuracy
• Relationships
among many
variables

• Interviews • What can you tell • Series of questions • Can clarify ques- • Establishing and
• Focus groups me about this? tions (during maintaining
interviews) rapport
• Participation in the • Group dynamics
process

• Secondary analysis • What inferences • Statistics, text, or • Convenient • Validity

of existing data can be made from images • Large data sets • Incomplete
• Content analysis these data? • Quantitative: pre- • Reliability of measures
• Discourse analysis • What messages are determined cat- measures
• Historical analysis being conveyed? egories and use of • Nonreactive
indicators measures
• Qualitative: looks
for patterns and
themes

• Ethnography • What is it like to be • Interviews • Natural settings • Accessing and

• Systematic a member of that • Participant • Rich, detailed exiting research
observation group? observation information settings
• Participant • What do the • Secondary analysis • Insider insight • Bias
observation actions mean to of existing data • Reactivity
the members of the
group?

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 4 1

Chapter Summary
LO1 Explain why sociological reasoning uses empirical methods and systematic procedures
to study the social world and enhance our under-
is important. standing of people and society.
Common sense is limited as a result of the indi-
vidual’s selective perception. Sociological reasoning

4 2 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Recommended Resources
1. For open data sets in Canada, visit the Government 3. To learn more about qualitative research and to
of Canada’s online site http://open.canada.ca. For appreciate how power and privilege pose impli-
open government data from around the world, visit cations for research, we recommend S. A. Tilley,
the Open Data Index at https://index.okfn.org. Doing Respectful Research (Nova Scotia: Fern-
2. A resource for designing and using survey methods wood, 2016).
is D. A. Dillman, J. D. Smyth, and L. M. Christian, 4. For more information on the Stanford Prison Experi-
Internet, Mail, and Mixed-Mode Surveys: The Tailored ment and to view a slide show with original footage,
Design Method (4th ed.) (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley visit http://www.prisonexp.org.
and Sons, 2014).

NEL Chapter 2 Applying Sociological Research Methods 4 3

ENDNOTES
1 Retrieved August 24, 2016, from thinkexist.com 3 Chapter 9 explains how to interpret the ethics framework in
2 The TCPS (2014) further clarifies a number of issues regarding Indigenous contexts, discusses concerns particular to Indigenous
research, the consent process (e.g., alterations to consent), pri- peoples, delineates how to apply provisions in Indigenous con-
vacy and confidentiality (e.g., secondary use of nonidentifiable texts, and explains how the research and ethical review processes
information), and governance (e.g., criteria for determining when operate therein.
Research Ethics Board involvement is no longer required).

4 4 Part 1 Practising Sociology: Your Sociological Toolkit NEL

Foundations
pathdoc/Shutterstock

CHAPTER 3:
“I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian”
Culture?
CHAPTER 4:
Socialization: The Self and Social Identity

CHAPTER 5:
Social Inequality in Canadian Society

CHAPTER 6:
Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age

NEL

“I Am Canadian”: What Is
“Canadian” Culture?

“ ”
Ink Drop/Shutterstock

I am Canadian, a free Canadian, free to speak without fear, free to worship

in my own way, free to stand for what I think right, free to oppose what I
believe wrong, or free to choose those who shall govern my country. This
heritage of freedom I pledge to uphold for myself and all mankind.
(John Diefenbaker, from the Canadian Bill of Rights, July 1, 1960)1
NEL

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 4 7

tural world into which children of a particular group are

born. He also noted the importance that people attach
to material objects and the central role that material
belongings take on in any given culture. Material culture
includes all of the tangible or physical items that people
Hockey is one of the defining symbols of Canadian culture. have created for use, such as pizza and poutine, along
with works of art, various forms of housing, means of
transportation, clothing, tools, and countless electronic
gadgets. In contrast, intangibles that are the end product
than a single, unified Canadian identity (Sumara, Davis, of intellectual and/or spiritual development, or the
& Laidlaw, 2001). For the sake of simplicity, however, meanings that people attach to artifacts, are considered
we will continue to use the singular term culture in this aspects of nonmaterial culture. Examples of nonmate-
chapter. Basic elements of rial culture include language, knowledge, symbols, cus-
Material culture: culture include the foun- toms, morals, beliefs, and practices that help organize
Tangible or physical items dations of our expecta- and give meaning to our social world. Material and non-
that people have created tions, which are rooted in material culture both contribute to our understandings
for use and give meaning
to in a given culture.
geography, climate, lan- of ourselves and the world around us. This is why indi-
guage, norms, and values, viduals who travel abroad or immigrate to new coun-
nonmaterial culture: as well as the existing arti- tries experience what is known as culture shock, a sense
Intangibles produced by
intellectual or spiritual facts of “our” time and the of disorientation and confusion that results when placed
development; also, the traditions passed down to in unfamiliar surroundings where objects, practices,
use of artifacts in a given us from previous genera- language, and rules are new or unknown. International
culture.
tions. In this chapter, we travellers may even experience “reverse culture shock”
culture shock: A discuss basic elements of upon returning home, where once familiar aspects of
sense of disorientation
and confusion that results
Canadian culture and try material and nonmaterial culture now appear very dif-
when placed in unfamiliar to locate features that con- ferent. Recommended coping strategies for adapting to
surroundings where tribute to its uniqueness, a new culture include learning the language, becoming
aspects of the material and
nonmaterial culture are
beginning with the dis- familiar with the rules, getting involved in the new cul-
new or unknown. tinction between different ture, and developing social relationships (Government
forms of culture. of Canada, 2016).

4 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

From butter tarts to maple syrup, sockeye salmon, dulse seaweed, and bannock bread, Canada’s culinary heritage is diverse.

adopted one of these two official languages as their

TIME TO REVIEW
primary language at home (Statistics Canada, 2016).
• How do sociologists define culture? English is the most prevalent language spoken in
most provinces and territories. Exceptions are
• What is the distinction between material Quebec (where almost three quarters of people
and nonmaterial culture? are French-speaking) and Nunavut (where 70 per-
cent of the population speaks an Inuit language)
(Statistics Canada, 2016). However, a multitude of
languages coexist in Canadian society.
HOW CULTURE SHAPES OUR Canada consists of divergent groups, including
Indigenous peoples (i.e., First Nations, Inuit, and
UNDERSTANDINGS Métis), early colonizers (i.e., the English and the
French), and millions of immigrants (e.g., Chilean,
LO2 Language as a Precursor East Indian, Japanese, South Korean, Lebanese, Iranian,
Syrian, German, Chinese, American, Italian, Polish,
to Shared Understandings Ukrainian, Russian, Dutch, and Filipino). Significant
Language is the primary facilitator of culture portions of these groups and their descendants speak
because it is the main channel through which people languages other than
express themselves and pass acquired knowledge on English and French and
from one generation to the next. Sociologists define engage in a variety of tra- language: A shared
system of communication
language as a shared system of communication ditional cultural practices. that includes spoken,
that includes spoken, written, and signed forms of For example, more than written, and signed forms
of speech as well as
speech as well as nonverbal gestures used to convey 50 Indigenous languages nonverbal gestures used to
meaning. Ninety-eight percent of all Canadians can exist in Canada stem- convey meaning.
speak English or French, and most households have ming from 11 language

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 4 9

Sociology on Screen

ATANARJUAT (THE FAST RUNNER)

emphasis on the importance of oral history in the
© Aboriginal Peoples Television Network/

transmission of cultural values. The story centres

on a community beset by imbalance, jealousy, and
revenge. Atanarjuat is Canada’s first-ever full-length
Collection Christophel/Alamy

feature film written, produced, directed, and acted

exclusively by people of Inuit heritage. The film won
numerous awards, including Caméra d’Or for Best
First Feature Film, six Genie Awards, and Best Cana-
dian Feature Film. Atanarjuat was released in 2001
as part of a trilogy, which also includes The Journals
of Knud Rasmussen (2006) and Before Tomorrow
Based on stories passed down from generation to (2008). To learn more about these films and to view
generation by Igloolik elders, Atanarjuat (The Fast them online, visit Isuma Productions at http://www.
Runner) is considered one of Canada’s best films isuma.tv/atanarjuat.
of all time for its depiction of Inuit culture and its

5 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Not all translations appropriately convey an intended meaning.

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 5 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
pasta (e.g., spaghetti, vermicelli, and penne), and there ways that perpetuate and even produce inequalities.
are a variety of Arabic words delineating subtle differ- For example, certain terms can denote that a male
ences in camels and camel equipment (Bryson, 1990, is assumed to be present and serves as the head of a
pp. 14–15). Words and phrases unique to Canadians household (e.g., by use of “his” rather than “their”
and Canadian culture are called “Canadianisms,” such home) or that a female is expected to play a central
as “tuque” (a peaked woollen winter hat), “washroom” role in child rearing (e.g., “her” rather than “their”
(public toilet), “chesterfield” (a type of sofa), and “eh” children”). Similarly, in the case of employment, lan-
(an expression at the end of a sentence used to turn it guage is often used to denote who is expected to hold a
into a question) (Dollinger, Laurel, & Fee, 2013). particular title (e.g., “chairman” or “city councilman”)
The nuances of language and meaning are espe- or a given position (e.g., “mailman,” “fireman,” “stew-
cially apparent in blunders that occur when products ardess,” and “cleaning lady”). Finally, the use of andro-
are marketed in foreign countries. As Ricks (1999) centric or exclusively male terms to represent both
notes, “cultural differences are the most significant sexes (e.g., consider the United States Declaration of
and troublesome variables encountered by the mul- Independence: “all men are created equal”) may inad-
tinational company” (p. 4). For example, when the vertently reinforce sexism by emphasizing the male
Coca-Cola Company began marketing in China, it term over the female one.
introduced Chinese characters that sound similar to As a result of feminist activism and increased female
the English pronunciation of the product’s name (i.e., participation in the paid workforce, this use of the
“ke-ke-ken-la”). However, the literal meaning of those English language has started to shift. There are now more
sounds, “bite the wax tadpole” or “a wax-flattened “gender-neutral” terms, such as the North American
mare” (depending on the dialect), did not resonate occupational titles of “chairperson,” “city councillor,”
well with customers, and the characters were soon “mail carrier,” “firefighter,” “flight attendant,” and
changed to “ko-kou-ko-le” to fit a more pleasant inter- “house cleaner.” Also, language has become more
pretation: “happiness in the mouth” (p. 38). Likewise, “gender-inclusive” to ensure that one sex is not left out,
video game software developer Sega Corporation ran as evident in the use of “Dear Sirs/Mesdames” or the even
into an issue when it began marketing in Italy because more neutral “To whom it may concern” in written cor-
“say-ga” as pronounced in English refers to male mas- respondence. Gender equality is also evident in the use
turbation in Italian. Hence, to disassociate itself from of “Ms.” rather than “Miss” or “Mrs.” when addressing
any potential misinterpretation, the company goes by a female in reference to her surname (as in Ms. Smith).
“see-ga” in Italy (Texin, 2011). Similarly, there is an increased tendency to use inclusive,
nonprescriptive language when denoting relationships;
your Sociological Toolkit thus, “friend,” “partner,” or “spouse” could pertain to an
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY individual of the same or the opposite sex. Public institu-
tions (including universities) now recognize the need to
Gendered Language give individuals the right to choose whether they wish
Language enables cultural diversity; it also imposes to be referred to by gendered pronouns such as “he” or
constraints on individuals and groups in society. The “she” or more neutral ones such as “ze” or “they” (see
feminist framework can help us better appreciate how Sociology in my Community).
language confers cultural constructions. These begin
even before birth with the names selected for boys
versus girls, followed by the qualitatively different LO3 Norms as Regulators
adjectives used to describe males versus females later
on. For example, a baby boy may be “strong” and some- of Shared Behaviours
times “cute” but not “pretty,” just as an adult female Language is often used by members of a given culture
may be “beautiful” but never “handsome.” Language to communicate expectations about appropriate con-
continues to shape differential expectations and expe- duct. This is another way that language places restric-
riences for males and females as they enter school tions on individuals. How many times did a parent nag
and form relationships (e.g., boyfriend and girlfriend) you to brush your teeth, wash your hands, or finish
and take on adult roles (e.g., husband and wife). your supper before starting your dessert? Have your
Feminist theory is espe- teachers ever reminded you to stay seated, sit quietly,
cially concerned with the or raise your hand before answering in class? Recall
folkways: Informal ways in which language from Chapter 1 that norms are expectations for how
norms based on accepted
traditions. differentiates between we are supposed to act, think, and look. For sociolo-
males and females in gists, folkways are informal norms based on accepted

5 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Sociology in My Community

GENDER-NEUTRAL PRONOUNS
Most North American universities encourage the use

Courtesy of Trans Student Educational Resources transtudent.

of gender-neutral pronouns if preferred by students in
reference to their personal identity. This practice may
now be required by law in Canada with the recent
passing of Bill C-16, which incorporates “gender iden-
tity” and “gender expression” into the Human Rights
Act and Criminal Code.
Think Outside the Box: Why do you think universi-

org. Design by Landyn Pan

ties encourage the use of terms that move beyond
traditional pronouns?

traditions and centre on acts of kindness or politeness formal sanctions, such as the loss of personal freedom
that demonstrate respect for the generalized other. For (i.e., a prison term).
example, unless you have been specifically told to do Sociologists also distinguish between prescriptive
otherwise, you probably address your instructor with and proscriptive norms. Prescriptive norms are rules
his or her formal title (e.g., “Doctor” or “Professor”), depicting behaviours we are expected to perform, such
and wait your turn in a lineup to purchase coffee. Note as covering one’s mouth while coughing, respecting
that culture is always changing, and that is why you the rights of others, and following the appropriate
are much more inclined than your parents to begin authority structures in the workplace. Proscriptive
an email or answer the phone with the greeting “hey” norms are rules outlining behaviours we are expected
rather than “hello.” Note that aspects of culture are to refrain from doing, such as speaking with one’s
also “contested” (i.e., disputed), and that is why mouth full, swearing in church, or taking drugs that
some of your instructors may still frown on the use of impair one’s ability to perform in the workplace.
“hey” as an appropriate conversation starter. Failure
to comply with cultural expectations in the form of Nonverbal
folkways generally results in informal sanctions (i.e., Mores: Institutionalized
punishments), such as expressions of disapproval Communication norms embedded in laws
used to help maintain
from others. as a Conveyer social control.
Mores refer to institutionalized norms that are of Cultural Taboos: Mores that are
considered to embody fundamental values. Mores are considered wrong in and of
a formalized means for maintaining social control in Meaning themselves.
society (this is discussed in more detail in the chapter Signs of disapproval and
Prescriptive norms:
on social control, deviance, and crime). Examples other informal sanctions Rules concerning
of mores in Canadian culture include formal legisla- are often applied through behaviours we are
tion (i.e., laws) stating that no one is allowed to tres- nonverbal communication. expected to perform.

pass, commit theft, or sell prohibited drugs. Taboos For example, a person who Proscriptive norms:
are mores that have such strong moral connotations joins a friend at the front of Rules concerning
a lineup at Tim Hortons behaviours we are
attached to them that the acts are considered wrong expected to refrain from
in and of themselves (e.g., cannibalism and incest). may receive disapproving doing.
Transgression of mores and taboos generally results in looks from other patrons.

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 5 3

someone cuts in front Citizens’ Forum on Canada’s Future, 1991). Extensive

Courtesy of Icon

of you in traffic, you analyses revealed that, taken together, participants

might blow your horn or identified seven common unifying Canadian values*:
perhaps even give the
1. Belief in equality and fairness in a democratic society.
other driver a hand
The participants identified equality and fairness as a
gesture, such as
core value. One group, from Newfoundland, told the
the well-known
commission: “We believe that most Canadians want
middle-finger
a society that … protects national interests while
“salute,” to
remaining responsive and accountable, to individual
communicate
rights; … protects freedom, so that individuals can
displeasure.
live in the manner of their choice, so long as they do
This gesture is common to Canadians and Use caution
not infringe on the rights of others; … protects the
is used to display pleasure. while travel-
rights of all Canadians to fair and equal treatment:
ling in a foreign
women, ethnic minorities, different linguistic groups,
country and attempting to communicate using a gesture
aboriginal peoples, various religions, etc.” (p. 35).
from your homeland. There are no universal gestures.
2. Belief in consultation and dialogue. Canadians
Even commonplace Western gestures, such as waving
regarded themselves as “people who settle their
hello or showing a peace sign, can mean different things
differences peacefully and in a consultative rather
in other cultures. All cultures, however, possess similar
than confrontational manner” (p. 37) at both the
categories of gestures. For example, they have gestures
level of individuals and the level of government.
(albeit different ones) for displays of friendship or anger.
Participants noted that relations could be vastly
Also, some facial expressions are widely recognized
improved if there were more opportunities for
across cultures (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, surprise,
educational visitor exchanges, particularly those
disgust, and fear).
designed to illuminate issues involving Quebec’s
Nonverbal gestures with direct verbal equiva-
place in Confederation.
lents are known as emblems. Emblems are typically
3. Importance of accommodation and tolerance. “Forum
used in place of words, an example being the traffic
participants recognize the existence of different
salute (“flipping a bird”) mentioned earlier, or where
groups in societies and their need to sustain their
someone motions by pulling an index finger toward
own cultures while attaching themselves to the
him or her to represent “come here.” Gestures are also
country’s society, values, and institutions. As well,
used for greetings or displays of pleasure. Canadians
they acknowledge the existence of various legiti-
display what looks like sideways “horns” with the
mate competing regional and cultural interests in
index finger and pinky extended and pointing side-
Canada” (p. 40). Acceptance and support were
ways or even down (see the grad photo) to indicate
expressed especially in relation to overall ethnic
that they are having “fun.” A similar gesture with the
diversity and the need to accommodate Indigenous
extended index finger and pinky pointing up is often
self-government.
displayed as “devil horns” by fans and band members
4. Support for diversity. Repeatedly, participants noted
at heavy metal concerts.
the importance of retaining and celebrating Canada’s
rich diversity in terms of language, region, ethnicity,
LO4 Values as Shared Ideas and culture. This value is the overarching principle
for the Canadian Multiculturalism Act as described
Recall that cultural values are collectively shared ideas
in Sociology in Practice.
about what is right and wrong. In 1990, the federal
5. Compassion and generosity. Canadians recognized
government created a task force to gather opinions
the importance of supporting the collective in the
from Canadians about their views on Canada’s future
form of “universal and extensive social services, our
and what it means to be Canadian. By the end of an
health care system, our pensions, our willingness to
eight-month data-gathering process, 75,069 calls had
welcome refugees, and our commitment to regional
been received via an idea line, more than 13,000 group
economic equalization” (p. 42).
discussions had taken place involving 315,000 partici-
pants, 7,056 letters had
been received, and more *Citizen’s Forum on Canada’s Future – Keith Spicer Commission Report
emblems: Gestures with (1991). Citizen’s Forum on Canada’s Future: A Report to the People and
direct verbal equivalents. than 300,000 elementary Government of Canada. Permission granted by the Privy Council Office
and secondary students © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada (2017).

5 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

develop in his or her own, individual way” (p. 44).

Corresponding Values and Norms

Cultural values and norms are closely related in that
Canadians value Canada’s natural beauty. values reflect group ideas, whereas norms are those
ideas translated into expectations about actions. For
6. Attachment to Canada’s natural beauty. Canada’s example, Canadians value freedom and equality,
natural environment was identified as important. including the right to choose marital partners (e.g.,
This was summarized by one person, who said, based on things such as love and mutual respect); this
“All Canadians love the land” (p. 42). Widespread translates into laws recognizing same-sex marriages
concern for the environment was best captured by a and laws permitting the adoption of children by same-
group in Nova Scotia: “The beauty of our country … sex couples. Similarly, people agree that diversity is
must be preserved through stricter laws regarding important; the Government of Canada officially sanc-
pollution and other environmental hazards” (p. 43). tions diversity, and this is stated in various policies.

your Sociological Toolkit

Sociology in Practice

THE CANADIAN MULTICULTURALISM ACT

The Canadian Multiculturalism Act, as a policy of (i ) preserve and enhance the use of languages other
Canada, is to be carried out in ways that reflect core than English and French, while strengthening
values, as illustrated by these excerpts: the status and use of the official languages of
Canada; and
It is hereby declared to be the policy of the
Government of Canada to ( j ) advance multiculturalism throughout Canada in
harmony with the national commitment to the
(a) recognize and promote the understanding that official languages of Canada.
multiculturalism reflects the cultural and racial
diversity of Canadian society and acknowledges Multiculturalism as a core Canadian value assumes that
the freedom of all members of Canadian society all groups are inherently equal within a culture. Soci-
to preserve, enhance and share their cultural ologists, however, recognize the existence of a “domi-
heritage; … nant” Canadian culture—one that has the entrenched
economic strength and political influence to impose its
(e) ensure that all individuals receive equal own cultural preferences on the rest of society.
treatment and equal protection under the
law, while respecting and valuing their Think Outside the Box: Who comprises Canada’s
diversity; dominant culture (i.e., what are some attributes of
this group)? Why and how might this group serve to
(f ) encourage and assist the social, cultural,
undermine multicultural values?
economic and political institutions of Canada
Source: Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.), pp. 3–4.
to be both respectful and inclusive of Canada’s
multicultural character; …

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 5 5

your Sociological Toolkit

Critical Thinking in Action

IS DIVERSITY SUPPORTED IN CANADA?

In 2015, Minister of Justice Stéphanie Vallée intro- conspicuous religious attire. Thus, women who follow
duced Bill 62 in the legislature. Bill 62 is “An Act to certain Islamic traditions would no longer have been
foster adherence to State religious neutrality and, permitted to wear the face veil known as the burqa.
in particular, to provide a framework for religious Similarly, men would be forbidden to wear turbans
accommodation requests in certain bodies.” This bill, (e.g., Sikhs and Muslims) or kippahs (the cloth skullcap
ostensibly to ensure religious freedom and equality in worn by Jewish men). In addition, it also implies that
the province, requires public employees to “demon- students in public schools might require special accom-
strate religious neutrality” and not to act in ways that modations on a case-by-case basis because teachers
“favour nor hinder” others based on their religiosity would no longer be allowed to endorse practices that
(or nonaffiliation). The ambiguity of the wording reflect particular religious beliefs (e.g., absences for
implies (similar to controversial Bill 60, which was religious reasons).
struck down) that all public employees in the province
need to refrain from publicly displaying their faith— Think Outside the Box: Which of the seven
not just elected officials but also police, teachers, doc- core Canadian values discussed earlier in this chapter
tors, soldiers, transport workers, and so on. In practice, does Bill 62 most closely support, and which does
this means people have to refrain from wearing it negate?

5 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Internalization of norms means that as time goes political discussions and by expressing their freedom of
on, people come to accept cultural norms and follow religion), they do so while abiding by the laws of the
them without even being aware they are doing so. country and, in the case of immigrants, by upholding
This is akin to how you habitually come into every the oath of citizenship (Adam, 2008).
sociology class shortly before it begins, then sit facing These discrepancies between real and ideal cul-
the front of the room and take notes during the lecture are not an exclusively Canadian phenomenon.
ture. Similarly, Talcott Parsons (1951) contended that Gannon’s (2008) GLOBE study of 62 national or soci-
culture is a generalized system of internalized sym- etal cultures found the same paradox: cultural values
bols and meanings, along with role expectations (i.e., are consistently associated with cultural practices,
norms) and general values held by the collectivity. In but those associations are often contradictory. This
this case, norms and values work together at a more means that, more often than not, groups behave in
general level in the form of social institutions (e.g., the ways that go against cultural values. Why does this
family and school) to keep society running smoothly. happen? Beyond the ongoing quest for control over
In contrast, the conflict framework highlights the scarce resources and the desire for profit discussed
lack of correspondence and the apparent contradic- throughout this book, cultural variations in the
tions between cultural values and norms. For example, existing beliefs and practices of particular groups also
even though equality is valued in Canadian society, not help explain the discrepancy.
all groups are treated equally, as illustrated by the more
than 150,000 Indigenous children who were mistreated
in residential schools, which had been established to
Traditional Beliefs Versus
integrate them into a predominantly English-speaking Modern Practices
Canadian culture. To learn about those residential Although discovery and invention often serve as
schools and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission precursors to cultural change, change is sometimes
that has helped to rebuild the relationship between resisted when modern technology and science advo-
Indigenous peoples and Canadian society, refer to the cate for practices that are inconsistent with traditional
later chapter on race and ethnicity. beliefs that are highly regarded and continue to be part
of a group’s cultural heritage. For example, despite
LO5 Ideal Versus Real the well-established health benefits of breastfeeding
for both mothers and infants in developing countries,
Culture cultural beliefs continue to discourage women from
To explain the existence of common values alongside engaging in this practice. Osman, El Zein, and Wick’s
practices that appear to contradict these values, sociolo- (2009) study of 353 first-time mothers recruited from
gists sometimes distinguish between “ideal” and “real” 17 hospitals spread over five regions of Lebanon
culture. Ideal culture encompasses the cultural values revealed that family members were a primary source
that most people identify with; real culture refers to the of discouragement and that numerous cultural beliefs
actual practices engaged in. For example, Canadians inhibited breastfeeding altogether or led to its discon-
value equal rights, and although men and women are tinuation within a few months. In this case, cultural
treated similarly under the law, this is not always the views included the belief
case in practice—women are still disadvantaged by that a mother can harm her
Ideal culture: Cultural
inequities in pay (see Chapter 7). Similarly, Canadians infant through her breast values a majority of people
highly value the natural environment and the need to milk (e.g., the baby could identify with in a given
protect it (ideal culture), yet they also engage in prac- be poisoned by bad milk, society.
tices that harm it. For example, the oil sands in northern or abdominal cramps real culture: Practices
Alberta, where thousands of Canadians have found could be transferred from engaged in by the majority
work, have also been found to destroy forests, pol- a mother to her child via of people in a given
society.
lute rivers, and emit toxins into the environment (real breast milk). In order to
culture). Finally, although multiculturalism is highly think like a sociologist, cultural relativism:
An ability to understand
valued by the majority of Canadians (ideal culture), you need to employ the another culture in its own
it is also met with skepticism and fear (real culture) nonjudgmental principle terms sympathetically
because it encourages groups to maintain divergent cul- of cultural relativism— enough so that the culture
appears to be a coherent
tural beliefs and practices that may serve to fragment contending that beliefs and meaningful design for
Canada’s unity. That said, although minority groups do and practices are best living.
sometimes assert their interests (e.g., by participating in understood from within

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 5 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
the culture in which they occur. According to Lavenda, Southern Sudan Demobilization, Disarmament and
Schultz, and Zutter (2016), we demonstrate cultural Reintegration Commission (SSDRC), “Getting food is
relativism when we are “understanding another cul- very difficult.... So when a child moves from where
ture in its own terms sympathetically enough so that he’s getting food easily and whatever [in the military],
the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful then he goes and he fails [to eat] for something like
design for living” (p. 30). two days, a day without food, then he has to think of
The recruitment of child soldiers is another going back” (Baddorf, 2010). Sociologist Ann Swidler
example of a phenomenon that is viewed and prac- (1986) points out that we have a tendency to focus too
tised very divergently depending on the culture in much on trying to explain actions (e.g., the employ-
which it takes place. Although the United Nations and ment of child soldiers) as based on cultural values
various human rights organizations call for world- (e.g., it is not okay to exploit children), and by doing
wide bans on the recruitment of all individuals under so, we may neglect to focus on the distinct cultural
the age of 18 for military purposes, a range of coun- phenomenon (e.g., widespread poverty) that may be
tries still allow it. Many of the larger and wealthier more important as an explanatory agent for why such
states recruit for the military beginning at age 17 ideologies persist.
(e.g., China, France, and the United States) and some
as young as 16 (e.g., Brazil, Canada, and the United
Kingdom). Afghanistan, Democratic Republic of Subcultures and
Congo, Myanmar, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and
Yemen are considered among the seven “worst” recruit- Countercultures
ment countries for enlisting children under the age of Even within Canada, cultural variations exist in
15 (Child Soldiers International, 2016). If you con- beliefs and practices. A subculture is a group that
sider it wrong to recruit a 13-year-old in the Republic can be differentiated from mainstream culture by its
of the Sudan or in the Republic of South Sudan but divergent traits involving language, norms, beliefs,
not a 16-year-old in Canada, it is likely because you and/or values. For example, Hutterites choose to live
are viewing this practice from the perspective of the communally as colonies and work on cooperative
culture in which you were raised. Sociologists use the farms that are owned by the entire group, sharing a
term ethnocentrism to refer to the tendency to believe distinct system of traditional beliefs concerning reli-
that one’s cultural beliefs and practices are superior gion, dress codes, and rules for conduct that is unlike
and should be used as the standard to which other that of mainstream society. Individuals can belong to
cultures are compared. more than one subculture simultaneously, and var-
Sudanese children often end up in the military as ious subcultures can exist within the larger context
an escape from extreme poverty. Thus, by declaring of Canadian culture at any given time. Subcultures
the cultural practice inhumane or by taking steps to are identified by shared traits, which can include food
abolish child soldiers, little improvements may actu- preferences (vegans and vegetarians), music interests
ally come about in the lives of those most affected. (techno, Indie pop, and alternative rap), clothing and
The reintegration of former child soldiers into hairstyles (emo, punk, and gangsta), forms of body
Sudanese communities art (e.g., tattoos and piercings), shared recreation
following demobilization (e.g., Internet groups), and even age (baby boomers,
ethnocentrism: The efforts has generally led Gen-Xers, and millennials).
tendency to believe that
one’s cultural beliefs and
to the reinstatement of A counterculture is a type of subculture that
practices are superior and the factors that promoted strongly opposes core aspects of the mainstream cul-
should be used as the recruitment in the first ture. Hells Angels are classified as a counterculture
standard to which other
cultures are compared.
place. Demobilized sol- because of their involvement in criminal activities such
diers face lives of poverty as prostitution, drug trafficking, weapons trafficking,
subculture: A group because many families and extortion (Siegel, Brown, & Hoffman, 2006). The
that can be differentiated
from mainstream culture live off the equivalent of hippies were another counterculture; in the 1960s,
by its divergent traits less than a dollar a day, these youth joined together to share their alternative
involving language, norms, with no access to running value system, love of music, and drugs such as mari-
beliefs, and/or values.
water or electricity and juana and LSD. Canadian culture continues to include
counterculture: A type no means to feed addi- a blend of diverse groups and traditions coexisting in
of subculture that strongly
opposes central aspects of
tional members (CBC what sociologists describe as a “cultural mosaic.” The
mainstream culture. Radio, 2010). According many subcultural cuisines that make up the Canadian
to the deputy head of the food landscape today have their roots in the diffusion

5 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Bountiful is a countercultural community in southeastern

British Columbia that practises plural marriage (i.e., one
man with multiple wives) as part of its religious doctrine.

Mariemily Photos/Shutterstock.com
of cultural traits across subcultures. Close to three
quarters of Canadians (72 percent) report that they
have a particular preference for Chinese, Italian, and
Latin American/Mexican dishes (Gregoire, 2017).

An RCMP officer in dress uniform.

TIME TO REVIEW
• What two assumptions make up the
often used to symbolize a country. The Canadian flag,
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis?
then, serves as an important, uniquely “Canadian”
• In what ways do folkways differ from symbol. Similarly, the RCMP is recognized throughout
mores? the world as a symbol of Canada’s unique identity.
• How is nonverbal communication used The Maple Leaf is one of Canada’s more salient
to convey meaning? symbols, one that is recognized throughout the
world. Canadians travelling abroad sometimes wear
• Why is it important to use cultural
a Maple Leaf pin to identify themselves as Canadian
relativism when viewing cultural
or to distinguish themselves from Americans. As
practices?
Ferguson and Ferguson (2001) put it in their playful
• What is the difference between a book How to Be a Canadian, “the two central axioms
subculture and a counterculture? of Canadian identity, the mantra and motto of an
entire nation [are]: a. I. Am. Canadian. b. I am not
American” (p. 159). Other well-accepted symbols
LO6 HOW IS CANADIAN underscore Canada’s cultural diversity. For example,
inukshuks (stone cairns built to look like people with
CULTURE UNIQUE? their arms outstretched) remind us of Inuit tradi-
tions, whereas totem poles (carved from Western Red
The Abundance of Canadian Cedar) are associated with the Indigenous peoples of
the Pacific Northwest.
Symbols Even nonmaterial aspects of culture can serve
At the beginning of the chapter, you were asked what as symbols, such as sports originating in Canada:
comes to mind when you think of Canadian culture. hockey, lacrosse, basket-
Among other things, you probably thought of various ball. Symbols also reflect
symbols of the country, both material and nonmate- values, including attach- symbol: An object,
image, or event used to
rial. A symbol is an object, image, or event that rep- ment to Canada’s dis- represent a particular
resents a particular concept. For example, a heart is tinct natural beauty (the concept.
regularly used as a symbol for love. Similarly, a flag is Canadian Rockies) and to

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 5 9

Montréal
Totem poles in Stanley Park, Vancouver, BC. The Montréal Symphony Orchestra

its wildlife (the loon, Canada goose, beaver, moose, and allows more exposure to high culture; also, they have
polar bear). Finally, symbols are especially evident in been socialized by their elite families and by their edu-
popular forms of material culture: Canadian beer, maple cation to understand and appreciate various aspects
syrup, Tim Hortons, and poutine. Note that although of that culture. Members of the social elite then pass
many Canadians still associate Molson Canadian brew- on their shared understanding and appreciation of
eries with Canada and the slogan “I. Am. Canadian” high culture to future generations as a social asset
with Molson beer, Molson is actually produced by a (Bourdieu, 1973). Participants in this elite culture can
multinational brewing company, Molson Coors. be distinguished from lower classes on the basis of
status symbols. Status symbols are material indicators
of wealth and prestige. Examples include imported
The Prevalence of High luxury cars (Ferrari, Porsche, and Rolls-Royce),
Culture and Popular designer clothing and jewellery (Gucci, Chanel, and
Hermès), and paintings by highly praised artists (Van
Culture Gogh, and Picasso, Cèzanne).
High Culture and the
Social Elite Popular Culture and the Masses
Canada’s distinctiveness is also evident in its high High culture is often contrasted with popular culture,
culture and popular culture. For sociologists, high a term used to describe the everyday cultural prac-
culture refers to activities shared mainly by the social tices and products that are most desired by the masses.
elite, who supposedly possess an appreciation for Canadian popular culture encompasses movies and
this culture and the resources necessary to immerse television series, Internet sites such as Facebook and
themselves in it (i.e., wealth and higher education). YouTube, cellphone apps, and heavily marketed prod-
High culture consists of the many forms of creative ucts that may or may not originate in Canada (e.g.,
and performing arts (e.g., visual, theatre, and music). iPhones, drones, DreamWorks Trolls, Lego, Barbie, True
Famous Canadian examples from the performing Religion jeans, and Canada Goose parkas). Popular cul-
arts are the Canadian Opera Company, the Stratford ture also includes well-established spots to eat, drink,
Festival, the Montréal Symphony Orchestra, and the or shop, such as McDonald’s, Tim Hortons, Starbucks,
Royal Winnipeg Ballet. American Eagle, and Lululemon. Popular culture,
According to French sometimes called “pop culture,” is sometimes equated
high culture: Activities
shared by the social elite.
s o c iologist Pierre with “youth culture.” A distinct youth culture emerged
Bourdieu (1930–2002), following the Second World War, a time characterized
Status symbols: cultural and educational by a significant increase in births as well as by economic
Material indicators of
wealth and prestige. practices lead to the social prosperity, which gave people more disposable income
reproduction of classes. to spend on leisure, fashion, and the mass media (e.g.,
popular culture: Well- Those in the higher music). Since that time, specific eras have even been
liked everyday practices
and products. classes have more finan- referred to by the popular culture prevalent at the time
cial resources, and this (e.g., hippy, disco, punk, and hip-hop) (Danesi, 2008).

6 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
But although pop culture is now often associated with Not everyone, however, views materialism as a
youth culture, it extends further back in history; in fact, form of exploitation. As Goldthorpe et al. (1969) note
when fictional “novels” first emerged in the 15th cen- in The Affluent Worker in the Class Structure:
tury, they were considered to be the popular culture of
It is not to us self-evident why one should
the masses rather than the high culture of the elite. In
regard our respondents’ concern for decent,
contemporary society, much of pop culture is promoted
comfortable houses, for labour-saving devices,
and even constructed via the mass media (e.g., music
and even for such leisure goods as television
idols, television and movie celebrities, and sports icons).
sets and cars, as manifesting the force of “false”
needs; of needs, that is, which are “superim-
your Sociological Toolkit posed upon the individual by particular social
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY interests in his repression.” It would be equally
possible to consider the amenities and pos-
LO7 CRITICAL VIEWS OF sessions for which the couples in our sample
were striving as representing something like
POPULAR CULTURE the minimum material basis on which they and
their children may be able to develop a more
Popular cultural theorist John Storey (2009) describes
individuated style of life, with a wider range of
popular culture as an “empty conceptual category”
choices, than has hitherto been possible for the
that can be filled in a number of potentially conflicting
mass of the manual labour force. (pp. 183–184)
ways. For example, popular culture can be viewed as
whatever is left over from the categorization of high Even if consumerism is viewed as personal “choice”
culture, as a power struggle involving dominant and rather than a form of exploitation, it is important to
subordinate classes, and as a venue for distinguishing note that many Canadians’ choices are constrained by
various social groups from the dominant one (pp. socioeconomic and other macro-level factors that are
1–13). Critical approaches view pop culture from the largely beyond their control.
perspective of ideology. Ideology refers to a set of ideas In Understanding Popular Culture, John Fiske
that support the needs and views of a particular group. (2010) suggests that viewing culture from either a solely
Conflict theorists generally view popular culture as a exploitive framework or a solely personal choice frame-
means for the ruling class to control the masses. work is too limiting. Popular culture is intricately tied
The Frankfurt Institute for Social Research (later into capitalism because it is the producers who deter-
known as the Frankfurt School) was founded in 1923 mine what exists for the masses to consume. But this is
as a research organization made up of critical scholars, not a one-way relationship, and the links between the
including pop culture critics Theodor W. Adorno two are important for understanding how the masses
(1903–1969), Erich Fromm (1900–1980), and Max themselves help shape popular culture (see Sociology
Horkheimer (1895–1973). Supporters of the Frankfurt in My Life). Fiske differentiates between “mass cul-
School claim that popular culture serves the dominant ture” and “popular culture,” noting that mass culture
class while exploiting the lower class (Danesi, 2008). refers to the material products produced by the capi-
Adorno (1991) points out how the price of commodi- talists to exploit the masses, whereas popular culture
ties forms the basis of most social relations: “This includes the intangible components of culture experi-
is the real secret of success … what one pays in the enced by the masses, components that in turn shape
market for the product…. The consumer is really wor- mass culture. Specifically, the masses impart their own
shipping the money that he himself has paid for the meanings to the objects created by the capitalists and in
ticket…. But he has not ‘made it’ by liking the con- doing so play an important role in shaping the face of
cert, but rather by buying the ticket” (p. 38). Adorno consumerism. When asked why jeans are so popular,
further explains how the costs of advertising preclude Fiske’s students explained that jeans allowed them the
the lower classes from ever getting a chance to make freedom to “be themselves.” In yet another paradox of
money in the culture industry. Although he refers to values and norms, the students felt they were expressing
the culture industry as a form of “mass deception,” he their own individuality even while they were con-
does not suggest that the consumer is naive; rather, forming to the same dress patterns as the wider group.
the consumer is brought under the spell of advertising Although producers of
in such a way that he or she feels compelled to partici- jeans are obviously out to
pate in consumerism even with a full understanding make a profit, capitalism Ideology: A set of ideas
that support the needs and
that capitalists are benefiting in ways that go well as an ideology is not views of a particular group.
beyond the value of the product being sold. directly transmitted into

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 6 1

your Sociological Toolkit

Sociology in My Life

IN WHAT WAYS DO YOU INFLUENCE

POPULAR CULTURE?
Consider the many items you possess that are indica- help shape what becomes popular at a given point
tive of popular culture. Most students, for example, in time.
have a cellphone. Without making reference to its
Think Outside the Box: In what ways is the
basic functions (to make and accept calls or to send
meaning your phone has for you shaped by the
and receive text messages), how would you describe
wider mobile phone industry? Conversely, in what
what your phone means to you? Fiske (2010) has sug-
ways does the meaning it has for you shape that
gested that we should view popular culture as some-
industry?
thing that is in part negotiated by the masses, which

6 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

LO4 Identify shared values and debate LO7 Outline the main assumptions of
the correspondence between cul- critical views of popular culture.
tural values and norms using func- Critical perspectives generally view popular culture
as a means for the ruling class to control the masses,
tionalist and conflict perspectives.
although some theorists see popular culture more as
Core Canadian values include a widespread belief a matter of personal choice than exploitation. Fiske’s
in equality, consultation, accommodation, support (2010) framework rests on the assumption that the
for diversity, compassion, a concern for the environ- masses give meaning to commodities created by the
ment, and world peace. A functionalist perspective ruling class; this in turn shapes popular culture.
highlights the existence of shared values, such as

Recommended Resources
1. To learn more about words and phrases that are issues in Canada, we recommend C. Vowel,
uniquely Canadian, you can access A Dictionary of Indigenous Writes: A Guide to First Nations, Métis &
Canadianisms on Historical Principles at http://faculty. Inuit Issues in Canada (Winnipeg, MB: Highwater
arts.ubc.ca/sdollinger/dchp2.htm. Press, 2016).
2. To watch Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner), visit: http:// 4. For an excellent discussion of popular culture in
www.isuma.tv/atanarjuat. capitalist societies, refer to J. Fiske, Understanding
3. To learn about Indigenous terminology, culture, Popular Culture (2nd ed.) (New York, NY:
and identity and to better understand Indigenous Routledge, 2010).

NEL Chapter 3 “I Am Canadian”: What Is “Canadian” Culture? 6 3

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved March 18, 2017, from “Discover Canada: Memorable
Quotes,” http://www.cic.gc.ca.

6 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Socialization: The Self

and Social Identity

“ ”
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock

I know you are, but what am I?

(Paul Reubens, as Pee-Wee Herman)1

NEL

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 6 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
of ways. And even if the way that others identify you “responsible,” “directionally challenged,” “clever,”
corresponds to the way you identify yourself, there and “physically active”). The crux of the self-concept
can still be divergent views about the auxiliary traits is also social because it is only through our inter-
that are presumed to accompany that master status. actions with others that we come to develop the
Auxiliary traits refer to other characteristics that a meanings, shared understandings, and bases of com-
person associates with a particular master status. parison that ultimately create our subjective selves
For example, you might associate “parenthood” with (Charmaz, 2007). For example, the same author
qualities such as nurturance and patience; someone perceives herself to be generous largely because
else, though, might associate that same master status others have pointed this out (e.g., students and col-
with discipline and authority. Similarly, the interests, leagues express their appreciation for help obtained,
skills, and abilities that one person associates with friends and family tease her for being “too generous”
being “female” might be quite different from those with gifts). Similarly, you might consider yourself to
that another person associates with being “female.” be “attractive” or “talented” based on the amount
and kind of attention you have received from others
in various social environments. Self-understanding,
LO2 The Subjective and then, is an individual’s sense of who he or she “is” at
a given time, based on perceived similarities to and
Social Nature of the Self differences from others. It is formed through sociali-
Although our identities undergo a multitude of zation, the lifelong process through which people
changes over time, we still think of our core self as learn about themselves and their various roles within
somewhat “stable” and “knowable” (O’Brien, 2011). society and in relation to one another. Socialization
Sociologists use the term “self” to refer to our knowl- includes learning the norms, values, and language
edge of ourselves as enti- of a shared culture, as well as the knowledge, under-
ties separate and distinct standings, and experiences that help shape our social
auxiliary traits:
Characteristics presumed from others and the term identities (who we are in terms of the social groups
to accompany a specific self-concept to refer to the we consider ourselves to be a part of) and our per-
master status. totality of various traits, sonal identities (the ways we consider ourselves to
self-concept: An feelings, and values that be unique individuals). From a sociological perspec-
individual’s sense of underlie our own unique tive, this learning is contingent on other people—that
who he or she is based
on perceived similarities
personalities and prefer- is, it is a function of social interaction. This chapter
to and differences from ences (Schieman, 2007). explores how our personal and social identities form,
others. We recognize where our develop, grow, and change over time and how we, in
socialization: The abilities and some of our turn, have socializing effects on others.
lifelong process through challenges lie, and we
which people learn about can also identify ways
themselves and their
various roles in society and in which we compare LO3 Nature and Nurture:
to others and “fit in” or
in relation to one another.
“stand out from” our fam-
Major Influences on the
social identity: The
portion of an individual’s ilies, circle of friends, and Developing Self
sense of self derived from others in society. From Early philosophers questioned whether a newborn
membership in social
groups.
a social psychological possesses inborn (biological) influences that predeter-
perspective, this sense of mine who he or she will eventually become or whether
personal identity: The self is both “subjective”
portion of an individual’s a newborn is a “blank slate” on which society imposes
sense of self that renders
and “social” (Charmaz, its influence. Traditionally, this consideration was
him or her unique from 2007). Our self-concept labelled the nature versus nurture debate, implying
others. is subjective because that identity is wholly the result of one or the other.
biological each of us has our own
determinism: The belief perception of the unique
that human behaviour is collection of traits, tal- Biological Influences
controlled by genetics.
ents, and experiences On the extreme end of “nature,” evolutionary theo-
sociobiology: The we possess (e.g., one of rists advocate biological determinism, the belief that
belief that social behaviour
evolved from the need to
the authors perceives all human behaviour is controlled by our genetic
reproduce and survive. herself to be “friendly,” makeup. Biological determinism underlies a con-
“impatient,” “generous,” troversial concept called sociobiology, which claims

6 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
an evolutionary origin for people’s social behaviour Bandura’s early research on aggression led him to
based on a species’ need to reproduce and survive conclude that a lot of learning takes place in the
(Wilson, 1975). To explain differences in mate selec- absence of immediate or obvious consequences,
tion strategies, for example, sociobiology points out where people simply observe and then imitate
how it is advantageous for males to have multiple the actions of others (Bandura, 1962; Bandura &
partners and to seek out young, attractive potential Walters, 1959).
partners who symbolize fertility, whereas it is more Today, most academics (including sociologists)
advantageous for females to select a male on the recognize the interrelationships between nature
basis of power and resources (Bailey et al., 1994). (biology) and nurture (socialization and social inter-
Whereas sociobiology has been widely criticized for action) as important for influencing people’s lives and
its dependence on ultimate causes rooted in natural their developing selves. Although children inherit
selection processes, other biosociological theo- particular genes from their parents, their families of
ries based on more proximal causes, such as genes, origin also provide a context within which socializa-
enzymes, or hormones, continue to show merit tion takes place. The interaction between biological
for explaining social behaviour (Machalek, 2007). factors (e.g., hereditary predispositions) and the envi-
For example, researchers in Toronto have identified ronment (e.g., interactions with others) helps a child
the presence of certain enzymes in children with clin- reach his or her potential. As discussed in the earlier
ically diagnosed aggression (Beitchman et al., 2004). chapter on culture, language is the primary means by
Prison studies find high levels of testosterone in which we interact with one another, experience life,
males who commit violent and sexual crimes (Dabbs and convey meaning. Case studies of lost or aban-
et al., 1995). Twin studies also find more congruence doned children who have been raised in isolation and
in the criminality of identical twins compared to lack human contact teach us that in the absence of
nonidentical twins (Raine, 1993). Of course, based socialization processes, humans fail to develop social
on similarity in looks, parents and significant others behaviours we consider fundamental to being human,
might treat identical twins more alike than fraternal such as communicating with language (see Sociology
ones to create this outcome. However, the Minnesota in the News). Similarly, children born with genetically
Twin Study examined the influence of genetics in inherited disabilities may develop only limited social
twins who were raised apart and found that biology functioning even with high levels of social engage-
helped explain similarities in their personalities and ment. Thus, both nature and nurture are necessary for
behaviours (Segal, 2012). human development, growth, and potential and are
equally important.
Societal Influences
The other side of the debate is typified by behav- Agency and Human Development
iourism , a school of thought centred on external Furthermore, individuals actively shape their own
influences and attributed to psychologist John environments over time. This view is best captured
B. Watson, who claimed that all behaviour was by the bio-ecological theory of human development,
the result of learning: “Give me a dozen healthy which stresses the impor-
infants, well-formed, and my own specified world tance of human agency
to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any and considers human behaviourism:
A school of thought
one at random and train him to become any type d evelopment to be an
that denies free will,
of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, ongoing, evolving, emphasizes observable
merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, and reciprocal process phenomena, and claims
that all behaviour is learned
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abil- between individuals and from the environment.
ities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Watson, their wider structural
1924, p. 82). B.F. Skinner (1938) later developed environments. Many bio-ecological theory
of human
“radical behaviourism” (also known as “behaviour layers of influence and development:
analysis”), which similarly downplayed the impor- reciprocal interaction A theory that views
human development as
tance of biology but also emphasized how learning help shape (or, conversely, a dynamic process of
is a function of the consequences that follow behav- hinder) human poten- reciprocal interaction in
iour. Specifically, reinforcement in the form of posi- tial, including micro- which individuals play an
important role in shaping
tive consequences strengthens the likelihood of level influences, such as the environment in which
future responses, whereas negative consequences p arents, teachers, and
they develop.
decrease them. However, social psychologist Albert peers, as well as larger,

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 6 9

SOCIOLOGY IN THE NEWS

FERAL CHILD: THE CASE OF NG CHHAIDY

In 2012, the world discovered a “feral child” named as having adjusted to her new life remarkably well and
Ng Chhaidy, who was reunited with her family after is full of emotion, demanding regular “impromptu
38 years of separation, during which she spent much hugs and kisses” from those close to her (Dixit, 2015).
of her life living in isolation in an Indian forest. Ng
Chhaidy went missing from her village in Saiha in
the southernmost district of Mizoram, which borders
Myanmar, when she was only four years old (Edwards,
2012). Chhaidy and her cousin Beiraku, who was also
four at the time, disappeared while playing in a field
shortly before a heavy rainstorm. Although Beiraku
was later found beside a stream, there was no sign
of Chhaidy (Edwards, 2012). Over the years, there
were a few purported sightings of “a jungle girl,” but
her father was unable to find her. After a visitor from
Myanmar told Chhaidy’s father that he resembled a
woman she had adopted after finding her “naked
and half dead” in the village cemetery, he raised the
money to travel to Aru to see if this might be his long-
SALIL BERA/THE WEEK

lost child. As it turned out, she was (Edwards, 2012).

Since her reunion with her family in 2012, Chhaidy,
now in her late 40s, has received no professional help
and remains an untapped goldmine of scientific dis-
covery. Although she is still childlike and unable to use
language in a conventional sense, Chhaidy is described Chhaidy with her mother.

7 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 7 1

Source: dragon_fang/Shutterstock; iko/Shutterstock; Michael Pettigrew/

Game stage

Play stage

Shutterstock
Preparatory stage

Figure 4.2
Mead’s Representation of the Self: The “I” and the “Me”

The Self

Source: GoodMood Photo/Shutterstock; ImageFlow/Shutterstock

Internalized
Spontaneous norms
and values

Generalized
Impulsive Uninhibited Socialized
other

“I” “Me”

Objective
Unique
self

LO5 Self-Perception: The insults, such as name calling. When this happens,
parents and teachers often tell children that what
Looking-Glass Self others think of them shouldn’t matter—that “sticks
Note that not everything we learn about ourselves and stones may break my bones, but names will never
from others is positive or even accurate, yet these hurt me.” In fact, what others think of you does matter
views still have an impact on the developing self. and can have significant implications. Interactionist
Inevitably, children get into disagreements with their theories explain how the way that others identify
peers that sometimes culminate in an exchange of and label us affects our self-perception. An important

7 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Source: Aaron Amat/Shutterstock; Brand X Pictures/Getty

Images; monkeybusinessimages/Thinkstock
We incorporate
We imagine
We imagine the perceived
how we are
how we appear judgments of
judged by
to others. others into our
others.
sense of self.

concept within the interactionist perspective is the

looking-glass self. The looking-glass self refers to
the sense of ourselves that we develop based on
our perceptions of how others view us. Charles
Horton Cooley (1864–1929) proposed that people
in our lives serve as a “looking glass” (a historical
term for mirror) (Cooley, 1902). When we interact
with them, we “see” ourselves reflected back. There
are three core components to the looking-glass self
(Yeung & Martin, 2003). First, we imagine how we
appear to others. Second, we imagine how they judge
that appearance. Third, we incorporate the perceived
judgments of others into our own sense of self (see
Figure 4.3).
For instance, if we think our parents consider us

Farris, Joseph, jfa1521, Cartoonstock.com

intelligent, capable, and attractive, we will come to
see ourselves in the same way; similarly, if we think
they perceive us as incompetent and unattractive, we
begin to see ourselves that way as well. Note that it
is the perceived judgment of others that is significant.
Hence, we may incorrectly believe that our parents
consider us incompetent, and this will still become
incorporated into our looking-glass self. In addition,
when others identify us on the basis of master sta-
tuses such as sex or ethnicity, which they then asso-
ciate with certain auxiliary traits, our own identities
may be affected by the assumed accompanying auxil- than those of more distant people in our lives (e.g.,
iary traits. For example, if parents continuously act in coworkers) or the generalized other (Cooley, 1902;
an overly protective manner toward a daughter who Gamble & Yu, 2008; Yeung & Martin, 2003). Second,
is “vulnerable” and “needs protection,” that daughter there are individual differences in the extent to which
may come to view herself as vulnerable and in need the looking-glass self is utilized (Hartner, 1999;
of protection. Hartner & Whitesell,
The influence of others on our personal and group 2003). That is, some looking-glass self:
identity is neither direct nor certain. First, the extent people have more of a The sense of ourselves that
we develop based on our
of influence may depend on how important those looking-glass self-orien- perceptions of how others
others are to us. The perceptions of significant others tation (LGSO), whereas view us.
(e.g., family members) may have more of an impact others have more of a

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 7 3

your Sociological Toolkit

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

SELF-TRACKING AND THE CREATION OF A VIRTUAL SELF

Have you ever kept track of how much weight you lost
or how much progress you made in the gym over time?
In The Virtual Self: How Our Digital Lives Are Altering
the World Around Us, Nora Young (2012) describes the
culture of “self-tracking,” wherein we create digital
© Eugenio Marongiu/Getty Images
records of ourselves. For example, people keep track of
how fit and healthy they are by recording their dietary
intake, energy expenditure, and weight gains and
losses using Internet-based programs such as Weight
Watchers® online, mobile apps (e.g., MyFitnessPal,
SparkPeople Mobile), and gadgets such as the Fitbit
Blaze or Withings Go. The act of monitoring ourselves
is not new. But as Young (2012) points out, we are
now creating data about ourselves in volumes that What image is conveyed in your digital self?
never existed before, and we are sharing this infor-
mation as part of our “digital reality.” Think about we’ve been, and even compilations of our personal
what you share with others using social media such as
achievements and our connections to others.
Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn. Our digital selves can
include postings about our daily thoughts and moods, Think Outside the Box: In what ways has your virtual
our likes and dislikes, our current job and relation- self changed over time? How does your virtual self
ship statuses, the events we plan to attend, the places illustrate what sociologists refer to as “agency”?

7 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

PARENTS MATTER
The Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs Education Savings Program), information on positive
(FRP Canada) is a national organization that promotes discipline, brochures from the Centre of Excellence for
the well-being of families by providing consultation Early Childhood Development on a range of topics,
and resources to caregivers. For example, parents such as aggressive behaviours, breastfeeding, and
can access downloadable resource sheets in a variety parent–child attachment, as well as access to ency-
of languages (e.g., Arabic, Chinese, Hindi, Punjabi, clopedias and handbooks on child development (FRP
Somali, Tagalog, Urdu) on building active habits, Canada, 2017).
singing through the day, developing family routines,
and connecting through stories. Other resources Think Outside the Box: What resources would you
include links to financial information (e.g., the Canada like to see made available for Canadian parents?

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 7 5

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Conversely, parents who often show indifference important source of support, but at the same time,
or behave in disparaging ways (e.g., ignore or con- sibling conflict and poor-quality relationships are
stantly criticize their children) are likely to instill a associated with negative developmental outcomes
sense of low self-worth, making their children feel (Dunn, 2007; Rathus, 2018). Children also find
unloved or unlovable (Duff & Peace, 2013). Parents themselves in conflict with their parents, especially
also play a central role in helping an infant develop during adolescence, when a teenager prefers the com-
interpersonal trust. This attitude also affects self- pany of friends to that of family members. The main
worth as it involves the perception that one can trust thrust of this phase is a quest for independence as
and rely upon others who have his or her best interests teens begin to acknowledge their individuality apart
at heart. Children who have low self-esteem and low from the family unit. It might seem to a teen that it is
interpersonal trust have later problems developing his or her “right” to talk to friends until 2 a.m. and to
secure attachments in adulthood. As adults, they tend stay out late, but such actions may not be acceptable
to adopt fearful and avoidant interaction styles that to parents, who feel it is their duty to constrain the
inhibit the development of meaningful close relation- impulses of a teen until he or she has demonstrated
ships (Aronson et al., 2017). a capacity to assume greater responsibility and make
Although no two families are exactly alike, the sensible choices.
feminist perspective points out the many ways in Parents may be able to exert control and authority
which traditional families re-create existing pat- over their children (e.g., by implementing “time-
terns in society. For example, females are expected outs,” or taking away privileges for breaking rules);
to become primary caregivers who look after chil- however, as the interactionist perspective reminds
dren and elderly parents, whereas males are expected us, children are just as likely to influence their par-
to become primary breadwinners in the economic ents. This highlights the importance of human agency
sphere. The differential treatment of males and females and the bidirectional nature of socialization within
is also evident in the treatment of boys and girls by families (Kuczynski & Parkin, 2007). The child is an
their parents, wherein girls learn about caring and the active agent with intellect, purpose, feelings, and a
need to be cared for, whereas boys learn the impor- host of traits that constantly influence the parents as
tance of problem solving and becoming independent. they act and react in novel ways in different situations
Clearfield and Nelson (2006) found that mothers of over time. Thus, the decision of whether or not a par-
daughters spoke to and interacted with their infants ticular child gets to stay out late on a particular night
more overall than did mothers of sons. Even while the will depend on many factors, most of which originate
children were playing independently or exploring the within unique and dynamic parent–child contexts
room, mothers of daughters were more likely to talk (see also Kuczynski, 2003).
to them and offer them comfort if they became upset. Given the myriad family forms and dynamics, it
With three- and four-year-olds, fathers were found to is difficult to identify exactly what would constitute
stand closer to their daughters during a risk-taking a “normal” versus an “abnormal” family environ-
activity (i.e., traversing a small obstacle course), and ment. Instead, a family is usually assessed in terms
both mothers and fathers offered more help to daugh- of how well that family performs functions and how
ters when they reached an especially difficult part of well that family communicates with its individual
the obstacle course—in this case, girls needed to be members (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). From this
“rescued,” or helped through the activity, whereas perspective, a “healthy” family is one that provides a
boys were encouraged to do it themselves. Differential high level of support for its individual members (e.g.,
experiences in the family, education, and employment material and emotional support) and has good com-
for males and females are discussed in greater deal in munication skills (e.g., conflicts are resolved through
a later chapter on gender. consultation and rational decision-making) (Zastrow
For a conflict theorist, the family is a hub of & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). Unhealthy family environ-
disagreement where there are ongoing struggles that ments, in contrast, fail to adequately support group
demonstrate power differences among individual members and are characterized by poor parenting
members. Many children have at least one sibling skills that foster child maltreatment, including child
(i.e., a brother or a sister), abuse (i.e., injuries to a child) and child neglect (e.g.,
interpersonal trust: and siblings contribute to improper health care, lack of supervision, poor nutri-
A perception that another socialization independent tion) (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016). In extreme
person can be relied upon
and has your best interests
of parent–child inter- cases, child welfare services may intervene and even
at heart. actions. Relationships remove children from dysfunctional families (see
with siblings can be an Sociology in Practice).

7 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

CHILDREN’S RIGHTS AND CHILD WELFARE

IN CANADA
Children’s rights are a subject of debate and discussion.

Dir. Melisa Brittain, 2017, Vtape.org;

Although parents maintain the primary responsibility for
their children, citizens and government representatives

Painting: Blue by Tyler Blackface

(including parents) have determined that all Canadian
children have certain basic rights, such as the right to
protection from physical and emotional harm. “Child wel-
fare” refers to a system of government and private ser-
vices aimed at protecting children from abuse and neglect
(Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal, 2017). Child
welfare agencies throughout the provinces and territories
investigate alleged cases of child abuse and neglect and, This 2016 documentary highlights the voices of
where necessary, make temporary and permanent alter- Indigenous youth who have had negative experi-
nate care arrangements for children (e.g., placing a child ences with child welfare in Canada.
in a relative’s home, foster care, or a permanent adoptive
agents believe caregivers pose a “potential risk of harm”
home). In 2013, an estimated 62,428 Canadian children
to children (e.g., via caregiver substance abuse and a lack
(or about 8.5 per 1,000 in the population) were removed
of social supports) (Sinha et al., 2011).
from their families of origin (Jones, Sinha, & Trocmé,
2015). Indigenous children are disproportionately repre- Think Outside the Box: How might higher rates of
sented among those in child protective services. In many Indigenous children in foster care reflect broader struc-
of these cases, children are removed because welfare tural disadvantages that place Indigenous families at risk?

The School as a positive school climate (e.g., students feel safe and
supported, teachers and the principal work together
When apart from their families, children spend much collaboratively), the promotion of high standards (e.g.,
of their time in school, where they learn to read and challenging academic work and appropriate curricu-
write, along with various other lessons based on pro- lums), and clear classroom management objectives
cesses of socialization. For example, within the class (e.g., clearly stated expectations and consequences for
environment, students learn from their teachers and rule violations) (Rathus, 2014; Shaffer & Kipp, 2013).
classmates about personal management (e.g., how to
cooperate with others, respect the rights of others,
assume personal responsibility, and work indepen- The Peer Group
dently). Social interactions with teachers and peers Another primary agent of socialization is the peer
play a central role in the transmission of cultural group—a group of individuals who share particular
values and norms that are deemed important. Because characteristics, such as grade level at school, age, and
schools tend to reinforce existing structures, processes, extracurricular activities (e.g., sports). Peers enact var-
and practices in society, they also help maintain the ious socializing functions, teaching us to share, to think
differential treatment of particular social groups based about the well-being of others, and to be a good sport even
on gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity (see when we lose a game. We
later chapters). This is, in part, achieved by teachers’ learn through our interac- social comparison:
prior expectations about their students’ abilities and tions with peers what it Refers to how individuals
their subsequent behaviours toward students as a func- feels like to be accepted evaluate themselves in
terms of appearance, merit,
tion of these expectations (Wentzel & Looney, 2007). or rejected. Also, the peer and abilities based on how
Positive socialization experiences stem from “effec- group is a principal source they compare to others.
tive” school environments that include elements such of social comparison, in

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 7 7

MODERN FAMILY
Postmodern perspectives point out how diverse and com- who is married to Gloria Delgado-Pritchett, his second
plex families are. Modern Family, a popular ABC comedy wife, her son (Manny) from a previous marriage, and
that debuted in 2009, provides a glimpse into the their son (Joe). From Claire and Mitchell’s lingering child-
complex relationships within families sharing the same hood rivalry to Jay’s reconstruction of marriage, parent-
dwelling, as well as between family members related by hood, and grandparenthood to Mitchell and Cameron’s
blood and marriage. The series’ characters include Phil journey into married life and parenthood, the series
and Claire Dunphy and their three children (Haley, Alex, depicts an endless array of challenges that require the
and Luke) and Claire’s brother Mitchell Pritchett, his hus- characters to learn, rethink, and transition through var-
band Cameron Tucker, and their adopted daughter Lily. A ious roles and stages in a complicated web of interrelated
third family unit consists of Claire’s father (Jay Pritchett), and reciprocal relationships.

Bob D'Amico/ABC via Getty Images

ABC’s Modern Family is all about socialization.

that individuals evaluate their own appearance, merit, peer groups witness acts of bullying. About 40 percent
and abilities in comparison with others (Festinger, of Canadian youth are likely both to be bullied (i.e., as
1954). For example, based on the class average for a victims) and to bully others (i.e., as aggressors) (Craig
mid-term exam, you can determine whether you are & McCuaig Edge, 2012). Bullying takes a variety of
below average, average, or above average in your ability forms, including verbal bullying (e.g., name calling,
to demonstrate your knowledge of sociology relative spreading rumours, making negative references to one’s
to your peer group. Similarly, comparisons with peer culture), social bullying (e.g., excluding others from a
groups inform us whether we are “good-looking,” “fat,” group, humiliating others with public gestures), phys-
“smart,” “short,” or “athletic.” The peer group also ical bullying (e.g., hitting, shoving, destroying another’s
exerts a great deal of influence over individuals, who are belongings), and electronic bullying (also called cyber-
pressured to conform to group expectations regarding bullying) (Bullying Canada, 2017).
appearance, activities, and views of others; sometimes As shown in Figure 4.4, electronic bullying (i.e.,
this culminates in inappropriate forms of exclusion and being threatened, embarrassed, gossiped about, or
aggression, including bullying. Salmivalli and Peets made to look bad online) is more prevalent among
(2009) note that bullies and victims are often in the older youth, and boys are slightly more likely than
same school classroom and that bullies gain status when girls to fall prey to it (Li & Craig, 2015). Whether

7 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

100%
Female Male Overall

80%

Proportion bullied at least once

60%
51%
47% 45%
44% 43%
40% 40% 41%
40% 36% 37% 38%
33%

20%

0%
12–14 15–16 17–18 All ages
Age in years

electronic bullying is substantively different from lives (e.g., see Bereska, 2018; Jhally & Katz, 2013).
other forms of bullying continues to be a point of Canadians spend more time on the Internet than
debate; however, the Internet does amplify the vis- anyone else in the world (about 37 hours per month)
ibility of bullying, which can worsen bullying if others (Canadian Internet Registration Authority, 2016).
join in, or it can lessen bullying because this also While on the Internet, they engage in any number
increases the chances of intervention (Boyd, 2014). of activities: watching television, viewing YouTube
All forms of bullying have the potential to produce videos, using social media (Facebook, Twitter), texting
negative outcomes for both bullies and their victims, and emailing others, listening to the news, shopping,
including changes in thought patterns (e.g., they are banking, playing games, and possibly even committing
more likely to become depressed and think about com- criminal activities—all of which are socializing influ-
mitting suicide) and an increase in health issues (e.g., ences. The media are often highly beneficial because
they experience sleep problems and anxiety) (Zastrow they connect us with others, help maintain social rela-
& Kirst-Ashman, 2016). tions, inform us about important local and international
events, and provide us with entertainment. However,
as you will learn more about in Chapter 6, the media
Media are not neutral—media companies are profit-based and
Media are communications formats that target mass construct reality and shape our perceptions in particular
audiences in print (e.g., newspapers, magazines, and ways so that we come to believe certain messages (e.g.,
books) or electronic format using audio and/or images about politics, gender, vio-
(e.g., movies, radio, television, the Internet). Some con- lence, and consumerism), Media: Communications
sider the media to be the most influential socialization often with negative impli- that target large audiences
in print or in electronic
agent of our time, trumping even the family, given that cations and outcomes format using audio and/or
they now permeate all aspects of our lives (including for both individuals and images.
families) and will continue to do so throughout our society as a whole.

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 7 9

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
TIME TO REVIEW with expensive houses and fancy cars. These forms
of status have to do with social classes, which are dis-
• How do interactions in the family cussed in the chapter on social inequality. This chapter
influence the development of one’s self- is concerned with status as it relates to any recognized
esteem and interpersonal trust? social position held by an individual in society, a posi-
tion that exists over time regardless of which individual
• How does a conflict perspective view the
people happen to occupy that position at any given
family?
moment. Statuses include student, professor, care-
• In what ways do peers serve as a basis of taker, mother, machinist, prime minister, and brother.
social comparison? A status is a social position in that it exists in relation to
• Other than family, which agent of others (e.g., a person is a mother because she has a son
socialization is considered to be the most or daughter, a person is a friend because of his or her
influential? Explain why. bond to another individual), not because it has some
kind of prestige or title attached to it.
A role is the behavioural component of a status. For
example, a person with the status “professor” will per-
form the accompanying role; the behaviours expected
LO7 THE BASIC COMPONENTS here relate to teaching (e.g., preparing notes), research
(e.g., contributing to the discipline via publications),
OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE and service (e.g., participating on university commit-
Socializing forces act on us within a broader social con- tees). Similarly, the status “student” entails behaviours
text known as social structure. Social structure is the such as attending class and completing assignments
framework of cultural elements and social patterns in on time. We hold statuses, but we enact roles. Statuses
which social interactions take place. Without social and their accompanying roles are essential elements
structure, you would arrive at your school and have no of our identities; they provide us with purpose, fulfill-
idea what comes next. There are structural guidelines ment, and meaning. At the same time, our statuses can
operating in postsecondary institutions. These interac- create problems and even damage our sense of self.
tions include norms (e.g., students attend classes, stu- In interviews Minaker (2012) conducted with women
dents are expected to take notes), values (e.g., getting about what parenthood meant to them, one mother
an education is important), and social patterns (e.g., the noted: “Being a mom is love, amazing, and rewarding”
professor creates a course outline, teaches course con- (p. 130), whereas another admitted: “Being a mom is
tent, and evaluates students, who in turn are expected exhausting and challenging” (p. 132).
to attend class, complete assignments, and obtain any Parenthood is rewarding in infinite ways, but it is
needed additional help during scheduled office hours). also an extremely stressful period of adjustment for
Like cultural elements, many parents. Few individuals contemplating par-
social patterns help us enthood have an accurate notion of the time and the
Social structure: The make sense of social situ- financial and emotional demands their children will
framework of cultural
elements and social
ations. Patterned social place on them, and most would benefit from anticipa-
patterns in which social arrangements exist within tory socialization. Through anticipatory socialization,
interactions take place. three main areas of social individuals learn about the roles associated with a par-
status: A recognized structure: statuses and ticular status before taking on that status. Controlling
social position that exists roles, social groups, and for existing social supports, prior life experiences, and
independently of any social institutions. other factors, such as health, education, and income,
given individual who may
occupy it.
Gage and Christensen (2001) found that anticipa-
tory socialization gained from a variety of sources—
role: The behavioural
component of a given
Statuses and participating in child care, observing others engaged
in child care, taking parenting classes, talking with
status.
Roles others about child care (e.g., doctors, nurses, friends,
anticipatory Usually, when you think spouses), speaking to parents and relatives, caring for
socialization:
The process by which of “status,” you consider pets—was associated with positive outcomes for males
individuals learn about things such as titles (e.g., and females making the transition to parenthood.
the roles associated with
a particular status before
president, chief), which We are born with some statuses (i.e., son or daughter),
taking on that status. denote power or authority, acquire other statuses over time (e.g., aunt, mother, or
or the prestige associated grandmother), work to achieve certain statuses (e.g., BA

8 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

WHAT COMPRISES YOUR STATUS SET?

Try to write down 10 statuses you currently hold. To Do you play any sports? Are you employed? Are you
assist you, consider your relationship relative to people part of any social groups?).
in your family (e.g., Do you have a brother or sister?
Are you a niece or nephew?). Also think about some Think Outside the Box: Of the statuses you listed,
of the activities you currently engage in or member- which one would you consider to be your master
ships you hold (e.g., Do you attend school full-time? status? Explain why this is the case.

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 8 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
who has a final exam scheduled at a time when she is various positions in retail sales work (e.g., sales asso-
supposed to work her regularly scheduled shift at her ciate, assistant manager, manager). Each status corre-
job. Role conflict refers to a situation in which incom- sponds to various rules, expectations, and obligations.
patible role demands exist as a result of two (or more) As a part-time sales associate, you might be expected
statuses held at the same time. In this case, Taylor is to help customers, report to an assistant manager, and
both a student and an employee (i.e., the two statuses); take breaks only at times designed by a manager, and
the roles associated with these statuses require her to you may not be entitled to any vacation pay or sick
be in two different places at the same time. Hopefully, leave benefits. Note that roles always exist in relation to
she can find a replacement to work her job on short other roles to which they are oriented (Turner, 1962).
notice, or her university’s policies consider work obli- A sales associate cannot perform his or her job in the
gations to be a valid excuse for missing an exam. Role absence of customers. Similarly, an assistant manager’s
conflict is often experienced by students who are also duties exist because there is a corresponding manager
parents (e.g., a child may get sick and require care on role. Social groups and the individuals who comprise
the same day as a final exam) and students who are them are sometimes linked together through social
athletes (for whom competitions, playoff games, and networks. A social network is a system of social rela-
matches may require travel away from classes and/or tionships of varying purpose, relevance, intimacy, and
otherwise interfere with study time). importance. If you use social media such as Facebook,
Sometimes conflicts even occur between role Twitter, or LinkedIn, you are already part of a social
requirements of a single status. Role strain refers to network that brings you into contact with family mem-
a situation in which incompatible role demands exist bers, close friends, coworkers, acquaintances, and
within one status. For example, as a student, you will other social groups, such as professional associations
likely experience role strain in the last few weeks of and charitable organizations.
class: the “typical” student
may be required to com- Positive and Negative
Role conflict: A situation plete a research project,
in which incompatible role prepare for a class pres- Group Influences
demands exist between
two or more commonly
entation, write a paper for Besides teaching us about statuses, roles, and their
held statuses. one or more courses, and accompanying norms, social groups have profound
study for final exams. effects, positive and negative, on individual group mem-
Role strain: A situation
in which incompatible role bers. For example, in the presence of others, an individ-
demands exist within a Social ual’s performance on a task that is well learned or fairly
single status. easy to begin with will be enhanced. Social facilitation
Groups is the “tendency for people to do better on simple tasks,
social group: Two or
more people who share Social groups are another but worse on complex tasks, when they are in the pres-
relevant cultural elements part of the broader social ence of others and their individual performance can be
and interact with regular
frequency. structure from which we evaluated” (Aronson et al., 2017, p. 221). According to
create social identities. A Robert Zajonc’s (1965) early drive theory of arousal, the
social network: An
interrelated system of
social group consists of presence of others arouses us, and this brings out our
social relationships of two or more people who dominant responses. To the extent that a skill is new or
varying purpose, relevance, share relevant cultural ele- a task is difficult, the most dominant responses are likely
intimacy, and importance.
ments and interact with to include errors. This helps explain why an ice skater
Social facilitation: regular frequency. Social can complete a complicated jump during some of his
The tendency for people groups you might identify or her training sessions but falters during an Olympic
to do better on simple
tasks, but worse on with include coworkers, skate in the presence of thousands. The presence of
complex tasks, when they your family, teammates in others can also lead to reduced effort, as is often the case
are in the presence of a sport, your peer group in group presentations. Social loafing is the tendency
others and their individual
performance can be at school, members of to put in minimal effort on simple group tasks when
evaluated. your church, and people individual performance cannot be evaluated (Aronson
Social loafing: The
in clubs you are associ- et al., 2017). To prevent this, you need to find ways to
tendency to put in minimal ated with. Social groups motivate your group mate (e.g., by explaining that he or
effort on simple group contribute to the social she has unique talents that the group is relying on) or
tasks when individual
performance cannot be
structure by delineating to make each individual’s contribution apparent (e.g.,
evaluated. various statuses and roles. assign clear and distinct tasks so it will be evident who
For example, there are is and is not contributing).

8 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 8 3

sizes the quantitative aspects of products sold (por-

tion, size, and cost) and services offered (time it takes
to get the product)” (p. 14). Consumers readily per-
ceive that the “extra value” meal is a relatively inex-
pensive way to obtain a sandwich, fries, and drink
in only a few minutes. Third, predictability refers to
the “assurance that products and services will be the
same over time and in all locales” (p. 15). Fourth, part
of the success of McDonald’s can be attributed to its

8 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Resocialization: More Than

Starting Over
Just as socialization can occur at any stage in the life
process, an individual may undergo resocialization.
Resocialization involves a person radically altering
his or her identity by giving up an existing status in Millhaven is a maximum security prison in Bath, Ontario,
exchange for a new one. Resocialization can be volun- that houses dangerous offenders, including Canadian serial
tary, such as when a person decides to leave a place of killer and rapist Paul Bernardo.

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 8 5

Chapter Summary
LO1 Explain how our own unique sense importance of biology and socialization in the devel-
opment of the social self. For example, the bioeco-
of “self” includes traits that fall along logical theory of human development stresses the
a personal–social identity continuum. importance of human agency and the reciprocal
The personal–social identity continuum is the range of nature of social influences. Finally, on the extreme
traits you possess that emphasize the extent to which nurture side, the school of behaviourism posits that
you view yourself as “unique” (e.g., I am driven, I am behaviour is the end result of learning, especially
clumsy, I am happy) versus part of a social group (e.g., through the use of rewards and punishment.
I am a student, I am a daughter, I am a Christian).
LO4 Describe Mead’s stages of develop-
LO2 Define “self” and explain its con- ment of the self and differentiate
nection to socialization and social between the “I” and the “me.”
interaction. Mead explained how the self develops through
The self is an individual’s reflexive sense of her or his stages evident in children’s play. In the preparatory
own particular identity, constituted vis-à-vis others stage, the focus is on motor skill mastery and imita-
in terms of similarity and difference, without which tion; in the play stage, children begin to take on the
she or he wouldn’t know who they are and hence role of others, one at a time; in the game stage, the
wouldn’t be able to act. Through the process of actor must be able to understand different roles and
socialization, people learn about themselves and perspectives and be able to think about them simul-
their various roles within a particular culture. Most taneously, demonstrating the generalized other.
of the learning takes place during social interactions Mead also described two parts of the self: the “I”
with others. and the “me.” The “I” is the spontaneous self that
is unique to the person, whereas the “me” is the
LO3 Describe the continuum of nature portion of the self that responds during interactions
versus nurture assumptions. based on cultural norms (i.e., the generalized other).
On the extreme nature side, theorists advocate LO5 Identify the ways in which the per-
biological determinism, that is, the view that behav-
iour is the end result of genetics. Sociobiology
ceptions of others affect our indi-
points to evolutionary origins for social behaviour vidual identities.
(i.e., the need to reproduce). Moving toward the We are constantly identifying ourselves, being
centre of the continuum, sociologists highlight the identified by others, and identifying others.

8 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

LO6 Identify primary agents of socializa- LO8 Explain how social institutions con-
tion and describe their main contri- tribute to social structure and assess
butions to the development of the the merits of Weber’s ideal type of
self and/or social identity. bureaucracy in modern society.
Primary agents of socialization include the family, Social institutions are relatively permanent societal
the school, the peer group, and the mass media. structures that govern the behaviour of groups and
The family is a source of social support and encour- promote social order, as in the case of the family as
agement, structure and discipline, imbalances in the primary agent of socialization or religion as an
power, and conflict. Similarly, the school is a highly institution that provides people with a sense of pur-
supportive mechanism for teaching skills, norms, pose. According to Weber, an ideal type of bureau-
and values, and it is also a foundation for perpetu- cracy includes a specialized division of labour, a clear
ating social inequalities. The peer group is a pow- hierarchy of authority, written rules and regulations,
erful source of social support, social comparison, impersonality in dealings, and employment based
and social pressure, with positive and negative out- on technical qualifications. A bureaucracy can be
comes for one’s self-identity. Finally, the mass media highly successful, largely because of its efficiency,
inform us, entertain us, and teach us a multitude of objectivity, and clear directives, but it can also lead
lessons, with positive and negative implications for to very time-consuming, inefficient processes that
individuals and society as a whole. become ends in themselves.

Recommended Resources
1. For a comprehensive look at the ecology of sociali- 3. For a critical look at Canada’s child welfare system,
zation agents and socialization outcomes, refer we recommend (Dis)placed: Indigenous Youth and the
to R.M. Berns, Child, Family, School, Community: Child Welfare System, a 2016 documentary directed by
Socialization and Support, 10th ed. (Belmont, CA: Melisa Brittain. Go to http://www.kingcripproductions
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2016). .com/displaced.html.
2. To learn more about self-identification, categoriza- 4. For downloadable parenting resources, visit the
tion of others, and communal identity, we recom- Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs
mend R. Jenkins, Social Identity, 4th ed. (New York, at http:www.parentsmatter.ca.
NY: Routledge, 2014).

For Further Reflection

1. Do you have a virtual self? What sorts of informa- 3. Would the diagnosis of a terminal illness such as
tion could a stranger obtain about you from Internet cancer be considered a master status? Explain your
searches? answer.
2. Which agent of socialization do you consider the 4. Does your university or college fit Weber’s notion of
most influential? an ideal bureaucracy? Why or why not?

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved March 26, 2017, from thinkexist.com.

NEL Chapter 4 Socialization: The Self and Social Identity 8 7

Social Inequality
in Canadian Society

“ ”
Prazis Images/Shutterstock

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.
(Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels,1848/2010, p.14)

NEL

Closed
Systems of Social inequality:
An unequal distribution of
Stratification resources.
In a closed system of strati- Social stratification:
fication, there is little or no Socially sanctioned
patterns (or classes) of
movement between social social inequality that exist
rankings. This means that in society and that are
someone located in a low based on distinguishable
attributes such as race,
social position will remain age, gender, income, or
in that position throughout occupation.
his or her life.

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 8 9

I AM NOT YOUR NEGRO

I Am Not Your Negro (2016), written by the late Baldwin started that outlined the deaths of his three
James Baldwin and directed by Raoul Peck, is an close friends: Medgar Evers, Malcolm X, and Martin
illuminating documentary that provides a historical Luther King, Jr. Although he never completed the
and personal account of social stratification based on book, it posthumously provides the foundation for
race in America. The film originated with a biography this film.

Slavery remained the “property” of their owners, who could

Slavery is the most extreme example of the lowest do with them as they wished. This is evident in the
possible position in a closed system of stratifica- Preamble to Chapter VII of the abolition bill, which
tion. Individuals classified as slaves are not consid- reads: “Whereas it is unjust that a people who enjoy
ered “citizens” of a nation; rather, they are owned by freedom by law should encourage the introduction of
others as property and have no legal rights and no slaves, and whereas it is highly expedient to abolish
means for accumulating wealth. Slavery is based in slavery in this province, so far as the same may grad-
economics but is historically associated with race, ually be done without violating private property”
involving the categorization of people based on per- (Nickalls, 1831, p. 41). Slavery was finally abolished
ceived ancestry and physical traits such as facial fea- throughout Canada in 1833 (Canadian Museum of
tures, skin colour, and hair texture. There was slavery History, 2017b).
in Canada for more than 200 years, which ensured Slavery has been illegal in Canada for almost two
that some groups of people would never acquire centuries, yet it still exists in a nonsanctioned but highly
sought-after resources (e.g., land and capital). Most lucrative form: human trafficking, mainly of women
slaves in Canada descended from Indigenous peoples, and children, who are bought and sold internationally,
including the Labrador Inuit and the Sioux around usually for the purpose of exploitation in the sex trade.
the Great Lakes. Before colonization, Indigenous Some of them are misled into believing they are going
groups would take enemy groups as “subjugated war to another country for legitimate full-time employment;
captives.” With the arrival of the French, Indigenous others, especially underage girls, are coerced into pros-
slaves were often offered up as “tokens of friendship” titution through force, confinement, isolation, and the
in political exchanges (Canadian Museum of History, withholding of identification documents (RCMP, 2014).
2017a). Under European colonization, Indigenous According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, around
slaves were also routinely kept by early settlers in
order to work the land or be traded for goods and ser-
vices. In addition to the slavery of Indigenous peo-
ples, other social groups were brought to Canada for
the purpose of slavery. Most of the slaves that were
brought into Canada in the 17th and 18th centuries
were of African descent and served as farm hands and
domestic servants. Between 1783 and 1865, after the
songpholt/Shutterstock

American Revolution, some American slaves fled to

Canada.
The Upper Canadian Act Against Slavery of 1793
freed slaves who entered Upper Canada (i.e., Ontario)
from the United States, the West Indies, and Africa.
Other jurisdictions followed suit. Former slaves Human trafficking in Canada is monitored by the Human
coming to Ontario as immigrants were thereafter Trafficking National Coordination Centre at RCMP
promised freedom, yet all existing slaves in Canada Headquarters in Ottawa.

9 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
45.8 million people in the world today are enmeshed Even though the state now prohibits discrimination
in “modern slavery”; the numbers are especially high based on the basis of caste, widespread violence in
in India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Uzbekistan. some regions along caste lines continues to reproduce
Modern slavery includes human trafficking as well as the subordination and exploitation of the lower castes
forced labour, servile marriage, and the sale or exploita- (Rai, 2009). And although the privileged nature of the
tion of children. hierarchical caste may be disavowed publicly, it tends
to be “assiduously maintained in private” (O’Hanlon,
2017, p. 438) and is passed on through a complex web
The Caste System of cultural, religious, and familial practices.
Another example of a closed system of stratification is
the caste system, which is based solely on inherited
social standing. People are born into social ranks that Open Systems of
remain fixed throughout their lives. Caste systems Stratification: The Class
have been identified in many parts of the world his-
torically and continue to exist today in countries such System
as India and Pakistan (Luce, 2007). The caste system Some forms of stratification, such as slavery and
in India has its origins in ancient Hinduism and con- caste systems, are closed. Others are open, in that it
sists of four hierarchical layers or strata that coin- is possible to move from one level to another. One
cide with historical occupations: the Brahmins (the such form is the class system, which is the dominant
upper caste, consisting of priests), the Kshatriyas (the system of stratification in the world today, including
second caste, consisting of warriors and kings), the in Canada. A social class is a group whose member-
Vaishyas (the third caste, consisting of merchants and ship is based on economic measures such as annual
traders), and the Shudras (the fourth caste, consisting income. In a class system of stratification, individ-
mainly of labourers) (Dirks, 2001). A fifth group, the uals are born into a social class, but unlike in a caste
Untouchables, is viewed as so lacking in standing system, it is possible for them to move into higher or
that its members are not even recognized in society lower classes over time based on effort and achieve-
(Jaffrelot, 2005). Untouchables are similar to slaves; ment, life stages, personal circumstances such as ill-
they lack rights and are predestined to carry out ness and disease, and broader societal conditions (e.g.,
unclean, often unpaid, tasks in society, such as cleaning an economic depression). Although some of these fac-
toilets and sweeping debris. As an author from the tors may be perceived as characteristic of individuals,
Kshatriyas caste put it, “The [Untouchable] sweeper various macro-level forces ensure that certain groups
is worse off than a slave, for the slave may change his of people are more apt to end up in the higher and
master and his duties and may even become free, but lower classes. The higher classes are better able to
the sweeper is bound forever, born into a state from access the opportunities that enhance life chances and
which he cannot escape and where he is excluded from overall quality of life.
social intercourse and the consolations of his religion.
Unclean himself, he pollutes others when he touches Caste system:
Social Mobility A hierarchical system of
them” (Anand, 1935, p. 6).
Caste reproduction serves to accentuate social in Canada stratification based on
inherited social standing.
inequality and persists because cultural practices, The movement within
Social class: Shared
norms, and beliefs reinforce the existing divisions. and between classes in membership in a group
For example, marriage occurs within castes; also, open systems of strati- based on economic
the higher castes are generally the only ones with the fication is referred to as standing.
resources necessary to acquire the education for better- social mobility. Vertical Class system: A
paying jobs and social advantages they pass on through mobility relates to move- hierarchical system of
family and community connections (O’Hanlon, 2017). ment up or down the stratification based on
achieved and ascribed
Religious beliefs also play an important role in main- social ladder, whereas economic measures such
taining the caste system; for example, it is believed horizontal mobility as annual income or the
that deeds in a past life account for the occupation/ relates to changes within possession of resources.
caste in the present one. Governments have attempted the same social location Social mobility:
to raise up the lowest castes—for example, by allowing (e.g., moving from one Movement that occurs
within and between social
a small percentage of those in the lowest groups to job to another with a sim- classes in a stratification
attend school. But given the sheer number of impover- ilar income and level of system.
ished people in India, these efforts have helped little. authority).

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 9 1

Intragenerational mobility refers to changes in a son whose father is a welder is more likely to also
social class that occur within a person’s lifetime. Most secure a position in the trades (although it may be
university students have incomes that place them in of higher rank and pay) and less likely to become a
the low class (i.e., you work, if at all, for a low wage physician. Occupation is often used as a measure
and probably only part-time). After obtaining a degree, of social class because it is closely tied to the other
you are likely to secure a full-time position with a relevant indicators (e.g., income and education).
modest annual salary that moves you into the lower Socioeconomic status refers to social standing based
end of the middle class; this demonstrates intragenera- on a combined measure of education, income, and
tional mobility. As your skills and qualifications grow occupation. Educational attainment is the most influ-
with experience, you may obtain more senior positions ential contributor to socioeconomic status because it
within your field, along with corresponding increases is a prerequisite for many qualifications-based occupa-
in salary and shifts in your class status. At times, these tions and is strongly associated with income. Although
shifts may result in a large-scale change in class status mobility patterns tend to be stable across generations,
(e.g., from middle class to upper class); however, with greater educational attainment, sons and daugh-
changes in occupational ters may be able to secure higher class positions than
status most often occur their parents. Intergenerational mobility refers to
Intragenerational within existing social changes in the social class of children relative to their
mobility: Changes in
social class that occur
classes (e.g., from lower parents. Intergenerational mobility is a good indicator
within a person’s lifetime. middle class to mid- of equality because it demonstrates that social posi-
middle class). tion can be achieved through individual merit.
Socioeconomic
status: Social standing Patterns of social Chen, Ostrovsky, and Piraino’s (2016) analysis
based on a combined mobility tend to be of Canadian mobility based on earnings and income
measure of education, stable across generations comparisons between fathers and their children at
income, and occupation.
(Wanner, 2004). This is similar points in middle age showed a weaker inter-
Intergenerational especially evident when generational transmission for daughters compared
mobility: Changes in we compare the occupa- to sons and greater earnings persistence for males
the social class of children
relative to their parents. tional status of fathers with high-income earning fathers, who pass on a sig-
and sons. For example, nificant advantage to their offspring. Where social

9 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

BLAMING THE POOR FOR THEIR PLIGHT

Blaming the poor for their social standing often stated: “Is it my job to feed my neighbour’s child? I
reflects a lack of understanding about the life chances don’t think so” (Norman, 2013).
that emerge from patterns of social stratification and
Think Outside the Box: In what way might Moore’s
social mobility. In response to a question posed by a
own social standing influence his beliefs about pov-
reporter who wished to know if the federal govern-
erty and even hinder attempts to end child poverty in
ment was going to do anything to end child poverty in
Canada?
the near future, then Industry Minister James Moore

mobility did occur, it was greatest for sons of low- LO2 WEALTH AS A MEASURE
earning fathers. The earning potential of women is
less pronounced, in part because they tend to leave OF SOCIAL CLASS
the labour market at various intervals in relation to
childbearing. Moreover, women with higher incomes To gauge social inequality and discern distinct classes
may marry individuals with comparable standing and in Canada, it is most useful to examine economic meas-
then opt to work less in the paid sector (Chen et al., ures such as financial wealth and poverty. Financial
2016). Overall, patterns of social mobility in Canada wealth corresponds to economic assets derived from
are fairly stable over time and are subject to only income, real estate, savings, income-generating invest-
modest increases owing to changes in education and ments (such as stocks and bonds), and other sources of
occupation from one generation to the next. These revenue or capital. The most common measure of finan-
opportunities are both enabled and constrained by cial wealth is income from employment. Information on
social forces, including family background, the social Canadians’ income is drawn from Revenue Canada tax
definitions attached to ascribed traits (e.g., gender, returns and Statistics Canada surveys about economic
ethnicity), and structural factors (e.g., shifts in popu- assets. The median after-tax yearly income in Canada
lation demographics) (see Critical Thinking in Action). for economic families (i.e., groups of two or more) and
A closer look at the nature and structure of Canada’s persons not in an economic family (e.g., individuals
class system, especially its relationship to wealth and who live alone or with others they are unrelated to,
net worth, reveals more about how social inequality is such as renters) was $55,600 in 2014 (Statistics Canada,
maintained in open systems of stratification. 2016a). Median is an indicator of the middlemost value,
meaning that half of the population has an income above
that amount and the other half have an income below it.
This is a good indicator of what “middle class” means
TIME TO REVIEW
by Canadian standards. By lining up all of the after-tax
• What is the term for socially sanctioned incomes for Canadian economic families and persons
patterns of social inequality? not in an economic family
from lowest to highest and Financial wealth:
• In what ways has slavery existed in then partitioning them Corresponds to economic
Canada? into 10 equal groups, each assets derived from
income, real estate,
• How can a caste system be differentiated containing 10 percent of savings, stocks, bonds,
from a class system of stratification? the population (called income-generating
deciles), we can see how investments, and other
• What contributes to social mobility in sources of revenue or
Canada? income denotes class capital.
structure (see Table 5.1).

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 9 3

Second $26,600 $21,800 3.2 percent Low

Third $35,500 $31,100 4.6 percent Low

Fourth $44,700 $40,200 5.9 percent Lower-Middle

Fifth $55,600 $50,000 7.4 percent Middle

Sixth $67,100 $61,300 9.0 percent Middle

Seventh $82,000 $74,300 10.9 percent Upper-Middle

Eighth $100,900 $90,900 13.4 percent High

Ninth $131,500 $114,400 16.8 percent High

Highest — $186,500 27.4 percent Ultra-rich

Source: Adapted from: Statistics Canada. (2016e). Upper income limit, income share and average market, total and after-tax income by economic family type and
income decile, Canada and provinces. CANSIM Table 206-0031.

LO3 Canada’s Income-Based average income of more than 9.5 million, or 193 times
the national average wage (MacKenzie, 2017).
Class Structure The ultra-rich include people born into the wealth-
iest families. That said, most of Canada’s ultra-rich are
High Class self-made millionaires, including Mark Scheinberg, who
Starting at the top, the highest 30 percent of income founded the online gambling site PokerStars, and Susan
earners in Canada can be considered “the high class” Niczowski, whose Summer Fresh Salads business earns
or the “well-off.” Note that although the deciles are more than $100 million annually (Basa, 2016; Harris,
defined on the basis of economic family types, indi- 2013). Outside of the ultra-rich “outliers,” the high
viduals who hold particular income-generating jobs class in Canada includes families headed by the CEOs
and/or have income-producing investments either sin- of large corporations, university-educated individuals
gularly or jointly with spouses produce these incomes. employed in the professions (e.g., engineers, physicians,
Those in the top deciles earn well over a $100,000 a and lawyers), individuals with industry certifications in
year after taxes (Statistics Canada, 2016e). This group the trades (e.g., welders, electricians, and heavy-duty
is only 30 percent of the population, yet their earnings mechanics), professional athletes, and the self-employed
constitute 57.6 percent of the total income reported— (e.g., business owners and executives). Families in the
a disproportionate share of Canada’s overall wealth. high class tend to have salaried positions with benefits
Those in the high classes can afford large homes in (e.g., pensions and paid sick leave) as well as high levels
“good” neighbourhoods, purchase luxury vehicles, of job security. With the exception of the high-paying
take regular vacations to exotic destinations, and trades, occupations in this class are regularly rated as
manage the costs associated with sending their chil- high in prestige (Marger, 2014); also, they include a
dren to top-tier universities. At the very top of the high level of autonomy as well as considerable power
deciles is an extremely small group consisting of less and authority over others (Hodson & Sullivan, 2012).
than 1 percent of the population, who make up the
“ultra-rich,” or what Gilbert (2015) calls the “capitalist
class.” Families in the ultra-rich or capitalist class are The Middle Classes
assured social reproduction because their incomes rise Most Canadians perceive themselves as “middle class.”
more quickly than those of other Canadians. Canada’s Taken as a whole, the middle class has incomes ranging
top-paid CEOs hit an all-time high in 2015, earning an from about $40,200 to $74,300. Canada’s middle classes

9 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
include families with semiprofessionals and managers income (i.e., $100,750) (Statistics Canada, 2016c)
who have at least a four-year university or college degree as well as the most pronounced gap between those
(e.g., teachers, social workers, and police officers), as who are wealthy and those who are poor. Since 2011,
well as those in nonretail sales (e.g., insurance repre- Alberta has also experienced the greatest growth in
sentatives) and families headed by people who work in inequality largely attributable to the top 10 percent
the trades (e.g., pipefitters and machinists). The middle of earners (Flanagan, 2015). Comparably, there is
class also includes individuals with a high school less social inequality but a much lower median family
diploma who are employed in lower-paid “semiskilled” income in New Brunswick ($69,290), Nova Scotia
positions more commonly held by males (historically ($72,270), and Prince Edward Island ($72,380)
known as “blue collar” jobs) in areas such as trucking (Statistics Canada, 2016c), where a greater overall
or manufacturing, administration, or retail sales. percentage of the population is less well off. With the
Perhaps you have read in the papers something demise of the fishing and mining sectors over the past
about a “shrinking middle class.” That term refers to several decades, many workers left the Atlantic region
the growing income inequality in Canada (and in many to secure gainful employment in other provinces—for
other parts of the world); that is, incomes are becoming example, in Alberta, where high-paying jobs in con-
more polarized. Middle-class incomes are shrinking as struction, trades, and energy were plentiful prior to
a result of the loss of many full-time jobs in areas such the drop in oil prices. Figure 5.1 shows the regional
as construction and manufacturing, the creation of variations in family income in Canada by province
low-paying jobs in the service industry, and corporate and territory for 2014.
“downsizing,” “outsourcing,” and “part-timing” (Kerbo, Annual earnings also reflect regional differences
2012). This trend is even common in the upper-middle in employment rates and opportunities as well as in
range; many academics are now part-time instructors the cost of living—that is, average prices for essen-
who are paid an hourly wage on a term-by-term basis, tial goods and services such as food, housing, trans-
with little job security and minimal benefits. portation, and health care. In Nunavut, Yukon, and
the Northwest Territories, the cost of living is higher
The Low Class: Poor because commodities need to be flown in, which drives
up their prices (see Figure 5.2). In addition, because a
In the lowest deciles, we find the bottom 30 percent of
small population resides on a vast land mass with an
the population, who earn less than $35,500 (Statistics
extreme climate, communication and transportation
Canada, 2016e). The low class includes families headed
infrastructure is expensive to build and maintain. To
by those who have some high school education and
offset the disadvantages and to attract workers to the
hold the lowest paying jobs in the labour force, earning
region, employers sometimes offer wage bonuses or
minimum wage or slightly more, as well as various indi-
higher-than-average wages (especially in the mining
viduals who live alone or with other unattached per-
and health sectors of Yukon and the Northwest
sons. This class is sometimes referred to as the “working
Territories). Also, the federal government allows a
poor” (Gilbert, 2015). The occupations of the working
northern residency tax deduction (Canada Revenue
poor are often referred to as “unskilled labour.” Unskilled
Agency, 2017). This helps attract workers to these
labour includes physically demanding jobs and ones
areas but does little to improve conditions for resi-
that require little or no previous experience (e.g., land-
dents who have no industry benefits. Consequently,
scape labourer, construction labourer, fast-food server,
there is a higher level of poverty and a lower median
and telemarketer). There is little or no social mobility
income in places such as Nunavut.
among unskilled workers (Hodson & Sullivan, 2012).
The low class also includes Canada’s impoverished—a
group that is extremely poor, relatively uneducated, and
often unemployed or employed only part-time. Net Worth
In every province and territory, families span the
social classes. However, income also varies consider- and Class Cost of living: A
measure of the average
ably both within and between Canada’s cities, prov- Structure price for essential
goods and services in
inces, and territories. a given area, including
A second financial
transportation.
measure for gauging
Regional Income Distribution social inequality is net Net worth: Total assets
calculated by subtracting
High median family incomes do not reflect the worth, which refers to the
all existing financial
absence of social inequality. In fact, the opposite is dollar value of all finan- liabilities from assets.
true. Alberta, for example, has a high median family cial assets after liabilities

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 9 5

Atlantic
Ocean

Yukon
98,540
Northwest
Nunavut
Territories
65,190
112,400
Newfoundland and
Labrador
77,040
Hudson
Pacific Bay
British
Ocean Columbia Alberta
76,770 100,750 Saskat-
Manitoba Quebec
chewan
74,790 73,870
85,710
New Brunswick 69,290
Ontario Prince
78,790 Edward
Island
72,380
Ottawa Nova Scotia
72,270

Source: Adapted from: Statistics Canada. (2016c). Median total income, by family type, by province and territory (all census families). CANSIM Table 111-0009.

are subtracted. Net worth is calculated by subtracting mortgage ($357,400), families whose major income
all existing financial debts (e.g., mortgages and loans) earner had a university degree ($198,500), families
from assets (e.g., savings, home equity, and invest- with a major income earner ($190,300), and couples
ments). In 1999, the median net worth of Canadian without children ($185,000) (Uppal & LaRochelle-
families was $225,400, whereas the median debt Côté, 2015).
was $36,700. By 2012, median net worth had risen Net worth increases as income goes up because
to $405,200, but debt had also climbed to $60,100 those in the higher classes have access to a broader
(Uppal & LaRochelle-Côté, 2015). More than 35 per- range of earning opportunities, such as private invest-
cent of Canadian families have a debt that is at least ments and employer pensions, whereas the smaller
twice the level of their annual after-tax income. Those percentage of those in the lower classes who see gains
most likely to incur debt are younger families, families in net worth only do so through increases in real-
whose major income earner has a university educa- estate investments (Uppal & LaRochelle-Côté, 2015).
tion, couples with children, and families in the top According to Oxfam Canada’s (2017) latest research,
20 percent of earners. Net worth increases more for the Thomson family and the Weston family together
certain family types than for others. Between 1999 have as much wealth as 30 percent of all Canadians
and 2012, the greatest gains in net worth were for top- combined. Refer to Table 5.2 for a list of Canada’s 10
earning families ($472,700), home owners without a richest families by net worth.

9 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

© Schwadron, H, hsc1423, Cartoonstock.com

cherries/Shutterstock
low-income cutoff as an indicator of poverty. This tool
marks a threshold below which families assuredly
experience financial difficulties.
Nunavut average price compared to Canada’s average
retail price shown in brackets
1 L fresh milk (2%) 5$3.63 (2.30) LO4 Measuring Poverty:
450 g butter, salted 5$7.26 (3.28) Low-Income Cutoff
1 kg celery 5$12.44 (3.38) The low-income cutoff (LICO) refers to an annual
1 kg carrots 5$6.90 (2.25) family income value in dollars below which a family is
4.54 kg potatoes 5$12.86 (5.84)
considerably worse off than the “average” family due
to the high proportion of income allocated to food,
450 g soda crackers 5$7.43 (3.02) clothing, and shelter. Families at the LICO spend a
500 g peanut butter, smooth 5$6.16 (3.68) greater proportion of their income (i.e., about 63 per-
1.36 L apple juice 5$8.95 (2.12)
cent) on these basic necessities relative to the average
family, which spends about 20 percent less (i.e., 43 per-
1 L tomato ketchup 5$9.09 (3.61) cent) (Statistics Canada, 2015b). For example, imagine
2.5 kg flour, all purpose, white 5$13.70 (5.00) that a lone parent named Joe earns $1,920 a month
2 kg sugar, white 5$9.65 (2.69)
based on $12.00 per hour working full-time to support
himself and his son. If Joe spends $750 on rent, $300
on food, and $100 on clothing, he will not be below
Sources: Nunavut Bureau of Statistics, 2016 Nunavut Food Price Survey,
Comparison of Nunavut & Canada CPI Food Price Basket Items. Found at:
LICO because the basic needs for his family constitute
http://www.stats.gov.nu.ca. about 60 percent of his regular earnings. However, Joe
also has to pay at least 10.77 percent of his income
as federal taxes, which reduces his earnings by $207
Poverty and Class per month. This means that Joe is “poor” (i.e., below
LICO) because 71 percent of his “available” income
Structure is allocated to the basic necessities. See Sociology in
A final way to gauge social inequality is to focus on My Life to determine
the opposite end of the spectrum by estimating the how you fare in com-
number of people in society who lack wealth. One parison. An after-tax Low-income cutoff:
An annual family income
challenge in determining how many poor there are in LICO is commonly used value in dollars below
Canada is how to measure poverty consistently. The because it provides the which a family is worse off
federal and provincial governments have yet to reach most accurate reflection than average due to the
high proportion of income
a consensus about what it means to “be poor.” In the of accessible income. This allocated to food, clothing,
absence of such a definition, most researchers, aca- example is based on Joe’s and shelter.
demics, and social analysts rely on Statistics Canada’s after-tax yearly income

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 9 7

Food, groceries, real George Weston Ltd., Loblaw

2 Galen Weston 13.22 Toronto
estate, retail Cos. Ltd., Holt Renfrew

3 Saputo Family 10.61 Montreal Dairy Saputo, TransForce

Cable TV,
4 Rogers Family 9.13 Toronto communications, Rogers Communications Inc.
professional sports

Transportation, social
5 Garrett Camp 8.93 San Francisco Uber, StumbleUpon
media

6 Joseph Tsai 8.27 Hong Kong E-commerce Alibaba

Oil, gas stations, forestry

7 Irving Family 7.65 Saint John products, media, Irving Oil Ltd., J.D. Irving, Ltd.
transportation

8 Paul Desmarais Sr. 6.71 Montreal Financial services, energy Power Corporation of Canada

9 Richardson Family 5.95 Winnipeg Wealth management James Richardson & Sons, Ltd.

Auto sales, food, media,

Overwaitea supermarket
forestry products,
10 James (Jimmy) Pattison 5.74 Vancouver group, Save-On-Foods, Ocean
entertainment, export
Brands seafood
services
Source: Adapted from Canadian Business, “Canada’s 100 Wealthiest People, 2017.” Found at: http://www.canadianbusiness.com. Used with permission of
Rogers Media Inc. All rights reserved.

of $20,556 (or $1,713 per month). After covering also include other necessary expenditures, such as
basic needs, Joe only has $563 each month to divide costs associated with operating a household, raising
across all remaining expenses, including transporta- children, obtaining health care, taking care of personal
tion, personal care, and child care, suggesting that
he would struggle to pay his bills at $12.00 per hour.
The minimum Canadian hourly wage currently ranges
from $10.72 to $13.60, moving to a high of $15.00 for
Fred Lum/The Globe and Mail/The Canadian Press

Alberta in 2018 (Government of Canada, 2017a).

Statistics Canada calculates multiple LICOs,
adjusting for family and community size. As shown in
Figure 5.3, an average after-tax LICO for a two-, four-,
and six-person Canadian family in 2017 was $30,625,
$45,712, and $58,473, respectively (Government of
Canada, 2017b). The LICO is criticized for not taking
into account regional differences in costs of living, and
as an estimate of poverty, the LICO is also conserva-
tive in that it fails to take into account much of what
Canadians actually pay for on a regular basis. Living
expenses include shelter, food, and clothing, but they More than 850,000 Canadians visit a food bank every month.

9 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

70,000

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0
1-person 2-person 3-person 4-person 5-person 6-person 7-person

Source: Government of Canada (2017b)

needs, getting an education, acquiring personal insur- low incomes in the larger urban areas of Vancouver,
ance, and using transportation. Toronto, and Metropolitan Montreal (Federation of
Statistics Canada computes two other measures Canadian Municipalities, 2010).
of low incomes: the Low-Income Measure (LIM) and
the Market Basket Measure (MBM). The LIM, used for
international comparisons, is based on incomes less LO5 Who Are Canada’s Poor?
than 50 percent of the national median adjusted for For most Canadians, low income is a temporary state.
family size. The MBM is based on an actual cost of Younger individuals tend to earn low wages when they
purchasing a needed “basket” of goods and services first enter the workforce, but their wages increase over
(e.g., nutritional food, shelter, clothing and footwear, time with experience. Similarly, employed individuals
necessary personal items, and transportation) across of all ages may experience a short-term drop in income
the country (Statistics Canada, 2015a). Although the during an economic downturn, particularly when
2016 Statistics Canada Census data on income have there are widespread layoffs, but their incomes tend
yet to be released, based on the LIM, 13 percent of to bounce back once circumstances improve. Certain
the population was classified as “low income” in 2014 groups of people, however, remain at high risk for “per-
compared to 8.8 percent using the LICO and 11.3 persistent” low-income states, including single, unattached
cent with the MBM (Statistics Canada, 2016b). As individuals, people with physical and mental disabili-
with regional variations in family income, there is ties, visible minorities who are recent immigrants, and
disparity in poverty across Canadian cities and prov- individuals living in households headed by a lone parent
inces, with the largest concentrations of families with (Lamman & MacIntyre, 2016) (see Figure 5.4). The same

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

ARE YOU ABOVE LICO?

Make a list of all of your “typical” monthly clothing, and shelter? Does this put you above, at,
expenses. Comparing your expenses to your monthly or below LICO?
income, what proportion of your available money Think Outside the Box: Is the LICO an accurate
is spent on the three basic needs: food, essential reflection of poverty? Why or why not?

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 9 9

40%

35%
30.2%
30%

25% 22.5% 23.7%

20.3%
20% 18.7%

15%

10% 8.8%

0%
All people Indigenous Recent People with Single Unattached
people off immigrants disabilities parents people 45–64
reserve (2012 data)

Source: Statistics Canada, custom tabulation based on Canadian Income Survey, 2014. Data for people with disabilities are only available for 2012.

groups (not counting children) are also at greater risk in Canada live in low-income families, with an inci-
for unemployment, and poor people with jobs are more dence of 44.9 percent for children who live in female-
likely to have nonstandard work arrangements, such as headed lone-parent families (Statistics Canada,
temporary, part-time, or self-employment (Hay, 2009). 2016d). Imagine trying to manage the additional
Poverty is also linked to the intersectionality of cost of child care if you were a single mother living
age, gender, and race. That is, individuals who occupy in Toronto, where it costs an average of $1,649 per
any of the categories listed above and are children, month to put your infant in daycare (Macdonald &
females, or Indigenous peoples are especially prone to Friendly, 2016). The intersectionality of risk charac-
poverty. Females in many groups (e.g., those 18 to 64, teristics is especially evident in the case of Indigenous
and especially women who are lone parents) experi- children, more than half of whom (51 percent living
ence a higher-than-average risk known as the femini- off reserves and 60 percent on reserves) live in a state
zation of poverty. Around 14.7 percent of all children of persistent poverty (Macdonald & Wilson, 2016).

SOCIOLOGY ONLINE

MAKING WOMEN COUNT

The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives is an inde- inequality, including information on how women
pendent, member-based research institute that works continue to bear much of the burden for unpaid and
on various projects of interest to Canadians (e.g., undervalued work. Find out why Victoria is considered
climate change, economic security, and seniors care). the best and Windsor is considered the worst place
A current focus is Making Women Count, which high- to live as a woman in Canada based on indicators of
lights how gender inequality impacts the economy, economic security, education, health, leadership, and
politics, and well-being of Canadians. Here you can personal security by accessing Making Women Count
find publications and news releases about gender at https://www.policyalternatives.ca.

1 0 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Negative Consequences Health, Hardships, Homelessness,
of Social Inequality and Poverty
Many Canadians living in poverty live from paycheque
Education and Poverty to paycheque and must forgo certain health care prac-
Children born into poverty are further disadvantaged tices because they lack the means to cover plans that pay
once they enter the school system. Recall that the for prescription medicines, vision care, or supplemental
greatest portion of poor children in Canada are those provisions (e.g., chiropractic treatment, orthotics). The
living on reserves. Chronic underfunding by the fed- poor often resort to using high-interest financial services,
eral government for students on reserves (compared or “predatory lending,” wherein they obtain payday
to those off reserves, which have provincially run loans for basic necessities, including food, and are sub-
systems) has led to substandard levels of schooling sequently charged as much as 500 percent in annualized
and educational opportunities on many First Nation interest rates (Fantauzzi, 2016). The poor also often go
reserves (e.g., a lack of supplies, library books, and hungry and suffer malnutrition because they do not have
no access to extracurricular activities) (Laboucane, enough money to regularly purchase groceries, which
2010; Macdonald & Wilson, 2016). Although off- limits their access to nutritious foods. Lack of regular
reserve schooling is publicly funded through Grade access to nutritious foods also poses long-term health
12, many costs are offloaded onto school boards. implications, including the prevalence of higher rates
Parents are tasked with raising funds to supplement of diabetes, heart problems, hypertension, and cancer
library resources, classroom resources, computer (Phipps, 2003). The chapter on health and illness pro-
equipment, field trips, and playground equipment. vides a more detailed discussion of the links between
Wealthier parents have more resources to contribute socioeconomic status and health.
in the form of financial donations, fundraising pur- The most extreme hardship associated with pov-
chases, and unpaid volunteer efforts. Families living erty is homelessness. A recent report called The State
in poverty are less able to participate in fundraising of Homelessness in Canada indicates that as many as
programs and are less able to utilize many enrich- 235,000 Canadians are currently without a home
ment activities, such as school field trips, band (Gaetz et al., 2016). Homelessness can be succinctly
equipment rentals, organized sports, and hot lunch defined as a state in which a person is unable to secure
programs. Those who are impoverished tend to do a permanent residence. However, there is much more
less well in school, and this creates a cycle of pov- to this state, as evidenced by the definition provided by
erty because those who do poorly in school are more the Canadian Homelessness Research Network (2012):
likely to drop out and are more likely to end up being
Homelessness describes the situation of an
poor as adults.
individual or family without stable, perma-
Educational attainment is a significant determi-
nent, appropriate housing, or the immediate
nant of future employment. In 2016, about 85 percent
prospect, means and ability of acquiring it. It
of Canadians between the ages of 25 and 44 who had
is the result of systemic or societal barriers,
a postsecondary degree were employed, compared to
a lack of affordable and appropriate housing,
75 percent with a high school diploma and 48.5 per-
the individual/household’s financial, mental,
cent with less than Grade 9 (Statistics Canada, 2017b).
cognitive, behavioural or physical challenges,
Similarly, educational attainment is an important con-
and/or racism and discrimination. Most
tributor to future earnings. Individuals who complete
people do not choose to be homeless, and the
high school even without continuing on to postsec-
experience is generally negative, unpleasant,
ondary earn significantly more than those without a
stressful and distressing.
Grade 12 diploma (Frenette, 2014), and those with
successively higher levels of education (e.g., a grad- Homelessness describes a range of housing
uate degree versus an undergraduate degree) earn cor- and shelter circumstances, with people being
respondingly higher incomes. A TD economics study without any shelter
found that it costs about $84,000 to obtain an under- at one end, and being
graduate degree in Canada (including tuition, books, insecurely housed Homelessness: A state
in which a person is unable
and living expenses), but a recent graduate can only at the other. That is, to secure a permanent
expect to earn between $35,000 and $43,000 (Deveau, homelessness encom- residence.
2013). passes a range of

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 1 0 1

Water Insecurity and Indigenous Communities

On June 7, 2016, Human Rights Watch released a 92-
page report titled “Make it Safe: Canada’s Obligation to
End the First Nations Water Crisis” about water insecurity
in Indigenous communities (Klasing, 2016). Although
water shortages and a lack of safe drinking water are
often considered to be global issues faced by impover-
ished and developing countries such as those found in
Africa and Western Asia, a sizeable portion of Indigenous

skhunda/Shutterstock
people in Canada currently live in communities without
any running water or flush toilets. Compared to Canada
as a whole, Indigenous homes are 90 times more likely
to lack running water (UN Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, 2009, p. 25).
And although most Indigenous communities in Thousands of Indigenous peoples living on reserves in
Canada have access to running water, it is not always Canada lack access to running water in their homes.
safe for drinking. As of March 31, 2017, there were 137
Indigenous communities under a drinking water advi-
sory (Health Canada, 2017). More than half of these and Northern Affairs Canada, which receives funding
communities are deemed “high risk” and have been for water services; Health Canada, which regulates the
under advisory for many years owing to major deficien- safety of drinking water; and Environment Canada,
cies in available water sources and/or in waste manage- which plays a role in the regulation of wastewater.
ment systems. Even communities with new treatment Indigenous communities are responsible for the water
plants are not guaranteed access to safe drinking water, systems themselves and for the monitoring of drinking
as evidenced by the long-term advisory for the Serpent water quality, along with some of the costs incurred
River First Nation in Ontario (McClearn, 2017). (Simeone, 2010). The largest obstacles to progress are
Several structural issues have contributed to the funding, infrastructure, and the availability of trained
slow progress Canada has made toward remedying operators. The Liberal government vowed to improve
water problems on reserves. Water and waste water conditions for Indigenous Canadians and has com-
management for Canadians is overseen by the provincial mitted 1.8 billion dollars toward addressing the ongoing
and territorial governments, whose regulations do not health and safety issues and ending long-term water
apply to Indigenous communities on reserves. Instead, advisories by 2021 (Indigenous and Northern Affairs
regulatory authority falls under the federal Indigenous Canada, 2017).

physical living situations, organized here in and/or housing situation is precarious or does
a typology that includes (1) Unsheltered, or not meet public health and safety standards.*
absolutely homeless and living on the streets
There is a range of homelessness in Canada, from
or in places not intended for human habita-
people living on the street, staying in emergency shel-
tion; (2) Emergency Sheltered, including
ters, or sleeping in vehicles to those staying “tempo-
those staying in overnight shelters for people
rarily” with friends and/or relatives. Note that even
who are homeless, as well as shelters for those
more Canadians (as many as 3 million households)
impacted by family violence; (3) Provisionally
live in “precarious” forms of housing (e.g., their cur-
Accommodated, referring to those whose
rent housing is unaffordable, below standards, and/or
accommodation is temporary or lacks secu-
overcrowded) (Canada Without Poverty, 2017).
rity of tenure, and finally, (4) At Risk of
Homelessness, referring to people who are *Canadian Observatory on Homelessness (2012), Canadian Definition of
not homeless, but whose current economic Homelessness. Found at http://www.homelesshub.ca.

1 0 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

over the past several decades, indicating that pov-

erty is a persistent and enduring characteristic of
Canadian society (Hay, 2009). A recession refers to
a general economic decline that persists for two or
more three-month periods. A recession is often iden-
tified by a drop in a country’s gross domestic product.
Gross domestic product (GDP) is an indicator of a
country’s economic productivity based on goods and
More than a million Canadians are at risk for homelessness. services as measured by household consumption,
government spending, and investments. Canada’s
Risk factors for homelessness can be identified GDP dropped 3.3 percent between the fall of 2008
at the micro and macro levels. The two main struc- and the summer of 2009 (CBC News, 2010). The
tural factors that increase the risk of homelessness are economy is one of the main structural factors leading
inadequate incomes and a lack of affordable housing to fluctuations in poverty rates because it represents
(Echenberg & Jensen, 2009). Individual-level factors changes in business cycles, which in turn correspond
include unemployment, divorce, substance abuse, and to employment rates, income levels, and the overall
mental illness (Canadian Mental Health Association, cost of living. Although Canada made its way out
2003). of the 2008–2009 recession, the economic plight
is ongoing. Record-low interest rates have made it
more attractive to borrow
TIME TO REVIEW and spend rather than
Recession: A general
save, and this is the main economic decline that
• What is financial wealth, and how is it reason many Canadians persists for two or more
measured in Canada? are now carrying substan- three-month periods.

• What do measures of financial wealth tial debt loads they may Gross domestic
tell us about social inequality? never be able to repay. product (GDP): An
From 2009 to the pre- overall indicator of a
• How is poverty estimated in Canada? country’s economic
sent, Canada’s economy productivity based on
• Who is at greatest risk for poverty in has seen only minimal goods and services as
Canada? growth due to the large measured by household
consumption, government
• What are the consequences of poverty? drop in commodity prices spending, and investments.
owing to the low price of

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

FOUR FEET UP
Written and directed by award-winning photographer in order to depict the experience of poverty through
Nance Ackerman and produced by Annette Clarke the eyes of an eight-year-old boy named Isaiah
(2009), Four Feet Up is a National Film Board docu- Jackson. For more information and a short clip from
mentary that takes a critical look at poverty in rural the film, visit the home page for the National Film
Canada. Ackerman spent two years with a rural family Board at https://www.nfb.ca.

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 1 0 3

your Sociological Toolkit

O
S CIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

POVERTY REDUCTION STRATEGIE

All provinces and territories in Canada have a poverty financial support to families with low to moderate
reduction strategy plan in place, with the exception incomes, school nutrition programs, after-school pro-
of British Columbia. Although each plan is somewhat grams, and programs for youth transitioning out of
unique, most plans centre on provisions for ending care programs once they reach adulthood (Province of
homelessness, reducing child poverty, increasing Ontario, 2017).
food security, improving health care and educa-
tion spending, and providing income security. For Think Outside the Box: If you lived in a remote com-
example, Ontario’s five-year plan includes initiatives munity in Nunavut, how might poverty look different
directed at reducing child poverty through direct from a smaller community in Ontario?

1 0 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
your Sociological Toolkit
and Friedrich Engels observed that people are essentially
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY cooperative by nature when attempting to secure basic
needs (i.e., food, shelter, and clothing). However, once
basic needs are met and a division of labour emerges in
LO7 WHY ARE THERE society, class struggles become apparent (Coser, 1977).
CLASSES IN SOCIETY? As production moves away from individuals to factories,
workers become exploited by capitalists, who pay the
Stratification Is Beneficial workers less than what they deserve for their efforts.
Functionalists point out that inequality exists in all soci-
eties, which suggests that it is inevitable and even neces- Marx’s Views on Stratification
sary. According to Davis and Moore (1945), stratification From a Marxist perspective, the materialistic nature of
is beneficial because it leads to m eritocracy, a condition a capitalist society, as rooted in the private ownership
of advancement based on worth derived from experience, of property and the generation of surplus, fosters com-
skills, and educational attainment. Social stratification is petition and creates a distinction between owners and
functional because it motivates people to achieve higher workers that leads to the emergence of social classes.
education and develop their skills to their potential for The economy is the central institution in society, and
success. It also ensures that the most capable people (i.e., this, like a master status, has a far-reaching impact
those with the highest intellect and the utmost abilities) on all the other sectors (e.g., religion and politics).
end up occupying the most important social positions Cultural values and practices, then, are more apt to
in society (e.g., those that require the greatest amount be considered by-products of capitalist dominance,
of skill, the longest period of training, and the highest as in the case of religion, which Marx (1843–1844)
intellect) (Brym, 2016). deemed “the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart
Poverty also persists because the poor carry out of a heartless world and the soul of soulless condi-
many functions that benefit those who are not poor. tions. It is the opium of the people” (Cowling et al.,
According to Herbert J. Gans (1971), every society has 1970, p. 127). According to Marx, although religion
low-paying, demeaning, and undesirable jobs; there- is beneficial in that it provides temporary relief to the
fore, poverty helps ensure that society’s “dirty work” masses, who are long sufferers of exploitation, it pri-
gets done. We see this today in the growing popula- marily serves to maintain the existing social order.
tion of unskilled temporary foreign workers in Canada Thus, social stratification, like religion, is a means
in a variety of areas, including agriculture, food pro- used by the most powerful to retain their position in the
cessing, hospitality, long-haul trucking, and live-in upper echelons of a society. From Marx’s perspective,
caregiving. Gans (1971) also pointed out how the poor stratification benefits the bourgeoisie (i.e., the owners
are especially likely to foster social mobility in groups of the means of production) and disadvantages those
just above them, noting that “members of almost every who work for the owners (i.e., the proletariat). Marx
immigrant group have financed their upward mobility used the term alienation to refer to the detachment that
by providing slum housing, entertainment, gambling, exists between the worker and his or her labour as per-
narcotics, etc., to later arrivals” (p. 23). The poor petuated under capitalism. Canada’s migrant workers
also serve as scapegoats for “laissez-faire” capitalism, are especially prone to exploitation and abuse by their
wherein to the extent that the poor can be painted as a employers due to their precarious status stemming from
“deprived population that is unwilling to work,” there a range of vulnerabilities, including language barriers,
is less political pressure to change the system or employ isolation, and overreliance on their employers to meet
measures to reduce poverty (Gans, 1971, p. 23). basic needs (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2016).
For Marx, workers are alienated from productive
Stratification Is a activity (because they do not work for themselves),
from the product (because
By-product of Capitalism it belongs to the bour- Meritocracy: A
Most theoretical models used to describe how social geoisie), from their fellow condition of advancement
classes originate or why they persist have foundations workers (especially when based on worth.
in the conflict perspective, given that the very notion of they are forced into com- Alienation: The
classes necessarily implies inequity in terms of resources petition with one another), detachment that exists
between the worker and his
and power. The epigraph to this chapter suggests that a and from their own human or her labour as perpetuated
class-based system of stratification is inevitable. In the potential (they have been under capitalism.
Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848/2010), Karl Marx reduced to something akin

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 1 0 5

translate into high salaries (wealth). In addition, they

possess power in terms of the level of control over their
own work environment (which also relates to prestige),
and they have authority in relation to patients and cow-
orkers, such as nurses (which also illustrates power).
Whereas Marx emphasized the differences between two
classes based on those who owned the means of pro-
duction and those who worked for the owners, Weber
viewed class differences as based on differences of life-
style and interests afforded by similar social standing.

The Capitalist Class

Karl Marx (1818–1883). Some conflict theorists have focused exclusively on the
“ultra-rich” capitalist class in an effort to describe who
to machines) (Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2014). Marx saw the this group is, how it exerts influence, and how it main-
increasing alienation of workers as culminating in a tains its position of power in society; this focus has
revolution that would eventually overthrow the bour- come to be known as elite theory. Elite theory explains
geoisie and pave the way for communism. Communism power relationships in society as residing in a small
is a classless economic system in which there is group group that holds positions of authority in economic
(or communal) ownership of the means of production. and political structures. Weber’s contemporaries, soci-
ologists Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923), Gaetano Mosca
Weber’s Views on Stratification (1858–1941), and Robert Michels (1876–1936), wrote
Max Weber’s views on capitalism are quite different extensively about the same small group that possessed
from Marx’s. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of wealth and power, which they called the “governing
Capitalism (1904/1958), Weber emphasizes how the elite,” the “elite,” and/or the “ruling class.” Similarly,
emergence of rationality in the West coincided with C. Wright Mills (1956) wrote about “the power elite,”
the rising “spirit” of capitalism within Protestantism; a very cohesive group of top corporate officials from
both promoted ideas that emphasized the importance the government, military, and economic structures
of economic success, such as “time is money,” “be who share similar backgrounds and play a central
industrious,” “be punctual,” and “earning money is a role in decision making in the United States (Marger,
legitimate end in itself” (Ritzer, 1992, p. 150). Hence, 2014). John Porter (1921–1979), a highly influential
religion also contributes to the influence of capitalism. sociologist and economist, was the first to demon-
Although Weber also focused on economics, he did strate that Canadian society also consists of hierarchi-
not view the mode of production as necessarily the cally ranked social classes that are headed by what he
only key influence in society. Things such as religion termed the “corporate elite.” In The Vertical Mosaic:
(or even race) could also be significant contributors to An Analysis of Social Class and Power in Canada, Porter
social inequality between groups. In addition, instead (1965) explains how Canada can be divided into a
of discussing just two main groups in conflict with “vertical mosaic” of social classes based on measures
each other, Weber recognized a broader range of strata, of inequality (e.g., wealth and power) identified by
which he discussed in terms of status differences the early conflict theorists. In addition, membership
(rather than class differences). This is a very different in certain ethnic groups confers more or less status.
use of status than that described in Chapter 4; in this Specifically, those of British origin tend to fall into the
particular case, status does depict hierarchical ranking. highest social classes, where power and privilege are

1 0 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

HUMAN RIGHTS AND A NATIONAL STRATEGY

FOR POVERTY REDUCTION
Several years ago, Bill C-545, “An Act to Eliminate Canadians are deemed worthy of the right to food,
Poverty in Canada,” was introduced into the House water, and housing security. From this perspective,
of Commons. This bill recognized poverty as “the “the right to food means freedom from hunger and
condition of a human being who does not have the should be understood as the right to feed oneself
resources, means, choices, and power necessary to rather than to be fed” (Canada Without Poverty,
acquire and maintain economic self-reliance and to 2015). Human rights–based approaches are considered
facilitate their integration into and participation in to be more effective for breaking the intergenerational
society.” It described poverty in a context of human cycle of poverty compared to more temporary
rights, clearly delineated the negative outcomes of pov- measures (Smith-Carrier & Lawlor, 2017) because they
erty (e.g., on the health of individuals and on the eco- call for an investment in actual food security to enable
nomic and social development of society), and declared self-sufficient (and ongoing) access to affordable,
the elimination of poverty a federal government nutritional foods as opposed to the periodic use of
obligation (i.e., to develop and implement a strategy food banks. The Government of Canada is committed
that would strengthen the social and economic safety to developing a national strategy for poverty reduction
net, promote participation, respect human rights, and and is encouraging public discourse. To learn more
reflect the needs of local communities with specified about how you can participate, search “poverty
short- and long-term outcomes) (Bill C-545, 2010). reduction strategy” at http://www.canada.ca.
Although the act did not become law, various
proponents of poverty reduction (e.g., policymakers Think Outside the Box: From a human rights
and academics) have maintained this approach, seeing approach, what is one initiative you would recommend
poverty as a violation of human rights whereby all to the Government of Canada for reducing poverty?

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 1 0 7

Chapter Summary
LO1 Define social stratification and dif- LO3 Describe Canada’s class structure
ferentiate between caste and class and social mobility.
systems. Based on income, Canada’s class structure can be
Social stratification refers to sanctioned patterns of divided into low, middle, and high classes. Although
social inequality. Castes are closed systems that rank there is significant social mobility in Canada, much
groups based on inherited and relatively permanent of it occurs within classes and is largely based on
social standing. Class systems rank order groups on educational and occupational attainment.
the basis of economic measures, such as income,
and are more open, providing for horizontal and LO4 Critically assess the low-income
vertical social mobility. cutoff as an estimate of poverty.
The low-income cutoff is based on the proportion
LO2 Explain what social inequality looks of income spent on only three basic needs (i.e.,
like in Canada using measures of food, clothing, and shelter). Most Canadians pay
other essential costs associated with transportation,
wealth. child care, and household operation that are not
Social inequality refers to an unequal distribution addressed by the low-income cutoff, which suggests
of resources, including wealth, which is measured that the LICO is too conservative and therefore vastly
by income from employment and net worth. Social underestimates the number of poor Canadians.
inequality is most evident in the widening gap
between those with the most versus those with
the least amounts of wealth. For example, those in
LO5 Identify groups most at risk for pov-
the highest deciles earn a greater share of the
erty in Canada and discuss how pov-
overall income in Canada, are better able to save erty is linked to negative outcomes.
and invest, and have a disproportionately high Groups most at risk for poverty include children,
net worth. recent immigrants, lone-parent families (especially

1 0 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Recommended Resources
1. To learn more about modern slavery, we 3. To better appreciate how poverty affects the work-
recommend the Global Slavery Index 2016, ing poor, how Canada’s corporate elite benefit
published by the Walk Free Foundation and from political control and tax benefits, and how
available for download at https://www tax-funded social welfare practices in Ireland and
.globalslaveryindex.org. Sweden are used to eradicate poverty, we recom-
2. For a discussion of the underlying contributors to mend Babin and Deveaux’s (2008) award-winning
water insecurity for Indigenous peoples living on documentary Poor No More … There is a Way Out.
reserves in Canada, refer to Human Rights Watch’s 4. You can read and compare poverty progress profiles
(2016) report: Make it Safe: Canada’s Obligation to for 2016 on each of Canada’s provinces and territo-
End the First Nation Water Crisis, available at https:// ries by accessing Canada Without Poverty at http://
www.hrw.org. www.cwp-csp.ca.

For Further Reflection

1. Do you think Canada needs a national poverty 3. Provide examples of occupations in Canadian soci-
reduction strategy? Why or why not? What do ety that you feel best demonstrate how social strati-
you think should be the focal point of a national fication leads to meritocracy as predicted by Davis
strategy for ending world poverty? How does and Moore’s functionalist theory. Can you also think
this differ from measures that address poverty in of specific examples that can serve as exceptions to
Canada? this rule (e.g., important positions that are under-
2. Is the middle class shrinking in Canada? Consider paid or occupations that attract salaries that are not
why answers to this question rest on how “middle warranted by their respective skill levels or value to
class” is defined in Canada. society)?

NEL Chapter 5 Social Inequality in Canadian Society 1 0 9

Mass Media: Living in

the Electronic Age

“ ”
sibsky2016/Shutterstock

In a culture like ours, long accustomed to splitting and dividing all things as
a means of control, it is sometimes a bit of a shock to be reminded that, in
operational and practical fact, the medium is the message.
(Marshall McLuhan, 1964, p.7)

NEL

iStock/Thinkstock

Canadians are world leaders when it comes to Internet use.

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 1 1

a circulation of 6.8 million in 2013, and People, with

a readership of more than 45 million (Briscoe, 2016).
Print magazine sales have been steadily declining,
whereas digital copies, with much smaller markets,
have been increasing in popularity (Maloney, 2014).
*Margaret Atwood (born in Ottawa in 1939) is a highly acclaimed Canadian
author, poet, and feminist. She has written several award-winning novels, Canadian filmmaking produced the comedies Trailer Park
including Life Before Man (1979), The Handmaid’s Tale (1985), and Alias
Grace (1996), along with poetry collections, children’s books, short fiction,
Boys: The Big Dirty (2006), Countdown to Liquor Day
and nonfiction. Canadian Yann Martel (born in Salamanca, Spain, in 1963) (2009), Don’t Legalize It (2014), and SwearNet (2014).
won the 2002 Man Booker Prize for his novel Life of Pi (2001). The Trailer Park Boys series regularly airs on Netflix.

1 1 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 1 3

INSIDE RUSSIA’S CREEPY, INNOVATIVE INTERNET

Bloomberg’s (2016) Inside Russia’s Creepy, Innovative game platforms, and even social networks (similar to
Internet is an illuminating documentary produced by Facebook). In this manner, a very small group of people,
Bernadette Walker and directed by Grant Slater on inven- referred to as an oligarchy, are able to monitor and con-
tors of advanced technology and how that technology trol virtually all of the information individuals are exposed
is controlled in modern Russia. Russia is unique in that to. One app, called “Find Face,” can instantly recognize
it has its own Internet, search engines, email systems, any person simply from a photo taken on a cellphone.

The Internet Changes Stranger Things, Orange Is the New Black, and more.
The Internet has revolutionized how viewers consume
Everything media content, including videos, and has also brought
The seven traditional media are constantly changing with it new competitors, such as Amazon and TalkTalk
as a result of the growing influence of the Internet. TV, which are, in turn, producing and distributing
Books, newspapers, and magazines can be purchased that content in alignment with the changing needs of
(or accessed through electronic libraries) and read “on-demand” customers.
online. We still go to movies (albeit with the special The Internet has even led to the development of new
effects of IMAX, Panoramic, and UltraAVX 3D views) cryptocurrencies. Bitcoins were the first form of digital
and purchase DVDs in Blu-ray or Digital HD format. currency that could be mined on the Internet and later
Increasingly, though, we pay to view and stream movies exchanged for material goods (e.g., games and books)
from commercial Internet venues such as Netflix and services (e.g., transportation). The price of Bitcoin
Canada, which even enables us to view movies using
our game consoles or smartphones. People also illegally
download and stream movies for free from torrent sites.
Likewise, you don’t have to own a radio nowadays
to listen to music over a live broadcast. Thousands of
radio stations from around the world can be accessed
over the Internet, and millions of songs can be pur-
chased and downloaded from online businesses
such as iTunes. The music industry is at an all-time
high despite decreased sales in nearly all formats
(especially digital) as a result of on-demand audio
streaming. Drake’s Views album was the most con-
sumed in Canada in 2016, spending 12 weeks at #1
and setting a record for over 290 million streams (The
Nielsen Company, 2017). On-demand audio streams
are an example of how the Internet has changed tradi-
tional media and created new markets.
Christopher Morris/Getty Images

Netflix provides a second example. Now that

increased broadband access has created a viable resi-
dential market, Netflix expanded from being a dis-
tributor of TV and film
Bitcoins: A form of content to a producer as
digital currency mined well. The show House
on the Internet and later
exchanged for goods and
of Cards is exclusive to
services. Netflix, as are the new The world’s first Bitcoin ATM appeared in
seasons of Travelers, Waves coffee shop in downtown Vancouver.

1 1 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

YouTube: A Media Disruptor or Smartphones Take Over

a Force to Be Reckoned With? New media also include the latest electronic gadgets,
YouTube, founded in 2005, is the leading media outlet from games to gaming consoles (i.e., Nintendo’s
for public expression through its video-sharing plat- Switch, Sony’s PlayStation VR, and Microsoft’s Mixer
form. It is best understood as a “reach business,” in on Xbox One), digital audio/players (e.g., Apple iPod
that it enables users to expose themselves to a vast touch, Apple iPod nano, and Apple iPod shuffle), and,
number of visitors (Burgess & Green, 2009). Those of course, cellphones. Tomi T. Ahonen (2008), one
who access the site can find debates on a range of of the world’s experts on how money is made in the
topics from religion to politics; they can learn how mobile telecom industry, combines all types of print
to do things such as beat a level in a favourite video (i.e., newspapers, magazines, and books) into one
game or put up drywall; they can watch controversial main form of media; these, along with recordings,
sports and celebrity moments. All of this is uploaded
by individuals who have captured events on video.
Scenes from just about every major movie, concert,
video game, and TV series can be found on YouTube.
This has helped shape public perceptions of YouTube
as an acceptable platform for the widespread sharing
of illegally reproduced materials.

© Bucella, Marty, mbcn1090, www.cartoonstock.com

AP Photo/Lynne Sladky/CP Images

Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee's “Despacito” is the most

viewed video in YouTube history.

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 1 5

There’s an App for That

Uber-company Apple changed the media world by cre-
ating Web-based applications (apps) for its wireless
devices (iPhones, iPads, and some iPods). Apps allow
Will augmented reality prove to be the next new best thing? mobile users to obtain the functional benefits of tra-
ditional forms of media with the ease of accessibility,
radio, cinema, TV, and the Internet, comprise what anywhere and at any time. You can now do so many
he calls the six “old” forms of mass media. Due to things with apps and spend so much time using them
the increasing prevalence and unique capabilities that this is raising concerns that electronically medi-
of smartphones produced by leaders such as Apple ated communication may cause people to stop inter-
and Samsung, Ahonen argues that mobile deserves a acting in real life. According to Sherry Turkle (2011),
separate distinction as the seventh mass media. For a psychologist and expert on mediated culture, we are
example, he points out that mobile offers a digital inter- now connected to more people than ever before, but
face to the real world and enables augmented reality we tend to maintain relationships with those people
(Ahonen, 2013). Moreover, he notes how mobile has using the Internet as an intermediary (e.g., we are
superseded traditional forms of media in numbers more likely to send an email than encroach on our
(e.g., mobile subscriptions exceed newspaper circula- “real time” with a phone call or an in-person visit).
tions) and value (i.e., the mobile market is estimated Also, we opt for the company of our personal online
at $407 billion annually). He even suggests that it is network over that of the strangers around us—a phe-
now in a position to “cannibalize” the other six forms, nomenon she refers to as being “alone together” in
including the Internet (Ahonen, 2017b). public spaces. Because we have ongoing and relatively
More recently, Ahonen considers augmented permanent access to the Internet, infinite sources of
reality to be the eighth mass media. Not to be con- information are with us at all times. This continual
fused with virtual reality (computer technology that
creates realistic images using specialized headgear),
augmented reality (AR) is “an enhanced version of
reality created by the use of technology to overlay
digital information on an image of something being
viewed through a device (such as a smartphone
camera)” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Ahonen (2017a)
claims that AR is a standalone industry from mobile
as it can be utilized via various devices, such as game
consoles and tablets, and is already worth billions of
dollars. In a 2012 TED talk, he predicted that one
Cable, Carole, ccan239, www.cartoonstock.com

billion people would be

using AR by 2020. This
augmented reality prediction might come
(AR): An enhanced true sooner rather than
version of reality created
by the use of technology to
later when you consider
overlay digital information the unprecedented suc-
on an image of something cess of Pokémon Go, the
being viewed through
a device (such as a
first game app to com-
smartphone camera). bine virtual reality with
geographic space and

1 1 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
connection to others via online ties has many reper- various Superbowl LI apps that enabled second-screen
cussions, including preoccupation to the point of viewers to customize news highlights, view behind the
exhaustion, overreliance on technology and the crea- scene photos, and comment on posts by other fans.
tion and maintenance of virtual selves, a tendency to
overshare online, and a disinclination to give others
our full attention in real life (Turkle, 2011). Privacy and Regulation
Have you set up your smartphone so that it is pass-
word protected? When is the last time you checked
New Forms of Media Are Unique the privacy policies for the social networking sites
Newer forms of mass media often improve on fea- you use? Every time you open Facebook, visit a
tures of previous forms, but surprisingly, they rarely website, or order merchandise online, you leave an
make older forms obsolete. Recall the chapter’s information trail behind you that can be tracked and
opening quotation, which ends with these words: used in various ways by other individuals and busi-
“the medium is the message.” So wrote Canadian- nesses and even by governments. In 2016, the Privacy
born Marshall McLuhan (1911–1980) in his book Commissioner of Canada commissioned research
Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964). into the general public’s knowledge of privacy-related
McLuhan claimed that with each new technological issues and discovered that Canadians consider them-
invention or medium, a change is introduced that fun- selves to be knowledgeable about privacy matters and
damentally alters the way we experience life. As he are very concerned about the protection of their pri-
explained, the railway “did not introduce movement vacy. In particular, Canadians are worried about how
or transportation or wheel or road into human society, their online personal information might be used by
but it accelerated and enlarged the scale of previous organizations such as health or insurance companies
human functions, creating totally new kinds of cities for decision making or marketing firms to determine
and new kinds of work and leisure” (p. 8). Each new their preferences and make them targets for online
media form has properties that may not in themselves advertising. Most mobile users said they enact privacy
be unique (e.g., cameras existed before smartphones precautions such as limiting the amount of informa-
with cameras in them) but that fundamentally change tion shared online and uninstalling or not installing
how we now experience things by introducing new apps that access personal information (Phoenix
possibilities and changes in pace, which in turn create Strategic Perspectives Inc., 2016).
a different world. Privacy concerns raise the question of whether
Consider this example: we used to experience the Internet should be regulated and, if so, how.
audio with a radio; then the Walkman was invented, Broadcasting and telecommunications in Canada are
and we were able to transport that audio with us; then regulated and supervised by the Canadian Radio-
came the iPod, which was even more portable. Other television and Telecommunications Commission
examples: with the advent of big-screen TV, we didn’t (CRTC). The CRTC is an independent tribunal that
stop going to movies, and although TV allowed us to oversees more than 2,000 broadcasters (e.g., TV ser-
see music videos, it didn’t end the enjoyment we got vices, and radio stations), including companies that
from hearing songs played on the radio, especially operate as service providers and telecommunications
while driving. Clearly, new media may provide us carriers (i.e., phone companies). The CRTC’s mandate
with markedly new experiences, but the older ones is to ensure access to diverse, affordable, high-quality
retain their appeal. Cellphones, for example, have sev- communications that serve the interests of Canadians
eral features that do not exist elsewhere, such as ring- by following the objectives of the Broadcasting Act,
tones and specialized apps. Also, despite their small the Telecommunications Act, and Canada’s anti-
screen size, cellphones are much more advanced than spam legislation. The CRTC’s main activities include
home computers, especially when it comes to multiple issuing, renewing, and amending licences; approving
simultaneous inputs (e.g., camera, video, and GPS) (or not) mergers and changes in ownership; and pro-
(Ahonen, 2009). moting regulation compliance (CRTC, 2017).
Mobile is unique in other ways as well. People The CRTC supports
who use smartphones are permanently connected to the principle of net neu- Net neutrality:
the Internet and can personalize their experiences as a trality as a governing A principle of equality and
function of the particular apps they download. Recall framework. Net neutrality detachment with respect
to how information on
the earlier discussion of second-screen TV watching. refers to a principle of the Internet is treated by
“Companion” apps are now being developed to more equality and detach- network providers.
easily enable user interaction. For example, there were ment with respect to how

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 1 7

Shutterstock.com
fairly by their Internet providers (CRTC, 2017).

Tribute note left at the feet of the Angel of the North in

TIME TO REVIEW memory of Courtney Boyle and stepdad Philip Tron, who
died in the 2017 Manchester terror attack.
• Prior to the Internet, in which seven
areas were the media concentrated?
• Why is YouTube considered to be both The media play a key role in connecting us to
a media disruptor and a force to be other people and to information and in that way help
reckoned with? us become more socially aware—of ourselves, our
• What does Tomi T. Ahonen consider to be communities, other people, diverse cultures, cur-
the seventh and eighth mass media? rent events, and a plethora of issues facing society. In
• Why don’t new forms of mass media that sense, the media help us function in relation to
make traditional forms obsolete? one another (see Critical Thinking in Action). Social
media in particular expose us to a range of individ-
• Why is net neutrality important to uals we might not otherwise be in contact with and
Internet consumers? in this sense provide platforms for shared experi-
ences and meaningful connections with individuals
and groups of all ages and characteristics. The mass
media have many socializing effects, some of which
your Sociological Toolkit are less obvious than others and some of which may
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY be harmful, as the conflict framework demonstrates.

LO3 Functionalist Framework Conflict Framework

Different sociological frameworks help us better Like the functionalist framework, the conflict frame-
understand how the mass media influence us and work focuses on large-scale institutions such as the
how we, in turn, influence the mass media. Since the media, but it suggests that society is characterized by
main concern of a macro-level functionalist frame- disparities and power struggles linked to the unequal
work is social order, this perspective helps us see how distribution of resources. The media are an essential
the media contribute to social stability. For example, source of information, and because most of the media
a manifest (or intended) function of the media is to are in the hands of a small group of powerful corpora-
provide us with current, up-to-date communications. tions, a handful of people have the power to shape the
By listening to or watching a live news broadcast, we messages contained in the media.
can learn about practical matters of local interest,
such as the weather and traffic conditions, as well
as global events, such as the recent terrorist attacks Media Ownership Is Concentrated
in Paris, Manchester, and Kabul. Within seconds of Whether it is newspapers, TV, music, or the media
each attack, tweets, photos, and videos were being industry more broadly, the concentration in owner-
sent out by spectators using social media (such as ship is apparent. For example, Quebecor Media owns
Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram), allowing the companies that together control a sizeable portion of
rest of the world to experience the events as they Canada’s publications, including daily newspapers
unfolded. such as Le Journal de Montréal and Le Journal de Québec,

1 1 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

MASS MEDIA AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

In an earlier chapter, you learned that social many of the functions once performed by other
institutions are relatively permanent societal struc- institutions.
tures that govern the behaviour of groups and In Western countries where media operates
promote social order. Families, religion, education, under private ownership (e.g., Canada, the United States,
the economy, and the political system all serve a and Australia), it was never intended to serve as a social
variety of functions for individuals and for society. institution. Instead, its main purpose was to generate
In countries where the media are state-owned (e.g., profit, and this is why the content is heavily laden with
China, Ethiopia, Iran, and Syria), the content tends sexuality and violence, because this is what appeals to
to be more prescriptive (e.g., it often serves political broad audiences (Silverblatt, 2004).
functions by providing particular perspectives and
censoring others). Silverblatt (2004) contends that Think Outside the Box: Do you think new media in
the media emerged as a social institution in state- Western countries operate collectively as a social insti-
owned countries largely because it has taken over tution? Why or why not?

over 75 magazines (e.g., Clin d’oeil and Chez Soi), and Canada has its own TV networks, including the
books. Quebecor also controls TV programming and CBC, a Crown corporation; private networks (e.g.,
TV specialty services through TVA Group as well as City, CTV, and Global Television Network); a French-
cable distribution, Video on Demand, and Pay Per View language network, TVA; and the Aboriginal Peoples
through Videotron. And it holds interests in music, Television Network (APTN) (see Sociology in Practice).
new media, and production and marketing (CRTC, Still, Canada is the largest importer of U.S. content,
2016). Brunswick News, a private newspaper pub- where the most popular TV series originate. American
lisher owned by James K. Irving, can be considered a TV was historically concentrated in three main net-
monopoly because it owns all three of New Brunswick’s works: ABC, CBS, and NBC. Eventually, two other
English-language daily newspapers, most of its week- networks emerged: HBO and Fox. Together they are
lies, and 18 of the 25 community papers in the prov- often referred to as the Big Five Networks given their
ince. Concentrated ownership permits highly selective overwhelming market share. These five networks
reporting as evident in the Telegraph-Journal’s recent are linked to five major conglomerates: Time Warner
failure to report problems with Irving Oil’s pollution (HBO), Disney (ABC), National Amusements (CBS
control equipment and emissions (Livesey, 2016). and Viacom), News Corp (Fox), and Comcast (NBC
Similar patterns are evident in the music industry. Universal) (Straubhaar, LaRose, & Davenport, 2014).
As the beginning of any season of The Voice demon- A conglomerate is a corporation made up of sev-
strates, an infinite number of individuals with various eral widely diversified companies. For example, Disney
amounts of musical talent hope to be discovered. owns major broadcasting (e.g., Walt Disney Television,
Recording companies are the main agents of power ABC Television Network with shows such as How to
when it comes to determining who gets to produce a Get Away with Murder, Dancing with the Stars, and The
song and ultimately which songs will be played, pur- Bachelor), cable networks
chased, and streamed. Although it may appear that the (e.g., ESPN Inc., Disney monopoly: A company
number of record labels is endless, Canadian recording Channels Worldwide), that has exclusive control
companies are all owned by one of three international studio entertainment over a particular product or
service.
parent companies (i.e., Sony BMG, Universal Music (e.g., Walt Disney Studio
Group, and Warner Music Group). These large corpo- Home Entertainment, conglomerate: A
corporation made up of
rations are known in the recording industry as the Big Walt Disney Animation several different widely
Three because together they control 80 percent of the Studios, Marvel Studios), diversified companies.
entire music industry (McDonald, 2017). studio production (e.g.,

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 1 9

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

CANADIAN BROADCASTING POLICY

Under the Broadcasting Act, all Canadian broadcasting multiracial nature of Canadian society and the special
systems must be owned and controlled by Canadians place of aboriginal peoples within that society.” Also,
and the content of broadcasts must include a wide most programming is supposed to make maximal use
range of programming that reflects the interests of of Canadian creative resources. In particular, a por-
Canadians. For example, entertainment program con- tion of programming needs to be drawn from local,
tent needs to display Canadian talent, and information regional, and national sources, and it needs to include
on Canada must be presented from a Canadian point educational and community programs (Broadcasting
of view. In addition, programming and the employ- Act, 1991).
ment affiliated with it must serve “the needs and inter-
ests, and reflect the circumstances and aspirations, of Think Outside the Box: How do digital technology
Canadian men, women and children, including equal and the Internet pose challenges for this broadcasting
rights, the linguistic duality and multicultural and policy?

Walt Disney Studios), music (Walt Disney Records, how the news media are controlled by a concentrated
Hollywood Records), books and magazines (e.g., ABC elite. That elite creates propaganda (i.e., biased per-
Daytime Press, Marvel Comics), interactive media (e.g., suasive communications) about international affairs
Disney Online, Disney Games, Disney Mobile), parks that becomes the basis of what the public is repeat-
and resorts (e.g., Disneyland Park, Shanghai Disney edly exposed to as daily news. Herman and Chomsky’s
Resort), cruise lines (e.g., Disney Fantasy), and various ideas have become known more widely as the propa-
consumer products (Walt Disney Company, 2017). ganda model. In contrast to what the general public
perceives to be true about a democratic system (e.g.,
LO4 Agenda Setting: The Media free and open press), Herman and Chomsky (1988)
contend that the media serve the interests of those in
Is Not Neutral power by filtering the messages the public receives
Corporate giants such as Disney and Comcast selec- in a way that generates (i.e., manufactures) consent
tively determine which issues we will be exposed to as for particular political and economic agendas. In this
we read the papers, watch TV, or listen to the radio. Will manner, the news media are able to manufacture con-
the focus be on the economy (e.g., the deficit), the envi- sent for government policies (such as Canada’s role in
ronment, health care, or crime? Messages we are repeat-
edly exposed to become relevant and thereby important
to us. So the media also tell the public which issues they
should be most interested in. There are links between
© Schwadron, Harley, hsc5858, www.cartoonstock.com

agenda setting in the media, what the public thinks

is important, and the policies developed to deal with
the issues (Soroka, 2002; Wanta & Ghanem, 2007).
As political scientist Bernard Cohen (1963) noted, “The
press may not be successful much of the time in telling
people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in
telling its readers what to think about” (p. 13).
Several theorists in a variety of disciplines have
highlighted the implications of private, centralized
ownership of the mass media for agenda setting. In
Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the
Mass Media, Herman and Chomsky (1988) explain

1 2 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

FAIRNESS & ACCURACY IN REPORTING

Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, Inc. (FAIR) is a Warner would negatively impact the general public
not-for-profit organization that serves as a national beyond higher cable bills and restricted options
media “watch group” advocating for more diver- for subscribers. Summarizing the work of media
sity and less bias in media reporting. FAIR works researchers and critics, Yu (2014) explains that
from the assumption that the for-profit nature of media consolidation on this scale limits the access
the media, combined with their highly concen- that women and communities of colour have to TV
trated ownership, compromises independent jour- and radio licences. It also leads to further reductions
nalism. Thus, FAIR contends that reform should be and “broken promises” with respect to the amount
directed at breaking up conglomerates and estab- of diversity and local programming shown on TV
lishing not-for-profit, publicly owned broadcasting and reduces the amount of say communities have in
sources (FAIR, 2017). FAIR identifies marginalizing determining their own media needs.
media practices and offers the public alternative
viewpoints. For example, an article in its monthly Think Outside the Box: Can you identify any positive
magazine Extra! pointed out various ways in which outcomes of media convergence for individuals and
a potential merger between Comcast and Time society?

the Afghan and Iraq wars) or for particular politicians’

TIME TO REVIEW
political platforms during election time.
Karen Dill-Shackleford (2016), a leading social psy- • How does a functionalist perspective
chologist in the area of media influence, notes an interview the mass media?
esting paradox: we live in a culture that is powerfully
influenced by media messages, yet we fail to recognize • How does a conflict perspective view
or downplay that influence, feeling we are invulner- the mass media?
able. We may accurately perceive that particular shows, • What do sociologists mean when they
messages, and advertisements are fictional and that say that mass media ownership is
they contain paid actors and models who are endorsing concentrated?
specific products for the benefit of corporations. Yet we • What are the implications of media
also falsely believe that the media are transparent—that ownership concentration for agenda
news programs simply present us with “the facts” and setting?
that fictional programming’s only function is to enter-
tain us. On the one hand, the media are an effective • What main paradox exists in relation
resource for conveying news, providing entertainment, to mass media influence?
sharing views, offering outlets for discussion, dissemi-
nating information, and networking. But on the other
hand, the media are profit-centred businesses, and
LO5 HOW THE MEDIA SHAPE
some become so successful that they come to domi- OUR PERCEPTIONS
nate and control the market as monopolies and con-
glomerates (see Sociology in My Community). Rather The Interactionist
than downplay media influence or polarize it as mainly
positive or negative, Dill-Shackleford (2016) recom-
Framework
mends we recognize its various effects, particularly the The micro-level interactionist theoretical framework
“deeply personal” ones, such as social affirmation and helps us appreciate how we are individually and
fandom, and be mindful in our media use to maximize uniquely influenced by the people around us, from the
the benefits while minimizing the harm. significant others who are important to us and central

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 2 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
to our well-being (e.g., family members, our intimate In addition to sizing, Entman (1991) identifies
partners, and our close friends), to those from whom four other properties of news narrative that contribute
we take cues or learn particular skills in more tempo- to frames and help create meaning by making certain
rary or isolated situations (e.g., a manager who trains aspects of news media more salient: agency, identifica-
you to perform the basics of your job or a professor tion, categorization, and generalization.*
who teaches you sociology), to the more abstract gen-
1. Agency refers to the inclusion of particular words
eralized other that reflects an understanding of group
that suggest where responsibility for an event lies.
attitudes and norms. In the case of media influence
For example, Newsweek’s cover headline “Murder
for any given individual, bear in mind that as con-
in the Air” and Time’s “Shooting to Kill The Soviets
sumers, people choose to indulge in certain forms of
Destroy an Airliner” helped frame the 1983 down-
media (e.g., TV and social networking) and select par-
ing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 as an intentional
ticular versions of those media (e.g., SportsNet and
event with a clearly guilty party (p. 6).
Facebook). Also, people can opt in or out of forms of
2. Identification includes the use of words that encour-
media, although in some cases, they may face social
age (or discourage) identification with the central
sanctions, such as when friends are suddenly unable
characters in a news story. Entman suggested that
to reach them through Facebook. Moreover, people
the inclusion of names of victims or “humanizing”
may selectively spend a lot of time, a moderate amount
phrases, such as “innocent human beings” or “loved
of time, or very little time exposed to any or all of
ones,” encourages identification, whereas use of
the various media. Although we will discuss some of
neutral terms, such as “those who died” or “civil-
the common messages that may result from media
ians,” discourages identification (p. 17).
socialization shortly, because of individuals’ unique
3. Categorization refers to the overall framework used
experiences with the media, the impact of mass media
to label an event by the media. The Korean Air
socialization on any one individual is quite difficult to
Lines incident mentioned earlier was most often
establish.
categorized in the print media as an “attack” rather
The symbolic interactionist perspective is inter-
than a “tragedy.”
ested in communication, interpretation, and meaning.
4. Lastly, generalization refers to the extent to which
In Frame Analysis (1974), Canadian-born sociologist
a media story is generalized to a larger political
Erving Goffman (1922–1982) explained that how an
system or issue. Reporting of recent terrorist attacks
interaction or event is depicted or “framed” is integral
in Europe is generalized to the rise of the Islamic
to its perceived meaning. Similarly, sociologist Stuart
State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as
Hall (b. 1932) uses the term representation to describe
the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS).
how meanings are attributed to media images. There
are multiple interpretations for the media images we On TV, framing centres on the main charac-
see; hence, the meaning of a particular image emerges ters who deliver messages, such as the lead anchor
from an interaction between the characteristics of the on the national news or the outspoken judge on a
image itself and the nature of the individual’s own reality series—consider Simon Cowell and his role
interpretation of that image (Hall, 2009). on America’s Got Talent. Also, framing includes the
Entman (1991) maintains that the essential deter- overall objectives of particular shows: the tough guy
minant of framing is “sizing” because this helps the wins the Ultimate Fighting Championship title, the
general public interpret the importance of an event. best-looking young woman becomes America’s Next
Sizing refers to “the overall salience of the event in Top Model. Together, the characters and themes per-
the flow of the news” based on “how much material petuate common but unrealistic cultural beliefs, such
on the event is available” and “how prominently it as anyone can achieve success, celebrity status, and
is displayed” (Entman, 1991, p. 9). So an event that popularity.
receives a lot of coverage (e.g., is the leading story The same messages are present in product adver-
in multiple mass media for many days) will be inter- tisements: buy this beer, and you too will be lounging
preted as most important, whereas other issues will be on a beach surrounded by swimsuit models! Print
deemed less relevant, mainly because the public is not advertisements are laden with descriptive words,
as aware of them. Clearly, “if it bleeds, it leads,” but background colours, and images placed in particular
for how long? Interestingly, although disasters make ways to draw our attention; in much the same way,
front-page news, after a few days, the media often
move on to the next big story, sometimes erroneously
*Adapted from: R. Entman, “Symposium Framing U.S. Coverage of
leading the public to perceive that the issue has been International News: Contrasts in Narratives of the KAL and Iran Air
resolved. Incidents,” Journal of Communication, Vol. 41, Issue 4, pp. 6–27, 1991.

1 2 2 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

STATE OF SURVEILLANCE
HBO’s (2016) VICE documentary State of Surveillance track cellphone use and collect “metadata.” Specialized
educates viewers on the various ways the U.S. govern- software can now be used to turn a phone on, record
ment and outside sources (such as the police, FBI, and calls made, reveal the history of Internet searches, and
CIA) can impinge on the privacy rights of others through indicate locations travelled. Edward Snowden is a former
their cellphones. VICE travelled to Russia to learn more American CIA employee and whistleblower who went
about spy techniques from Edward Snowden, who claims public with information on invasive spying with informa-
that surveillance has gone from the exceptional cases tion he gathered while employed by the National Security
involving suspected terrorists to the ongoing surveillance Agency and Central Intelligence Agency. He is currently
of everyday people using IMSI catchers (spyware), which living in Russia under temporary asylum.

pop-up ads on the Internet grab our attention by Feminist Framework

claiming we’ve won something and encouraging us to
click on a tab for more information. For academics Besides fostering consumerism, the mass media pre-
(and viewers), the three prevailing concerns about the sent us with certain types of messages, repeatedly.
mass media are (1) consumerism, (2) stereotypes, and One negative implication of this practice is that the
(3) violence. mass media show stereotyped depictions of various
groups, such as men, visible minorities, people with
disabilities, gays, lesbians, the elderly, and, especially,
Consumerism: The Media Teaches women. A stereotype is an overgeneralization about a
Us That We Need to Buy Products group that is often based on faulty assumptions. Many
feminist perspectives point out that most differences
“It’s not fair!” was the response from the (then) eight- between men and women are socially constructed
year-old son of one of the authors who learned he rather than the result of biology. Traditional gender
could not have his own credit card, nor would he be roles are emphasized in the media in ways that con-
given access to his mother’s Visa. He explained that tinue to teach females to be nurturing and submissive
he needed a credit card to purchase “sand dollars” in and males to be aggressive and independent. Part of
the Facebook game FishVille, which he accessed via this occurs through repeated exposure to mass media
his mother’s Facebook account. He further protested generalizations about how women and men behave or
that the awesome fish and specialty items he wanted how they ought to behave in society.
to purchase for his virtual tank exceeded the number
of sand dollars he could ever earn playing the game
for free. Not surprisingly, the same child wanted to The Media Reinforces
shop only at a store called West 49, carrying designer- Stereotyped Images
labelled jeans, T-shirts, hoodies, and runners, for his
back-to-school clothes. The power of advertising is the of Women and Men
second most researched area in media studies, after The media teach us, for example, that popular women
research on the effects of media violence. Many dec- are tuned into the latest consumer trends (i.e., they
ades of research have found that repeated exposure to wear brand-name clothing, own many pairs of shoes,
advertising increases brand recognition, which results and celebrate the joys of new appliances). The media
in positive associations with particular brands and a also emphasize the importance of women’s beauty—
desire to select those products (Desmond & Carveth, especially the ultra-thin,
2007). From a corporate standpoint, the influence on busty Barbie doll form
youth is profitable enough to warrant investing bil- of beauty. Although stereotype: An
lions of dollars targeting children in commercials. women’s images in the overgeneralization about
a group, often based on
This has garnered the attention of parents, educators, media are changing— faulty assumptions.
and media critics. partly as a result of more

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 2 3

the Worlds, Silence). Many of the most popular video

games, such as Call of Duty, Halo, Assassin’s Creed, and
Grand Theft Auto, also contain violent content, which
is built into the main plots and themes.
Grand Theft Auto, a highly successful series of video
Even as monsters, these dolls teach girls about the games, has been accused of promoting a subculture of
importance of beauty and fashion. violence and lawlessness among youth by glorifying
car theft, drug use, random acts of killing, and driving
women achieving higher positions of media power, under the influence of alcohol and by offering negative
for example, as producers—the overall cultural mes- depictions of women. Both sex and violence are found
sages remain. Anderson and Gray (2008) note that in many video games, but some game developers have
“the most common representation of women in the taken it to extremes. For example, in 2006, the game
media is as victims, most commonly of sexual vio- RapeLay was released in Japan. In this game, players take
lence. Other consistent media images include women the role of a male character who, based on the players’
as overly feminized or sexualized; women as nur- choices, stalks, sexually assaults, and even gang rapes
turing and caring, based on their role as mothers; and a mother and her two daughters. As you have already
women as inscrutable and dangerous” (p. 462). Many likely guessed, outrage ensued over the release of this
studies have examined and substantiated the effects game, and it was eventually removed from the market.
of stereotyped portrayals of women in the media. Given that we are exposed to so much violence
By the time girls reach the age of four or five, they in so many ways, we have to wonder what happens
have already internalized the narrow ideal of female to viewers as a result of all this exposure. Does this
beauty we get in media messages. Compared to those violence have any real effect on consumers? Should
who watch less TV, girls who are heavy TV viewers the newest Call of Duty, or some other equally violent
have more restricted notions of female beauty, share video game, be banned from distribution or even cen-
more common perceptions of beauty, and place more sored by the government? Most people would say no,
emphasis on the importance of beauty (Stern, 2004). and to date, no games have been banned in Canada.
Males are also portrayed in negative, stereotyped So the more appropriate question is: Who should be
ways by the mass media. In an analysis of how men were allowed to play them? Common sense suggests that we
depicted in newspapers, magazines, and TV shows in should not allow young children to play violent video
the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, games rated M (for mature). But what if all 8-, 9-,
Macnamara (2006) found that men are consistently or 10-year-old kids are already playing such games?
portrayed in relation to violence or aggression. In fact, Is it okay as long as the child has parental consent
more than 75 percent of media depictions show men or knows the content is fictional? See Sociology in
as one of four main stereotypes: villains, aggressors, Practice for ways that parents monitor television. Will
perverts, or philanderers (i.e., womanizers). Besides early exposure to first- and third-person shooter-based
stereotyped depictions of groups in society, the media war simulation games create violence-prone adults?
repeatedly present us with messages that contain acts What does the research tell us? Studies on the links
of violence. between media violence and aggression are the most
prevalent and debated area of research in literature on
the effects of the mass media.
Violence Is the Norm in
the Mass Media LO6 Social Learning Theory
Given its prevalence in the media, violence is the In the 1960s, in his now classic studies on observa-
most researched topic in media studies. Much of tional learning, Canadian-born social psychologist
our daily dose of violence comes from TV—through Albert Bandura (b. 1925) and his colleagues conducted

1 2 4 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

© Albert Bandura, Ph.D. Used with permission.

TAKE THAT BOBO. In Bandura’s classic experiment, children were shown a movie (top four frames) of a
model hitting a Bobo doll. If they saw the model rewarded for this behaviour, they treated the doll similarly
(middle and bottom rows).

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 2 5

VIOLENCE IN MUSIC
Violence is also prevalent in the music industry, incor- males toward their girlfriends. For example, “Love the
porated into the lyrics of songs that top the Billboard Way You Lie” contains the confession “I laid hands on
charts. Although violent lyrics can be found in all her,” and in the now-notorious suicide song “Stan,”
popular music genres (from country to metal to pop), featuring Dido, we hear the line “Hey, Slim, that’s my
rap and hip-hop have been the focus of considerable girlfriend screamin’ in the trunk,” shortly before Stan
attention. Popular rapper Eminem has topped the drives his car off a bridge. In a study by Burgess, Dill,
charts various times with songs such as “Not Afraid,” and Wright (2009), college students reported that the
“Lose Yourself,” and “Love the Way You Lie,” fea- most common representations of women in rap songs
turing Rihanna. Much of Eminem’s music contains they listened to were “ho” (or “whore”), “bitch,” and
references to violence between males, and some songs “slut” and that rappers were most likely to rap about
include references to acts of violence committed by “sex,” “drugs,” “money,” “women,” and “violence.”

© Farris, Joseph, jfa0300, www.cartoonstock.com

Pe3K/Shutterstock.com

Do video games promote violence?

1 2 6 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

MONITORING CHILDREN’S EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE

Various efforts have been made to try to monitor practice, which has been in effect since 1997, dem-
children’s exposure to violence, including the use onstrates how collective efforts can promote social
of V-chips and other program-blocking technology change because the ratings were first developed by
designed to allow parents to customize what their a group called the Action Group on Violence on Tel-
children view at home. All Canadian stations (even evision (AGVOT) (Canadian Broadcasting Standards
if they air an American show) include show ratings Council, 2017).
and blocking technology embedded in the broadcast
signal. Symbols and icons appear on screen to denote Think Outside the Box: In what ways does the
program content that includes violence, coarse Internet pose challenges for monitoring children’s
language, sexuality, and/or mature themes. This exposure to violence?

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 2 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
that the evidence is not conclusive (e.g., see Taylor & take in, and to make informed choices about the kinds
Huesmann, 2014, for a review), whereas others point of messages and media they choose to engage with.
out that the real challenge lies in trying to explain the
actual process by which exposure to violence creates
subsequent violence (Potter, 2014). Beyond trying to
LO7 Media Literacy: Thinking
delineate the causal path, we also need to start thinking Critically about the Media
about how best to mitigate the outcomes since the Media literacy refers to the ability to recognize, criti-
owners of the media are unlikely to be persuaded to cally assess, and make informed choices about mes-
stop producing what the general public continues to sages contained in mass media forms. According to
consume in high demand. Media Smarts (2017), media understanding includes
In this regard, some researchers have opted for a an acceptance of these five concepts*:
more holistic approach, one that moves beyond the
1. All media are constructions. Media content is created
arguments that seek to condemn or support views of
by individuals who choose to convey a particular
media violence to consider violence in a broader context,
message by virtue of what is included and what is
such as the social and political factors that encourage
left out of the message. Since media messages repre-
it (Trend, 2007). Other approaches consider opposing
sent the views of the capitalist class, the messages
viewpoints, look at violence as a social problem, or
also underrepresent the views of less powerful
consider a range of views on how society should best
groups in society. Media literacy works toward
respond to media violence (e.g., Dudley, 1999). The
deconstructing (or taking apart) media messages
APA Task Force on Violent Media (2015) suggests that
to expose built-in assumptions, stereotypes, and
all stakeholders (e.g., parents, video game makers,
misrepresentations and to show how or why they
the legal system) work together to answer the ques-
were made this way.
tion: “What cost is necessary to produce (or prevent)
2. Audiences negotiate the meaning in media. Individuals
the effect?” (p. 16). We won’t resolve the media debate
interpret meanings in a variety of ways depending
here, and we’ll leave you to consider your own position
on their own life experiences, familial and cultural
on this. Perhaps by turning to the postmodern view in
background, age, gender, ethnicity, and social class.
closing, you can appreciate more fully why any given
So the same media message may be interpreted
perspective will likely be inadequate for explaining the
positively by one person and negatively by another.
influences of today’s ever-changing media.
3. Media have commercial interests. Media literacy
aims to encourage an awareness of how the media
Postmodern Framework are influenced by commercial considerations and
how these affect content, technique, and distribu-
The postmodern framework is probably best suited
tion. Most media production is a business and must
to helping us appreciate the many ways that our lives
therefore make a profit. Questions of ownership
change with each new medium. Recall that post-
and control are central. As we noted earlier, a small
modern ideas tend to underlie social action. The pop-
number of conglomerates own most of the leading
ularity of YouTube attests to the ability of consumers
recording companies, television networks, newspa-
to influence the media and one another in ways that
pers, radio stations, film production companies, and
reshape cultural trends. Similarly, the ability to com-
other forms of mass media.
municate quickly and widely via the Internet on the
4. Media have social and political implications. Media
social networking platform Facebook helped students
have a great influence on politics and social change
in Egypt successfully mobilize to overthrow the gov-
by giving us an intimate sense of national issues and
ernment in a monumental revolution in 2011 and
global concerns. At the same time, mass media have
helped remobilize protesters in 2013. From the ter-
the power to set agendas and limit who and what
rorist attacks in Paris that killed 130 people in 2015 to
we will be exposed to (e.g., national leaders, health
the more recent attacks in Kabul, we are kept abreast
issues, environmental concerns), and they deter-
of each new development as it unfolds through the
mine how particular groups are represented (e.g., in
media. Postmodern
a positive or negative manner).
Media literacy: The
approaches to the media
5. Each medium has a unique aesthetic form. Each
ability to recognize, also encourage con-
medium, be it a TV show, a radio program, or a
critically assess, and make sumers to be aware of
informed choices about video game, has its own way of storytelling, and it
the messages contained in
media ownership objec-
mass media forms. tives, to think critically *Source: © 2017 MediaSmarts, Ottawa, Canada, Key Concepts for Media
about the messages they Literacy, http://www.mediasmarts.ca. Adapted with permission.

1 2 8 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

DEMONSTRATING MEDIA LITERACY

Reflect on what you have learned in this chapter media functions, such as the news or entertainment
about the mass media and its influence on indi- venues.
viduals. In particular, consider ways in which the
media is concentrated among a few major con- Think Outside the Box:
glomerates, such as Disney and Comcast, and how In response to media concentration, what is one way
these giants have the power to manipulate various you demonstrate media literacy?

is important to understand how a particular media

form is getting your attention and conveying its
CONCLUSIONS
message. Much of the research that has been done on the media
has focused upon the various concerns that have been
To become media literate, we need to accom- voiced over aspects of its production and content.
plish several things. First, we need to understand the But this certainly does not mean that the media does
nature of the media (i.e., that the mainstream media nothing but corrupt humankind. New forms of elec-
is a profit-centred, highly concentrated industry that tronically mediated communications, such as tweets,
uses techniques that construct reality for viewers). Instagram posts, and Facebook updates, play a central
We also need to appreciate the wider implications of role in many of our lives, particularly for providing us
media (e.g., how the media expose us to large doses of with real-time information. Traditional forms of media
violence, how they portray stereotypes, and how they eventually led to the development of new media,
promote consumerism). Finally, we need to develop which includes smartphones, augmented reality, and
critical viewing skills. For example, we need to be even apps that have yet to be developed. Although it is
aware that we are being influenced, we need to con- sometimes demonized because of its inherent consum-
sider who is sending the message and how the message erism, as well as the presence of violence and gender
is coming across, and we need to think about what stereotypes, the media also serve important positive
that particular message is designed to accomplish (see functions. It is only through the media that we can
Sociology in My Life). sometimes learn about events affecting our close and
more distant friends or relatives (e.g., what issues they
support), our communities (e.g., local events hap-
TIME TO REVIEW pening here), and our world (e.g., the destruction of
the Twin Towers on 9/11, the revolution that changed
• How do individuals’ unique experiences Egypt’s political structure, the nuclear disaster in
influence the kind of socialization Japan, the fighting in Libya, and the unrest in Russia
provided by the mass media? and Ukraine).
• In what ways is media news framed to The media can keep us safe, such as by broad-
make messages more apparent? casting a tornado warning or a flood alert. Cellphones
and texting enable parents to keep closer tabs on
• What is the main assumption of social
their children and intimate partners to touch base
learning theory?
during their busy days. Facebook enables friends
• According to cultivation theory, how and family members who are separated by long dis-
does violent media exposure result in tances to have a greater presence in each others’ eve-
cumulative effects over time? ryday lives. The Internet brings virtual communities
• What shared assumptions about the together—whether you are a new parent, someone
media comprise media education? suffering from a debilitating disease, someone too
busy to find a potential date any other way, or an

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 2 9

Chapter Summary
LO1 Describe the history of the as the importance of beauty. Finally, the postmodern
framework helps us better appreciate the many ways
traditional forms of mass media. our lives have changed with technology and how the
Prior to the Internet, the mass media consisted of media facilitate social action.
books, newspapers, magazines, cinema, recordings,
radio, and television. LO4 Evaluate the relevance of media
ownership for agenda setting.
LO2 Describe the role of new media
Media ownership is highly concentrated. A small
forms, including whether they number of large corporations own most of the
make traditional ones obsolete. ways we receive information and thereby largely
Modern forms of media are referred to as new media determine which issues the public is exposed to and
and include the Internet, video and computer games, what it comes to think is important.
and cellphones with downloadable applications. The
Internet changed all of the traditional forms of mass LO5 Demonstrate a critical under-
media (books are now available online, radio audio standing of ways that media shape
streams can now be accessed over the Internet,
etc.), but new forms of media didn’t eliminate the
our perceptions.
traditional ones, which have features we still enjoy As a major agent of socialization, the mass media
for their own unique experience (e.g., watching a teach us to hold particular political views, teach
movie on a big screen or listening to a radio). How- us to be fixated on consumerism (i.e., the need to
ever, new forms are also unique and are sometimes buy things), reinforce stereotypes, including beauty
better for other reasons—for example, they allow standards, and expose us to a large amount of
us to experience augmented reality and to multitask violence.
(with the latest smartphones).
LO6 Debate whether violence in the
LO3 Differentiate among media media causes viewers to become
ssumptions provided by the
a violent.
core sociological frameworks. On the one hand, research shows that we become
A functionalist framework points out ways that the less sensitive to media violence over time so that we
media help us find out about important events and require greater amounts for stimulation. Eventually,
better communicate with one another to become we suffer cultivated cumulative effects, including
more socially aware and connected. The conflict an increased fear of victimization, and we come to
framework notes that the mass media are profit-based believe that the world is more dangerous than it
businesses with concentrated ownership, which influ- actually is. Importantly, increased exposure to vio-
ences the kind of information we are exposed to. lence leads to an increased likelihood of behaving
The interactionist framework helps us understand and thinking in aggressive ways. On the other hand,
how individuals uniquely interpret media messages. research has failed to provide conclusive evidence
Feminist frameworks highlight how the mass media of a direct link between exposure to violence and
portray stereotyped images of certain groups, such subsequent acts of violence. There is not even con-
as women, and emphasize particular messages, such sensus on what constitutes violence.

1 3 0 Part 2 Society and the Self: The Foundations NEL

Recommended Resources
1. For more information on print and electronic media, TEDxMongKok by visiting his website: http://www
how media and society interact, and the role of .tomiahonen.com.
advertising and public relations, refer to R. Hanson, 4. The Media Education Foundation’s bestseller
Mass Communication: Living in a Mediated World Consuming Kids: The Commercialization of Childhood
(8th ed.) (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017). is an excellent resource for anyone who wants to
2. For a critical examination of how social media have learn more about how corporations create a consumer
changed how we relate to one another, we recom- culture. You can find out more about this film and
mend S. Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More others like it by visiting http://www.mediaed.org.
from Technology and Less from Each Other (New 5. To find out what how video games are rated (e.g.,
York, NY: Basic Books, 2011). easy of play and educational value) as well as things
3. You can visit Ahonen’s daily blog to check out to watch out for, such as violence, online interac-
his latest technology forecasts, or you can view tion, language, and consumerism, see Common
his TED talk on augmented reality given at Sense Media (https://www.commonsensemedia.org).

For Further Reflection

1. Should the Internet be regulated? Why or why not? e. What is the main message depicted in this ad?
2. Select a full-page advertisement from any magazine f. What other representations are evident in this
of your choice and bring it to class. Record answers ad?
to the following questions and be prepared to share 3. Interview someone in a different generation from
them in class: you (e.g., your mother, an uncle, a grandparent,
a. What product (or service) is the focus of this ad? or an elderly neighbour) about the media. What
b. Who owns or is responsible for this ad? was the principal medium in his or her youth?
c. What techniques are used to attract attention to What was the primary function of that medium?
this ad? What was the “leading-edge” medium of that time,
d. Who is the primary targeted audience for this and how was that new form expected to change
product? things?

NEL Chapter 6 Mass Media: Living in the Electronic Age 1 3 1

of Our
Everyday
carlosseller/Shutterstock

Lives

CHAPTER 7:
Sex, Gender, and Sexualities:
Deconstructing Dualisms
CHAPTER 8:
Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves
and Others
CHAPTER 9:
Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future

CHAPTER 10:
Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science,
and Education
CHAPTER 11:
Social Control, Deviance, and Crime

CHAPTER 12:
Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or
Something More?

NEL

Sex, Gender, and Sexualities:

Deconstructing Dualisms

“ ”
ekmelica/Shutterstock

But let me tell you, this gender thing is history. You’re looking at a guy who
sat down with Margaret Thatcher and talked about serious issues.
(George Bush, Sr.)1

NEL

LO4 Describe the occupational sex seg-

regation within the labour force. LO1 ELITE DISCOURSES
LO5 Discuss the ways that economic OF SEX, GENDER, AND
experiences are gendered and the SEXUALITY
reasons why.
You may recall the concept of elite discourses from
Chapter 1. Foucault (1980) proposed that there are
LO6 Identify the gendered nature of multiple ways of understanding any social phenom-
family life for children and adults. enon. Those understandings emerge from different
locations of power. When particular understandings
LO7 Outline the various sociological emerge from positions of authority, those understand-
theories that address gender. ings become elite discourses and are widely accepted.
Through socialization, elite discourses become so
deeply ingrained that many people have difficulty
even imagining alternative possibilities. The power of
elite discourses is especially evident when we consider
sex, gender, and sexualities. Being identified as female
or male affects every facet of people’s lives. However,
“female” and “male” do
not refer to gender but
Sex: Biological
point to sex; this dis- characteristics that include
tinction is one between sex chromosomes,
social forces and biolog- primary sex characteristics,
and secondary sex
ical forces. Sex describes characteristics.
biology, which in Euro-
Canadian cultures has dualism: A contrast
between two opposing
traditionally been equated categories.
with the dualism of

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 3 5

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
female/male; we often hear references to the “opposite
TIME TO REVIEW
sex.” Sex is determined at the moment of conception
and is followed by the development of primary and • What are the dualisms that constitute
secondary sex characteristics. the elite discourses of sex, gender, and
Gender describes the social world, the behav- sexuality?
ioural, cultural, or psychological traits associated
with a specific sex, within a certain culture, at a • In what ways are the dualisms of sex,
given point in history. Gender is socially determined gender, and sexuality connected to one
through socialization processes in the context of cul- another?
tural norms. Because sex is based on a dualism, gender
is presumed to be as well; the traits associated with
being female are labelled femininity, whereas those
associated with being male are labelled masculinity. sex is more complex than we might think. It is more
Traditionally, masculinity has been equated with accurate to think of sex as a spectrum, similar to the
action, aggression, independence, dominance, ath- colour spectrum (Ainsworth, 2015). There is a wide
leticism, and self-reliance. In contrast, femininity has range of physical sex differences, just as there are a
been equated with passivity, kindness, shyness, sen- multitude of possible combinations of primary, sec-
sitivity, loyalty, and com- ondary, and chromosomal characteristics. The dualism
Gender: The behavioural, passion (Bem, 1974). female/male is an oversimplification of sex, just as the
cultural, or psychological The dualisms of sex colour “blue” is an oversimplification of a portion of
traits associated with a and gender are related to
particular sex, within a
the colour spectrum. In some circumstances, such as
certain culture, at a given yet another dualism, this when choosing a paint colour for our walls, we will
point in history. one in the realm of sexu- speak with greater precision—we want a “muted
femininity: The ality. Attraction to mem- greyish-blue” rather than “tropical turquoise.” In the
behavioural, cultural, bers of the “opposite sex” context of sex, attention is sometimes drawn to this
or psychological traits is referred to as hetero- spectrum. An individual may have the external geni-
associated with being
female, within a certain
sexuality , whereas attrac- talia of a female but the internal reproductive organs of
culture, at a given point in tion to members of the a male, ambiguous external sex organs, or the chromo-
history. “same sex” is considered somal variation XXY (and the list could go on). When
masculinity: The omosexuality. Both terms
h a person’s sex characteristics do not neatly fit into the
behavioural, cultural, are dependent on the view dualism of male/female, that person may be labelled
or psychological traits of sex as consisting of only intersexed. However, a growing number of scientific
associated with being
male, within a certain two “legitimate” sexes— experts and advocates have moved away from that
culture, at a given point in female and male. The belief term and instead use the terms disorders of sexual
history. that sex can (or should) be development or differences in sexual d evelopment
heterosexuality: Sexual equated with gender, and (both of which use the acronym DSD). They argue
attraction to members of then with sexuality, has that the term DSD more correctly emphasizes a char-
the “opposite sex.” become an elite discourse acteristic of the body (“Jo has a difference in sexual
homosexuality: Sexual to the extent that it is dif- development), whereas intersexed was a label applied
attraction to members of ficult for many people to to the entire person and thereby conflated with iden-
the “same sex.”
even imagine other ways of tity (“Jo is intersexed).
intersexed: A person thinking about the issue or How many people do not fit neatly into the
whose physical sex organizing their lives. dualism of female/male? Because sex falls along a
characteristics fall outside
the boundaries of the male/ spectrum, this is a difficult question. Some individuals
may be labelled as having a DSD at birth because of
female dualism.
LO2 Moving ambiguous external genitalia. Other people may not
disorders of sexual
development or Outside Elite be categorized as such until adulthood—for example,
differences in sexual when seeking medical attention because of difficulties
development (DSD): Discourses in having children. Some people live their entire lives
A term used in place of
intersexed, referring to In fact, there are other without knowing that some aspect of their internal
physical sex characteristics ways of thinking about biology falls outside that dualism. Although there
that fall outside the these concepts. Even a
boundaries of the male/
is some disagreement among medical doctors about
female dualism. concept that appears to precisely which characteristics should be labelled as
be as straightforward as a DSD, there is no doubt that it is a characteristic of

1 3 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

MY GENDER
Because elite discourses equate gender with sex, of sex or gender, you are likely to face some social
when others identify you as female or male, they disapproval.
may subsequently expect you to embody femininity
or masculinity, as appropriate for your sex. The ways Think Outside the Box: In what ways do you con-
that they identify your sex, and then your gender, form to, or contradict, traditional notions of male or
may or may not correspond to the way that you female, masculinity or femininity? What consequences
identify your own sex or gender. When your appear- have you faced from others for either conforming to or
ance or behaviours contradict people’s expectations violating those norms?

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 3 7

http://lookbook.nu/jocelyn_m

Jocelyn M. uses social media to challenge society’s elite discourses of gender.

1 3 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Figure 7.1
The Good Wife’s Guide

The Advertising Archives/Alamy

Source: Image Courtesy of The Advertising Archives

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 3 9

DECONSTRUCTING DUALISMS IN THE MEDIA

The creative arts have long been an arena for social characters and may also represent characters who
commentary and critique, whether about specific fall outside dualisms of sex, gender, and sexualities in
public figures, current events, or social issues such as other ways.
inequality. Furthermore, their framing of people and In addition to transgender characters, other
issues has an impact our own interpretations of the gender nonconforming characters are now being fea-
social world. As such, the creative arts have been at the tured in film and television (although less often). Actor
forefront of deconstructing dualisms of sex, gender, Asia Kate Dillon (who identifies as gender nonbinary) is
and sexualities. For example, transgender characters the first to play a gender nonbinary character on televi-
have been present in film for several decades (although sion, in the series Billions. In film, Kelly Mantle plays
they are frequently played by cisgender actors). Just a a nonbinary character in Confessions of a Woman-
few of the more well-known films include The Crying izer (2016); Mantle was the first person in Hollywood
Game (1992), Boys Don’t Cry (1999), Hedwig and the whose work was submitted for Oscar consideration in
Angry Inch (2001) (also a current Broadway produc- both the Best Actor and Best Actress categories.
tion), Kinky Boots (2005) (also a current Broadway pro- The creative arts play an important role in decon-
duction), Transamerica (2005), The Danish Girl (2015), structing dualisms of sex and sexualities as well. For
and Tangerine (2015). Transgender characters have instance, fluid sexualities (e.g., pansexuality) are pre-
been less common on television until relatively recently sented as a normal state of affairs on television shows
(although the 1970s comedy The Jeffersons did include such as Schitt’s Creek, Pretty Little Liars, Sense8, House
an episode with a transgender character, which was of Cards, and How to Get Away with Murder. Similarly,
highly controversial at the time). Today, television series differences in sexual development have been explored in
with transgender characters include Orange Is the New films such as XXY (2007) and the television series Faking
Black, Transparent, The Fosters, American Horror Story: It. However, the sex dualism of female/male has been
Freak Show, and Sense8. In several cases (such as addressed the least in the creative arts, which suggests
Transparent), the shows include multiple transgender that elite discourses of sex are the most pervasive of all.

postures by male music artists in music videos, and represented by a dualism but rather by a spectrum.
more extreme violence enacted by male characters in Building upon earlier models developed by scholars
many video games (Jhally & Earp, 2016). in the 1920s, Kinsey developed a scale that reflected
Turning to sexualities, we can analyze the ways a continuum of sexualities, with exclusively same-sex
they are socially constructed as well. Similar sexual desires and activities at one extreme end and exclu-
desires and acts exist throughout the world, but the sively opposite-sex desires and activities at the other
meanings attributed to those desires and acts, and the (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948). Nevertheless,
ways they are treated, emerge from social processes. at that time, Kinsey’s ideas faced resistance on many
For instance, in the language of the Sambian cul- fronts, and traditional discourses of sexuality pre-
ture (in New Guinea), words that categorize people vailed for many decades (Drucker, 2010).
as heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual don’t exist; Today, empirical research conducted with more
instead, Sambian culture utilizes concepts that refer than 17,000 people in 48 countries supports Kinsey’s
to different times in the life cycle, when varied types argument that sexuality exists on a continuum rather
of sexual relationships than as discrete categories (Epstein et al., 2012). In
are considered appro- Canada, we see that discourses based on the hetero-
bisexuality: Sexual priate or inappropriate sexual/homosexual dualism have been replaced, to
attraction to both males (Herdt, 1984). Even in some extent, by more recognition of the spectrum
and females.
North America in the of sexualities, such as the recognition of bisexuality
pansexuality: Sexual mid-20th century, pio- (i.e., attraction to both males and females). The term
attraction to people along
neer sexuality researcher pansexuality has become more common as well, refer-
the full spectrums of sex,
gender, and sexuality. Alfred Kinsey contended ring to sexual attraction to people along the full spec-
that sexualities were not trums of sex, gender, and sexuality.

1 4 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

IMAGINING MY LIFE DIFFERENTLY

Elite discourses of sex, gender, and sexuality have implica- Think Outside the Box: Imagine that tomorrow
tions for us from the moment of birth or even sooner. morning you woke up as a member of another sex. In
Those implications are so far-reaching that they often lie what ways would your life be different? In what ways
beneath our awareness, and we must make a conscious would it remain the same?
effort to “see the strange in the familiar” (see Chapter 1).

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 4 1

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

BECAUSE I AM A GIRL
Plan International is a humanitarian organization that children have a strong belief in gender equality.
that operates in more than 50 countries to promote More than 90 percent think that gender equality is
children’s rights as a way to end child poverty. Their beneficial to both boys and girls, that girls should have
“Because I am a Girl” program emphasizes girls’ rights the same rights and opportunities as boys, and that
in particular. Globally, girls are twice as likely as boys parents should take equal responsibility for their children.
to be malnourished; more than 60 million girls do not On the other hand, gender inequalities continue to
attend primary or secondary school; every two seconds, be reinforced. Approximately one-third believe that
a girl under the age of 18 is married (Plan International, a woman’s most important role is taking care of the
2015). The organization highlights gender equality as household and cooking, and almost half believe that men
important for improving children’s rights and advancing should be responsible for earning and providing. Because
countries’ economic and social development. For of pressure from peers, media, and family (in that order),
instance, each year of female education results in a those who do not conform to traditional gender ideals
10 to 20 percent increase in income. Furthermore, with are negatively sanctioned. For example, respondents
seven years of formal schooling, females are significantly indicate that boys are likely to be made fun of if they are
less likely to marry before the age of 18, they have bad at sports (57 percent), wear pink (62 percent), cry
fewer children, and their children are healthier at birth (77 percent), or play with dolls (92 percent).
and in the following years (Plan International, 2015).
In 2011, Plan International conducted a survey Think Outside the Box: Reflecting back on your own
of children ages 12 to 17 living in Canada, the United childhood, where did you see pressure to conform to
Kingdom, Rwanda, and India. The survey explored the traditional gender ideals? Conversely, where did you
underlying attitudes toward gender that can either encounter messages that promoted gender equality? As
reinforce existing gender inequalities or facilitate social you read through the upcoming sections on educational,
change (Plan International, 2015). The results from the occupational, economic, and family experiences, you may
Canadian portion of the survey reveal, on the one hand, identify other messages that you, too, have encountered.

The extent to which children and adolescents are More recently, research finds that although
able to recognize the implications of gender might be Canadian children recognize gender equality in many
surprising to some people. In the Sadkers’ research, ways, traditional views continue as well (see Sociology
many girls found good things to say about being male: in My Community). When the views of children and
getting a better job; earning more money; feeling adolescents are brought together, we see that from
more secure; being treated with more respect. In the a young age, people believe that the implications of
end, most girls said that although it might be inter- having been born a particular sex extend through
esting to be a boy for a while, they would prefer to be all facets of life. Sociological research supports that
a girl. In contrast, almost all of the boys saw nothing assumption. Gendered norms result in (1) different
but bad things about being female: PMS; having to educational experiences, (2) different occupational
do all the cooking; having to worry about their hair; experiences, (3) different economic experiences, and
being a bad athlete; having less freedom; dieting; (4) different family experiences.
being weaker; being smaller; getting no respect; expe-
riencing sexual harassment. One boy said, “I couldn’t
stand it if people messed with me the way they do LO3 Different Educational
with girls” (Sadker et al., 2009, pp. 35, 88). Both boys
and girls had to be prodded to come up with a list
Experiences
of advantages to being a girl: not having to pay for Children spend much of their time in the classroom—
dates; shopping; talking on the phone; looking gor- approximately 35 hours per week during the
geous (Sadker et al., 2009). school year. So, it is important to explore children’s

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Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
educational experiences and the gender socialization acknowledgment (e.g., “Okay”). Boys receive more
that occurs in their classrooms. of every type of response, but especially remediation.
The different educational experiences of females When boys are having difficulty with an assignment,
and males begin in the classrooms of young children. teachers are more likely to encourage them to figure it
Research on the classroom behaviours of preschool out for themselves) in contrast, when girls are having
teachers during free play finds that they reinforce dual- problems with a question, teachers are more likely to
isms of sex and gender, as well as traditional gender show them how to solve it. Of the four types of com-
roles, in many ways (Granger et al., 2017). Although ments, girls most often receive a brief acknowledgment
preschool teachers facilitate gender-neutral activities (“Okay”). When teachers are asked why they give
during free play (e.g., playing with clay), they are girls brief acknowledgments so often, their responses
most likely to do so when interacting with mixed- reflect gender stereotypes; they say they don’t want to
sex groups of children. When teachers are interacting be too “tough” on a girl, hurt her feelings, or make her
with single-sex groups, they may encourage some cry (Sadker et al., 2009).
gender-neutral activities, but gender-specific activities Yet despite the greater attention that boys receive,
are facilitated as well—feminine activities with girls- girls are more likely to enjoy school (Hudon, 2017).
only groups (e.g., playing with dolls) and masculine They are also more likely to excel. Girls achieve higher
activities with boys-only groups (e.g., building cars overall grades and get higher scores on standardized
out of Lego). reading tests (Ferguson, 2016; Hudon, 2017). Boys are
David and Myra Sadker (along with Karen more likely to be disciplined; both male and female
Zittleman) have observed children’s classrooms at all students say that teachers often “pick on” the boys
ages, from preschool through high school. Over the and punish them unfairly. Teachers often subscribe
course of several decades, they found that boys and to stereotypes about boys’ academic abilities. For
girls sitting in the same classroom are receiving very dif- example, Heyder and Kessels (2015) had teachers
ferent educations. Because of the pragmatic demands read a vignette about a male or female student and
of the classroom and gender stereotypes, even the best then identify other qualities they believed that stu-
teachers may inadvertently treat boys and girls differ- dent possessed. Overall, teachers who read vignettes
ently. Although blatant bias in classroom practices has about male students described those students as lazy
declined over the decades, subtle differences continue and inattentive—especially when boys were engaged
(Sadker et al., 2009). Through these understated prac- in gender-typical behaviours, and even when the male
tices, boys are drawn to the forefront of the classroom, and female students were described as engaging in
whereas girls slip quietly into the background. Boys identical behaviours.
are encouraged to figure out how to solve problems Females are also more likely to pursue a postsec-
on their own, whereas girls have their problems solved ondary education and to graduate from postsecondary
for them (Sadker et al., 2009). studies (see Figure 7.2) (Ferguson, 2016). That pat-
In the classroom, boys are louder and more active tern is even more pronounced for Indigenous people
(Sadker et al., 2009). Thus, maintaining classroom (and especially younger cohorts), where among those
order means controlling the boys—by interacting with ages 25 to 34, women comprise 68 percent of those
them, asking them questions, and disciplining them with a university degree. By comparison, among non-
more often than girls. While the boys receive all of Indigenous people, that proportion is 59 percent
this attention, the girls quietly do their work. Teachers (Ferguson, 2016).
say that boys “need” more attention (because they are What is it that boys and girls are ultimately
weaker in some subjects) or “demand” more attention learning in the classroom? Within the official curric-
(by misbehaving and speaking out of turn). But not all ulum, both are learning math, science, social studies,
boys receive this attention—just the ones who exhibit and other subjects. When it comes to mastering this
more traditional forms of masculinity by being active, material, it appears that female students are at an
loud, and assertive. advantage. Besides the official curriculum, students
Overall, what type of attention is it that male and are also exposed to a hidden curriculum, whereby they
female students receive? There are four forms that learn what being a male or a female means in our
teacher feedback on student work can take: (a) praise, society. By being drawn to the forefront of classroom
whereby the teacher highlights an aspect of work life and encouraged to solve their own problems, boys
that has been done well; (b) remediation, when the develop problem-solving skills and independence.
teacher gives direction that enables a student to solve But there is a dark side to these lessons as well in that
a problem; (c) criticism, a critique about something boys are also learning that no one is going to solve
that has been done wrong; and (d) acceptance, a brief their problems for them, that they are on their own in

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 4 3

80%

70% Women
Men
60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
University degree College Trade Total
or certificate diploma certificate

Adapted from: Ferguson, A. (2016). Women and education: Qualifications, skills, and technology. Women in Canada: A gender-based statistical report. Ottawa,
ON: Statistics Canada. Catalogue No. 89-503-X.

this world, and that they must be tough, strong, and In most countries in the world, women are over-
independent. Girls are learning passivity, silence, and represented in the humanities and social sciences,
dependence, but at the same time, they are learning whereas men are overrepresented in “STEM” pro-
that they can rely on others when they face difficulties grams (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and
in life. mathematics) (Ferguson, 2016). In Canada, among
The gendering of education first appears with younger cohorts (ages 25 to 34), 61 percent of univer-
young children but is not limited to the lives of chil- sity graduates from STEM programs are male, whereas
dren and adolescents. The gendering of postsecondary 66 percent of graduates from non-STEM programs are
studies is also evident in the areas of study that women female (Ferguson, 2016). In recent decades, we have
and men pursue. seen some shifts in areas of postsecondary study, pri-
marily in terms of women entering male-dominated
areas of study (e.g., law, medicine, science). Despite
these shifts, gender segregation in postsecondary edu-
cation continues to be the norm rather than the excep-
tion. In exploring the reasons why, research tends to
focus on the underrepresentation of women in STEM
programs rather than the underrepresentation of males
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

in the humanities and social sciences. Some research

posits that this pattern is due to a lack of female
interest in math, which in large part is influenced by
gender/math stereotypes harboured by the adults in
children’s lives (Gunderson et al., 2012). Many par-
ents and teachers continue to perceive their sons or
their male students as inherently more logical and
skilled at math than their daughters or their female
Subtle differences in the treatment of male and female students. These stereotypes are maintained even in
students begin in early education but continue in the the face of contradictory evidence, such as when boys
postsecondary environment as well. and girls are performing equally well in math or when

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Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
girls are performing better. Gender/math stereotypes people skills and males with technical prowess are
are also maintained in the explanations parents offer more likely to enroll in fields of study in a way that
for their children’s success in math; male success in maintains gender segregation.
math is explained in terms of natural mathematical Why does segregation in programs of study
abilities, whereas female success is explained in terms matter? After all, society needs economists and psy-
of effort. Over time, girls who interact with adults who chologists, engineers, and nurses. Gender segregation
hold these stereotypes may show a declining interest in programs of study matters because it emerges from
in math, whereas boys’ interest in math is facilitated. and reinforces broader stereotypes—stereotypes that
Early research suggested that children’s degree of maintain elite discourses of sex, gender, and sexuality
interest in math would then be associated with their and their consequences. Moreover, there are direct
mathematical performance. In other words, because implications for areas of study. Some areas of study
girls were less interested in math, they would put are more directly “marketable,” meaning that employ-
less effort into their math classes and thereby attain ment directly related to one’s area of study may be
lower marks in math (Barone, 2011; Gunderson et al., more certain (e.g., an engineering degree compared to
2012). However, research finds that males with lower an art history degree). Second, occupations related to
levels of mathematical ability in secondary school (as some areas of study are more highly paid than others
measured by standardized tests) are still more likely (Ferguson, 2016; Moyser, 2017).
to enroll in STEM programs in university than females
with higher levels of ability (Ferguson, 2016).
One analysis of first-year university students TIME TO REVIEW
found that stereotypes are central to the segregation
• How do children say their lives would be
of males in science programs and females in the social
different if they woke up as another sex?
sciences and humanities (Lane, Goh, & Driver-Linn,
2012). Stereotypes can take two forms—explicit and • In what ways are girls and boys treated
implicit. Explicit stereotypes are those that people are differently in the classroom? What do
consciously aware of holding, whereas implicit ste- they learn from the official and hidden
reotypes are those that people are not conscious of. curricula?
Because implicit stereotypes operate at a subconscious • How and why are postsecondary studies
level, they remain outside an individual’s control and gendered?
thus may have an even greater impact. Implicit stereo-
types are measured by the Implicit Association Test
(IAT), where an individual must quickly group words
together as they flash on a computer screen; people LO4 Different Occupational
have much faster reaction times when a series of words
reflects a stereotype. Lane and colleagues (2012) Experiences
found that those students who held implicit stereo- Arising, in part, from different areas of postsecondary
types associating males with science and females with study are divergent occupational experiences. In the
the social sciences and humanities tended to enroll in mid-20th century, the male breadwinner and female
programs of study accordingly. These researchers went homemaker predominated. However, beginning in the
a step further, pointing out that implicit stereotypes 1960s, women began moving into the labour force in
also account for gender segregation across the various large numbers. Several forces contributed to this social
fields of study that exist within each of the sciences change. Broader economic shifts caused inflation to
and social sciences/humanities. That is, within the sci- rise more rapidly than people’s wages. This meant that
ences, male and female students tend to be segregated it was increasingly difficult for families to survive on
in different fields of study; for example, males are over- only one income. In addition, what was known as the
represented in engineering and computer science, and “second wave” of the women’s movement emerged.
females are overrepresented in biology and nursing. The “first wave” of feminism in the early 20th century
The same is true of the social sciences/humanities; for focused on women obtaining the right to vote and
instance, males are overrepresented in economics, and being legally declared “persons” (rather than the prop-
females are overrepresented in psychology. Lane and erty of their fathers or husbands). The second wave
colleagues proposed that there is not just a gendered emphasized other aspects of “equality,” such as occu-
“science/humanities” divide in programs of study pational and economic equality. Within this broader
but also a “care/technical” divide. Students who hold context of economic changes and the women’s move-
implicit attitudes associating females with caring and ment, more and more women became breadwinners

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 4 5

Women
Men
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1950 1983 2015

Source: Adapted from Moyser, M. (2017). Women and paid work. Women in Canada: A gender-based statistical report. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. Catalogue
No. 89-503-X.

as well. By 2014, 82 percent of Canadian women of are employed in the top three female-dominated
“prime” working age (i.e., 25 to 54) were partici- industries: health care and social assistance (where
pating in the labour force; in contrast, 91 percent of 82 percent of workers are female); educational ser-
men were labour force participants (see Figure 7.3). vices (where 69 percent of workers are female); and
Although the majority of women are in the labour accommodation and food services (where 59 percent
force, a greater proportion of women than men are of workers are female). In contrast, only 18 percent of
employed part-time (18 percent of women, 6 percent men are employed in the top three male-dominated
of men). This translates into lower pay and no benefits industries: construction (where 88 percent of workers
for women (Moyser, 2017). are male); forestry, fishing, mining, oil/gas extrac-
Uppal and LaRochelle-Côté (2014) analyzed pat- tion, and quarrying (where 81 percent of workers are
terns of male and female employment in Canada for male); and utilities (where 78 percent of workers are
those ages 25 to 34. People in this age group have com- male) (Moyser, 2017).
pleted any postsecondary education most recently and Over the past few decades, there has been some
are embarking on their careers; thus, they are consid- decline in occupational sex segregation, with a growing
ered predictive of future trends in occupational segre- number of people choosing to enter nontraditional
gation. Here we see that much like in postsecondary occupations. Between 1991 and 2011, there were sig-
education, women and men are segregated into different nificant gains in the number of women entering some
occupations. The three most common occupations for traditionally male occupations, including civil engi-
female university graduates were elementary or kinder- neering and law enforcement (Uppal and LaRochelle-
garten teacher, registered nurse, and secondary school Côté, 2014). In fact, most of these shifts have been
teacher (in that order). The three most common occu- the result of women entering male-dominated fields
pations for male university graduates were computer rather than the reverse. In part, this is because occupa-
programmer or interactive media developer, financial tions in male-dominated fields tend to be higher paid
auditor/accountant, and secondary school teacher. and feature more independence and authority; women
Women show more segregation in their occupa- entering those occupations have something to gain,
tional choices overall. When comparing women and whereas men entering female-dominated occupations
men at all levels of education, 41 percent of women would have something to lose (Furr, 2002).

1 4 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Although women have more freedom than men to in jobs that are lower paid and lower in status (e.g.,
enter nontraditional careers, they are less likely to rise clerical, part-time, temporary). They are also less
to the top of their fields and hold positions of authority, likely to enter supervisory and management posi-
a phenomenon known as the glass ceiling. In Canada, tions, especially senior management positions, which
only 6 percent of employed women serve in manage- receive greater remuneration. In addition, on average,
ment positions (compared to 10 percent of employed women work fewer hours per day in paid employment
men), and women comprise only 19 percent of mem- than men (Moyser, 2017) and are more likely to have
bers on the boards of the largest publicly listed com- temporary absences from the labour force in response
panies (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and to childbirth and childrearing. However, educational
Development, n.d.). Women who enter nontraditional choices and career patterns account for less than half
careers are also at risk of experiencing workplace har- of the earnings differential, which means that much of
assment, which can range from derogatory comments the gap is unexplained and open to alternative expla-
about their ability based on their gender, to unwanted nations (Frenette & Coulombe, 2007). Some explana-
attempts to establish romantic relationships, to sexual tions emphasize the devaluation of “women’s work,”
assault. For example, in 2013, two female RCMP officers whereby, historically, the types of work that women
initiated a class action lawsuit against the RCMP, alleging were restricted to were less respected and thus received
chronic harassment—sexual propositioning, derogatory lower remuneration. Furthermore, it was presumed
comments about ability, differential accommodations to that women’s incomes were “peripheral” to family life;
male and female officers, and more. In 2017, a settle- whereas a man’s income had to be sufficient to support
ment was reached that awarded the more than 1,000 a family, a woman’s income was thought to be only for
claimants up to $220,000 each (Perkel, 2017). the little extras. Those early wages served as the foun-
Although women continue to encounter the glass dation for subsequent wage increases over the decades,
ceiling in nontraditional careers, the reverse is true for and in this way, income differentials between men and
men. Rather than encountering a glass ceiling, they women were maintained. Other explanations highlight
benefit from a glass escalator, whereby they are more discrimination within the labour force, where assump-
likely to attain positions of authority or leadership tions about the way that family obligations will affect
(Moyser, 2017, p. 30). women’s job commitment and career patterns influ-
The occupational segregation of men and women ence hiring and promotion practices (Moyser, 2017).
and the differential likelihood of holding positions of And indeed, the different educational, occupational,
authority together account in part for yet another way and economic experiences of women and men are
in which one’s life is affected by virtue of having been intertwined with their family experiences.
born female or male—different economic experiences.
TIME TO REVIEW
LO5 Different Economic • Why did many women begin moving into
the labour force in the 1960s?
Experiences
• What is the nature of occupational sex
When looking at the gendering of economic experi-
segregation in society?
ences, what stands out the most is the ratio of female-
to-male earnings. Ever since data were first collected • What is the earnings differential or wage
on this issue in 1967, women’s earnings have been gap when comparing women and men,
only a fraction of men’s. In terms of annual income for and why does it exist?
full-year, full-time workers, the earnings differential is
78 percent—for every dollar that men earn, women earn
78 cents (Ferguson, 2016). Although the earnings differ-
ential has improved over time, women are still earning LO6 Different glass ceiling: Intangible
barriers that prevent
less money than men, regardless of whether we look at Family women from attaining
full-time, part-time, permanent, temporary, unionized, positions of authority or
or nonunionized work (Ferguson, 2016; Moyser, 2017). Experiences leadership.
What accounts for this ongoing wage gap? In part, The significance of sex glass escalator:
it emerges from sex segregation in areas of postsec- and gender within fami- Intangible factors that
enable men to attain
ondary study and subsequent career choices. Male- lies begins before people positions of authority or
dominated areas tend to be associated with higher are even born. The ques- leadership.
wages. A greater proportion of women are employed tion of whether the child

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 4 7

pumpuija/Shutterstock
to them as “strong” and “alert” (Rubin, Provenzano,
& Lurra, 1974), even though objective measures
revealed no significant differences in weight, length,
muscle tone, reflexes, or heart rate. In another study,
infants were shown an unfamiliar toy while adults Is this toy just as likely to be found in a little boy’s bedroom
observed their reactions. Adults who thought they as a little girl’s bedroom?
were observing a boy described his reaction to the
strange toy as “pleasure” or “excitement”; in con-
trast, those who thought they were observing a girl
(although they were, in fact, observing the very same parents interact with their daughters more, offer them
infant) identified her reaction as “fearful” (Condrey more comfort, and assist them in difficult situations
& Condrey, 1976). (Clearfield & Nelson, 2006). Parents also tolerate
Master statuses not only influence attitudes but more noise, physical activity, and exploration in boys
also behaviour, such that parents subsequently treat than in girls. For instance, Garner and Grazian (2016)
their sons and daughters differently. Goldberg and observed families who were spending the day at a local
Lewis (1969) found that when mothers brought their zoo. They found that parents tended to discipline their
six-month-old infants into a child observation lab, daughters for talking loudly, jumping up and down,
mothers of girls kept their infants closer and spoke and climbing on fences or large rocks. In contrast,
with them more often than did mothers of boys. not only were sons not disciplined for these same
When mothers then brought their children in seven activities, but parents would even memorialize those
months later, the room was set up in an interesting moments in photos. Gender socialization occurred in
way. A waist-high barrier divided the room almost more subtle ways at the zoo as well, such as by gen-
completely in half; there was a small gap at one end of dering the animals. Parents talked about small, quiet,
the barrier that allowed people to move from one side especially cute, or caretaking animals as female and
of the room to the other. The toddlers were placed on larger, active, assertive animals as males (when, in fact,
one side of the barrier and the mothers on the other in many cases, the animals in a specific display were
side; the mothers then waved a toy enthusiastically all of the same sex). In the context of families, chil-
in order to capture their children’s attention. Being dren are also exposed to gender-stereotyped colours
separated from their mothers and the toy resulted in in their clothing and bedroom decor and are provided
many of the toddlers becoming upset. When the little with gender-stereotyped toys. Thus, patterns found
girls started to cry, mothers were likely to pick them in classrooms (Sadker et al., 2009) are also found in
up and bring them to the other side. In contrast, the families.
little boys were encouraged to make their way to the Although socialization into traditional gender
gap at the end of the barrier and find their own way roles remains common in contemporary society, a
to the other side. growing number of parents are stepping outside of
Almost half a century later, research continues to these constraints. Parents who are LGBTQ or gender
find differential treatment of girls and boys by par- non-conforming in other ways are especially likely to
ents. As you will learn in the chapter on socialization, offer their children a “gender buffet” by offering them

1 4 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 4 9

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

THE IMPACT OF GENDERED NORMS IN MY LIFE

Simply by virtue of having been born a particular sex, we pursue. In heteronormative families, being male or
our lives are affected in myriad ways, from seemingly female leads to distinctive roles within the family, asso-
insignificant differences, such as the side our shirts ciated with certain responsibilities; this then influences
button on, to more profound inequalities, such as our career trajectories. The occupations we pursue,
higher or lower earnings. From the moment we are and our career trajectories and other “unexplained”
born, our parents are likely to perceive and then treat phenomena (e.g., devaluation or discrimination), then
us in certain ways. When we enter the school system, affect our economic experiences.
that pattern continues, despite the best intentions of
teachers. We develop, are reinforced (or punished) Think Outside the Box: In what ways have your
for particular interests, and acquire some skills more educational, occupational, economic, and family
than others. We are likely to pursue certain postsec- experiences been influenced by gendered norms and
ondary paths, which then influence the occupations assumptions?

1 5 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

PARENTAL LEAVE BENEFITS

As women began entering the workforce en masse by 35 weeks of parental leave that can be shared
in the latter half of the 20th century, social policy between parents (Government of Canada, 2016).
changed to accommodate the different day-to-day Even though social policy enables fathers to take
realities of Canadian families. In 1971, women who parental leave, only a minority actually do so. In 2013,
met eligibility requirements (in terms of the number only 12 percent of fathers (outside Quebec) of new-
of paid work hours they had in the past year) were born or newly adopted children intended to take or
able to claim up to 15 weeks of maternity leave took parental leave; the average length of leave was 16
through Unemployment Insurance (now known as weeks. This stands in contrast to 90 percent of mothers,
Employment Insurance) upon the birth of a child. In who take an average leave of 32 weeks (Lero, 2015).
recognition of the greater prevalence of shared par-
enting in families and to encourage such sharing, in Think Outside the Box: Drawing upon what you have
1990, the federal Parental Benefits Program included learned about elite discourses of sex and gender and
an additional 10 weeks of parental leave that could the differential educational, occupational, and eco-
be utilized by either parent (or shared). In 2000, there nomic experiences of males and females, what would
were further changes to the Parental Benefits Program. have to change in society for more fathers to take
Fifteen weeks of maternity leave are now followed advantage of the parental leave they are entitled to?

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 5 1

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

SUPPORTING GENDER NONCONFORMITY

WITH BILL C-16
Conflict theorists propose that the law emerges not released a statement saying, “The purpose of this leg-
from consensus but from conflict and serves the inter- islation is to ensure that everyone can live according to
ests of dominant groups. Thus, emancipating subordi- their gender identity and express their gender as they
nated groups often means advocating for changes in choose. It will protect people from discrimination, hate
legislation. Due to the efforts of LGBTQ activist groups, propaganda and hate crime” (Heidenreich, 2017).
in 2017, Bill C-16 (An Act to amend the Canadian
Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code) became law, Think Outside the Box: What other instances are you
adding legal protections on the basis of gender iden- aware of where marginalized groups were able to suc-
tity and expression. The attorney general of Canada cessfully advocate for changes in the law?

in analyses of gendered violence, especially within inti- males and females. These codes of gender rest on and
mate relationships. In the chapter on families, you will reinforce dualisms of sex, gender, and sexualities. They
learn more about the role that competition for resources also maintain male dominance and independence and
and power plays in intimate violence. Arising from their female passivity and subordination. Goffman stated
emancipatory interest, conflict theories are also used to that it was important to draw attention to the nature
analyze social movements and social change regarding of these hidden codes so that individuals could make
sex, gender, and sexualities (see Sociology in Practice). a conscious decision about whether to accept or reject
them in their own gender displays.
Interactionist Theories
Interactionist theories focus on how we come to under-
Feminist Theories
stand gender and develop our own gender identities. As you recall from previous chapters, feminist theories
Through our interactions with significant others, our are characterized by considerable diversity. We can see
development of a sense of the generalized other, and the an example of the range of feminist theorizing by con-
power of the looking-glass self, we come to know that trasting two well-known (and somewhat controversial)
we are “female” or “male.” Through childhood experi- scholars: one argues that we must embrace gender dif-
ences in our families and our classrooms, we come to ferences, whereas the other claims that we must seek
understand that males and females are supposed to act in to create a genderless society. Germaine Greer (2007),
certain ways, develop particular interests, enter specific a prominent feminist voice for almost half a century,
types of occupations, and hold certain roles within fami- argues that the women’s movement has gone astray.
lies. On the basis of this knowledge, we then “do” gender She criticizes it for emphasizing “equality,” which in
in our everyday lives (West & Zimmerman, 1987). practice has led to women trying to become like men.
Erving Goffman (1979) conducted a classic analysis Male characteristics and experiences are perceived as
of gender differentiation from an interactionist perspec- the ideal, and female characteristics and experiences
tive. He explored how gender differentiation is repro- are to be left behind. Instead of equality, she argues
duced in social interactions through gender displays. that women must attain “liberation,” wherein they
Gender displays include everything from putting on become free to define themselves and their aspirations
makeup and selecting clothes to wear, to the positions from a distinctly female perspective. In contrast, Sheila
in which we place our bodies, to our facial expressions, Jeffreys (2014) argues for moving beyond dualisms
to the “appropriate” use of separate public restrooms of sex and gender. She contends that the notion of
for men and women. Gender displays are based on “transgender” does not move beyond those dualisms
what Goffman called codes of gender—the norms gov- but instead reinforces them and maintains notions of
erning acceptable appearances and behaviours for essential differences between the sexes. That is, the

1 5 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

example, while “first- distinctive whole.

wave” feminist efforts
achieved voting rights for matrix of
domination:
some groups of women Intersecting systems of
in Canada in 1918, oppression in society,
such as those based on
Indigenous women would sex, gender, race, or social
Much like a complex highway interchange, our individual array not have the right to vote class.
of multiple identities intersect to create a cohesive whole. for another half century.

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 5 3

Chapter Summary
LO1 Describe the elite discourses LO2 Explain the ways in which sex,
that equate sex, gender, and gender, and sexuality are socially
sexuality. constructed.
These discourses are based on dualisms: male/ When we question elite discourses, we see that
female; masculine/feminine; heterosexual/homo- sex, gender, and sexuality are socially constructed.
sexual. These discourses also equate the three, in Cross-cultural research has clearly established that
that to be male is presumed to be both masculine norms governing gender vary across cultures and
and attracted to women; similarly, to be female over time. Even sex is socially constructed; rather
is presumed to be both feminine and attracted than discrete categories of female/male, it is more
to men. accurate to speak of a sex spectrum.

1 5 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Recommended Resources
1. To learn more about the federal government’s efforts Girls, which was launched in September 2016, see
to purge gays and lesbians from public service, http://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/.
see G. Kinsman and P. Gentile, The Canadian War 3. To hear the personal stories of 11 transgen-
on Queers: National Security as Sexual Regulation der Americans, see the HBO documentary The
(Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, 2009). Trans List, directed by Timothy Greenfield-
2. To learn more about the National Inquiry into Sanders.
Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and

For Further Reflection

1. What are the implications of different economic and 3. Return to the part of the chapter where children
family experiences in adulthood? For instance, why talk about how their lives would be different if they
does it matter if a woman earns less money than her woke up as another sex. Were they correct in their
male partner? Why does it matter if he is spend- assumptions given what research tells us about the
ing more hours per day in paid employment while differential outcomes for males and females based
she is spending more hours per day in the unpaid on sex?
labour associated with family life?
2. In what ways do the different types of theories that
were presented either reflect dualisms of sex, gender,
and sexuality or challenge them?

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved June 17, 2017, from brainquote.com.

NEL Chapter 7 Sex, Gender, and Sexualities: Deconstructing Dualisms 1 5 5

Race and Ethnicity: Defining

Ourselves and Others

“ ”
oneinchpunch/Shutterstock

After Zorro, people spoke Spanish to me for ages. I’m Welsh but
that movie instantly gave me a new ethnicity.
(Catherine Zeta-Jones)1

NEL

LO1 Compare the concepts of ethnicity,

race, racialization, visible
minorities, and racialized groups.

LO2 Describe contemporary patterns of

ethnicity in Canada.

LO3 List the three objectives of

Canada’s immigration policy,
outline the types of individuals
who enter the country on the

AF archive/Alamy
basis of each of those objectives,
and describe contemporary
immigration patterns.
Actress Catherine Zeta-Jones.
LO4 Describe the implications of
ethnicity for families and for
economic experiences. In 1998, actress Catherine Zeta-Jones starred in the
movie The Mask of Zorro. As she played the role of
a Spanish woman and has dark eyes, hair, and com-
LO5 Distinguish between dominant plexion, people assumed that she was Spanish; in fact,
and minority groups and describe she is Welsh. Her statement on the previous page reflects
the forms of interaction that can how we identify ourselves on the basis of ethnicity but
take place between them. at the same time are identified by others; she identifies
herself as Welsh, but others identified her as Spanish on
LO6 Outline the three components the basis of her accent in the movie and aspects of her
of prejudice and describe the physical appearance. The ethnicity that is integrated
different forms that discrimination into our self-concepts and the ethnic identities that
can take. others may ascribe to us have a variety of implications.

LO7 Discuss theories of prejudice

and racialization, including LO1 ETHNICITY, RACE,
social psychological theories, RACIALIZATION, AND
interactionist theories, conflict
theories, and critical race theory. VISIBLE MINORITIES
The term ethnicity comes from the Greek word ethnos,
which refers to “people living and acting together in
a manner that we might
apply to a ‘people’ or a
‘nation’: a collectivity ethnicity: Cultural
characteristics such as
with a ‘way of life’” language, religion, taste
(Jenkins, 2007, para. 1). It in food, shared descent,
cultural traditions, and
includes cultural charac- shared geographic
teristics such as language, locations.
religion, taste in food,

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 5 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
shared descent, cultural traditions, and shared geo- by some scholars to the Biblical story of Ham, whose
graphic locations. We can speak of objective ethnicity descendants (black Africans) were “condemned to ser-
(also known as ethnic origin), which is your ancestral vitude” because of Ham’s sins (Arthur, 2007, para. 2).
background, and subjective ethnicity (also known as Others trace its origins to Britain’s colonization of the
ethnic identity), which is how you personally identify Irish, beginning in the 13th century. In either case,
yourself. The two may or may not align (Lee et al., the concept’s origins are intertwined with power and
2016). You may be of Lebanese ancestral descent but social inequality in a process known as racialization,
identify yourself as “Lebanese,” “Lebanese Canadian,” wherein “racial categories are constructed as different
or “Canadian.” Ethnicity is not fixed but rather is and unequal in ways that have social, economic, and
flexible and permeable. Your own ethnic identity may political consequences” (Galabuzi, 2006, p. 251).
vary across contexts; when you are travelling outside With the Enlightenment, scientific thought elaborated
Canada, you may identify yourself as “Canadian”; on racial differences, and this furthered racialization
while at a family gathering, you identify yourself as at a global level by justifying the oppressive practices
“Japanese”; and when you associated with European colonization.
are at school, you con- Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) developed the
objective ethnicity:
The ethnic characteristics sider yourself “Japanese first scientific classification of race. He stated that
of your ancestors. Also Canadian.” Furthermore, there were four races: Americanus, Europaeus,
known as ethnic origin. there are no singular defi- Asiaticus, and Africanus. Many other racial classifica-
ethnic origin: The nitions of any particular tion systems followed, some indicating as few as three
ethnic characteristics ethnic group. To be races and others as many as 30. Although the concept
of your ancestors. Also “Polish,” do you have to of race is based on “physical characteristics … that
known as objective
ethnicity. be born in Poland? Do all are seen as essential and permanent” (Arthur, 2007,
of your ancestors have to para. 1), there are varying conceptions of how many
subjective ethnicity:
How you personally
have come from Poland “races” there are as well as precisely which physical
identify your ethnicity. Also or only some of them characteristics are associated with particular races.
known as ethnic identity. (e.g., a grandfather)? Do Furthermore, all human beings are far more geneti-
ethnic identity: How you have to speak Polish? cally similar than they are different, sharing the vast
you personally identify Do you have to enjoy majority of their genes. There is no specific gene
your ethnicity. Also known eating pierogies? Must associated with “race”; there are only small genetic
as subjective ethnicity.
you include “Polish” as mutations that reflect the geographic mobility of early
Race: A socially part of your subjective human beings as they expanded outward from Africa
constructed category used
to classify humankind
identity? to other environments and climates. The variations
according to such physical The concept of eth- in the genetic material of peoples found worldwide
characteristics as skin nicity is further compli- are subsets of the original genetic pool found on the
colour, hair texture, and
facial features.
cated by its intersection African continent (see Sociology Online).
with race. Race is “a Ethnicity and race are intertwined (Arthur, 2007;
racialization: The socially constructed cat- Jenkins, 2007). Historically, scientific classifications
process by which racial
categories are constructed
egory used to classify of race sometimes went beyond physical character-
as different and unequal humankind according to istics to include cultural ones. Conversely, in society
in ways that have social, such physical character- today, “race” is often integrated into conceptions of
economic, and political
consequences.
istics as skin colour, hair “ethnicity,” just as when people based their evalua-
texture, and facial fea- tions of Catherine Zeta-Jones’s ethnicity in part on her
visible minorities: tures” (Galabuzi, 2006, physical appearance (see Sociology in My Life). Race is
Persons, other than
Aboriginal (i.e., Indigenous) p. 251). Thus, whereas also integrated into the definition of visible minorities.
persons, who are non- ethnicity is based on cul- Visible minorities are defined by the Employment
Caucasian in race or non- tural characteristics, race Equity Act (1995) as “persons, other than Aboriginal
white in colour. Also known
as racialized groups. is based on physical ones. [i.e., Indigenous] persons, who are non-Caucasian in
You may think of “races” race or non-white in colour.” Galabuzi (2006) argues
racialized group: as including white and for the term “racialized groups” as a replacement. He
Persons, other than
Aboriginal [i.e., Indigenous] black, or you may have suggests that “visible minority” implies a permanent
persons, who are non- heard people referring status that reinforces essentialist assumptions about
Caucasian in race or non-
white in colour. Also known
to themselves as brown. race; in contrast, racialized group draws attention to
as visible minorities. Historically, the concept the oppressive social and political practices that give
of race has been traced rise to inequalities experienced by people of colour.

1 5 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

“A FAMILY TREE FOR HUMANITY”:

THE GENOGRAPHIC PROJECT
In his TED talk “A Family Tree for Humanity,” Spencer Wells also established The Genographic
Dr. Spencer Wells explains how DNA works and dis- Project in collaboration with the National Geographic
cusses the genetic mutations that accompanied the Society. The project uses “cutting edge genetic and
geographic mobility of humans as part of evolution. computational technologies to analyze historical
Highlighting the social construction of race, he points patterns in DNA … to better understand our shared
out that all of the mitochondrial diversity in the world genetic heritage” (National Geographic Society, 2017).
today (wherein mitochondrial DNA is passed down Much like a crowdsourcing campaign, members of
from mothers to children of all sexes) can be traced the public can participate by submitting a DNA sample
to a single woman (Mitochondrial Eve) approximately using a kit they can purchase online; in return, they
200,000 years ago. Similarly, all of the Y-chromosome receive information based on the results of the analysis
diversity (wherein Y-chromosomes are passed from of their own DNA. The money spent on the kit con-
fathers to their male children) can be traced to a single tributes to the National Geographic Society’s research
man (Y-Chromosome Adam) approximately 60,000 fund. You can learn more about The Genographic Pro-
to 90,000 years ago. You can watch his TED talk at ject at https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/.
https://www.ted.com/.

Canada, like Australia and the United States, is There were hundreds of tribes, languages, and dia-
a nation that exists in its current form only because lects. Complex relationships existed among tribes,
of Indigenous peoples as the original inhabitants of involving trade, cooperation, and/or conflict. With
the land, several centuries of immigration, and the colonization, those nations were denied recognition;
protection of refugees. Indigenous cultures have instead, through settlement by France and Britain
inhabited the land for at least 14,000 years, and oral and subsequent immigration from those nations and
histories claim “for time immemorial” (Blackstock, many others, the nation “Canada” was eventually
2006–2007). When the first European explorers created. With that history, ethnicity and racialization
arrived, the geographically varied land space was are concepts of particular relevance for Canadian
already home to several distinct cultural regions. society.

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

MY ETHNICITY
Sometimes the term ethnic is mistakenly used to refer ethnicity—both in terms of the objective ethnic origins
only to groups outside the dominant culture. In Canada, of our ancestors and our subjective ethnic identities.
people who proclaim that they like eating “ethnic”
foods may be thinking of bannock, chicken biryani, Think Outside the Box: How would you describe
empanadas, hummus, and pho rather than roast your ethnicity? What specific characteristics are you
beef or mashed potatoes. However, everybody has an using to define your ethnicity?

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 5 9

SOCIOLOGY IN WORDS

“ABORIGINAL” AND “INDIGENOUS”

The Constitution Act (1982) defines “Aboriginal In 2007, the United Nations Declaration on
peoples of Canada” as those who are Indian the Rights of Indigenous Peoples was passed.
(subsequently referred to as First Nations), Inuit, or The declaration entrenches “the rights of Indigenous
Métis. Because the term “Aboriginal” is entrenched peoples to live in dignity, to maintain and strengthen
in the constitution, many federal government their own institutions, cultures and traditions and
policies and federally funded research (such as to pursue their self-determined development, in
through Statistics Canada) continue to use the term keeping with their own needs and aspirations”
“Aboriginal.” Nevertheless, the term “Indigenous” (United Nations, 2007). When the member states
is more appropriate, with important social, political, of the United Nations voted on this resolution,
and legal implications. In 2015, Prime Minister there were 177 votes in favour and four opposed;
Justin Trudeau changed the name of the ministry those opposed were Canada, Australia, New
of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Zealand, and the United States. Thus, using the term
to the Ministry of Indigenous and Northern Affairs. “Indigenous” instead of “Aboriginal” acknowledges
Similarly, on June 21, 2017, he announced that Indigenous peoples’ fundamental rights, as outlined
National Aboriginal Day would henceforth be National in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Day. These were important symbolic steps. Indigenous Peoples (Joseph, 2016).

1 6 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
language. They report more than 60 languages across implemented its first cohesive immigration policy in
12 different language families. The most common 1906 (the Immigration Act). The largest number of
Indigenous languages are Cree, Inuktitut, and Ojibway immigrants to enter Canada in a single year occurred
(Langlois & Turner, 2014). In the non-Indigenous in 1913, when 400,000 people arrived in Canada
population, the most commonly reported non-English (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2014).
and non-French mother tongues are Chinese lan- Since that time, immigration has waxed and
guages (19 percent), Italian (7 percent), and Punjabi waned. It decreases during times of economic decline
(6 percent) (Houle & Corbeil, 2017). (e.g., the Great Depression) as well as during wartime
(e.g., the First and Second World Wars). As immigra-
tion policies changed over the years, certain groups
LO3 Historical Immigration were barred entry; others were accepted as immi-
grants only after being disqualified for many years.
Patterns and Policies It was only in the 1960s that “nation of origin” was
Historically, immigration patterns have varied over removed from immigration applications. Once it was,
time and reflect Canada’s immigration policies and all applicants, regardless of their country of origin,
practices. The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act were evaluated using the same criteria. This removed
(2001) is based on three objectives: reuniting families, an important barrier that had prevented many ethnic
contributing to the nation’s economic development, groups from immigrating to Canada.
and protecting refugees. Family-class immigrants have In 1951, the UN adopted the Refugee Convention,
been sponsored by close relatives living in Canada, which recognized that refugees are different from
particularly spouses/partners, dependent children, immigrants and must be protected, in that refugees
grandparents, and parents. Economic immigrants are do not choose to immigrate but rather are forced to
selected on the basis of some combination of educa- flee from their countries of origin. Eighteen years
tional attainment, occupational skills, entrepreneur- later, Canada signed the convention and implemented
ship, business investment, and ability to contribute its first formal refugee determination system. Since
to the Canadian economy. Refugees are persons who that time, more than 500,000 refugees have settled
have been forced to flee from persecution. They may in Canada. You might be most familiar with Canada’s
meet the criteria of the 1951 Geneva Convention, now leading role in protecting refugees by the more than
institutionalized within international law: “A person 40,000 refugees from Syria who arrived in Canada
must be outside of their country of origin and have a between November 2015 and January 2017 (Canadian
well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of Council for Refugees, n.d.-a). But people who have
race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular fled to Canada throughout its history comprise many
social group or political opinion” (Canadian Council social groups and countries of origin, from loyalists
for Refugees, n.d.-b). Immigrants and people who and pacifists during the American Revolution, to
have been granted refugee status are known as per- black slaves in the 19th century escaping from the
manent residents until such time as they may apply for United States using the Underground Railroad, to a
and successfully attain Canadian citizenship. range of minority groups
The number of immigrants and refugees who have (based on religion, eth-
been accepted into Canada has varied over the past nicity, sexual orientation, Family-class
150 years. This reflects “push” factors, which motivate or other factors) fleeing immigrants: Immigrants
who are sponsored by
people to leave their countries of origin (e.g., religious persecution in a variety of close relatives living in
persecution), as well as “pull” factors, which include countries today. Canada.
economic prosperity, the need for workers, and immi- Because of
Economic
gration policies that draw people to Canada. Before Indigenous peoples as immigrants: Immigrants
1906, Canada had no cohesive immigration policy. the original inhabitants selected on the basis of
The government’s goal was to increase the nation’s of the land, several centu- some combination of
educational attainment,
population (more specifically, its white, English- ries of immigration, and occupational skills,
speaking population), especially after the US govern- the protection of refu- entrepreneurship, business
ment began expressing an interest in colonizing the gees, Canadian society investment, and ability to
contribute to the Canadian
Canadian West. Between 1896 and 1905, the govern- today is characterized by economy.
ment advertised for agricultural immigrants (from tremendous ethnic diver-
the United States, the United Kingdom, and northern sity. Individuals “objec- Refugees: Persons who
are forced to flee from
Europe) to settle the West. Thus, we see immigration tively” come from certain persecution.
increasing in the first years of the 20th century. Canada ethnic backgrounds and

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 6 1

(Frideres & Gadacz, 2012; Frideres & Madibbo, 2014).

Family Interdependence
Feelings of obligation toward one’s family tend to
be stronger in individuals from non-European cul-
tures; among those of European background, interde-
Canada is recognized as a world leader in protecting pendence of family members is stronger in southern
refugees. European cultures (Georgas et al., 2006; Vedder et al.,
2008). In these families, youth spend more time with
then “subjectively” incorporate specific ethnicities adults and therefore under adult supervision. Also,
into their self-concepts. Regardless of whether people youth see household work as communal—as some-
identify themselves, or are identified by others, as thing expected of family members rather than some-
having a particular ethnicity, there are consequences thing that will be financially rewarded (e.g., through
to that identification. a weekly allowance) (Fuligni, Yip, & Tseng, 2002;
Kagitcibasi, 2007; Vedder et al., 2008).
Family interdependence is also reflected in the age
TIME TO REVIEW
at which youth move out of the family home. In Canada,
• What are the ethnic origins and home leaving is affected by macro-level economic con-
characteristics of people living in Canada ditions (e.g., the need for a postsecondary education)
today? and demographic forces (e.g., the average age of the first
marriage). But it is also influenced by factors that vary
• How and why have immigration patterns
among and within ethnic groups—socioeconomic status,
varied historically?
family connectedness, norms that govern the timing of
life events, the degree of segregation of particular ethnic
groups in urban centres, and the recency of immigra-
LO4 CONSEQUENCES OF tion to Canada. For example, a comparison of co-res-
ETHNIC IDENTIFICATION idence patterns in Canadian young adults with varied
ethnic origins finds that those with southern European
The implications of ethnicity range from the micro to (e.g., Portuguese), Asian (e.g., Chinese), and Latin
the macro level. Two areas where ethnicity has espe- American (e.g., Puerto Rican) origins were more likely
cially clear implications relate to family and economic to be living in the parental home than those with other
experiences. ethnic origins (Jeong, Hamplová, & Le Bourdais, 2014).

Diverse Family Experiences

Family life is strongly affected by ethnicity and immi-
gration status.

Family Structure
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

The nuclear family predominates in Canada, regardless

of ethnic group or immigration status. However, immi-
grants are four times more likely than non-immigrants
to live in extended families, and members of racialized
groups are 20 times more likely than non-racialized
groups to live in extended families. Also, especially
on reserves, Indigenous people are more likely than

1 6 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Intergenerational Relationships Yes No

Parents in some ethnic groups may engage in stricter or Identifies Integration National
with National Yes
more lenient parenting practices than parents in other Pattern Pattern
Culture
ethnic groups. This means that the impact of parenting Ethnic Diffuse
No
practices on child outcomes may vary across ethnic Pattern Pattern
groups (Ho, Bluestein, & Jenkins, 2008). A large body
of research has found that very strict parenting styles are
Source: Adapted from J. W. Berry, J. P. Phinney, D. L. Sam, & P. Vedder (2006).
associated with child obedience in the short term but in Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation
the long term are associated with rebellion, aggression, across national contexts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
lower grades in school, and substance use (Baumrind,
1968, 1991). More recently, researchers have found that The first adaptation pattern is the integration
this association varies across ethnic groups and is not pattern, where youth identify with both their her-
associated with negative child outcomes in families itage culture and their
from many current immigrant cultures, such as Chinese, new, national culture.
bicultural: Participating
Indian, Pakistani, and Korean (Ho et al., 2008). The second pattern is in two distinct cultures
One aspect of intergenerational relationships the ethnic pattern, with simultaneously.
that is unique to immigrant families is the potential youth identifying pri- integration pattern:
conflict that can arise between parents who attained marily with their heritage Identifying with both one’s
adulthood in their nation of origin and their children, culture. Youth who orient heritage culture and one’s
new, national culture.
who may have come to Canada while still quite young themselves primarily to
or who may have been born in Canada. These youth the new, national cul- ethnic pattern:
are bicultural: they have been exposed to the family’s ture are following the Identifying primarily with
one’s heritage culture.
heritage culture within the home, yet they are part of national pattern. Finally,
the new, national culture when outside the home (see those who are confused national pattern:
Sociology on Screen). about how they should Identifying primarily with
one’s new, national culture.
Bicultural youth may respond to the demands of be adapting to their
two cultures in a number of ways. One study of 5,000 bicultural experiences diffuse pattern:
Uncertainty about which
immigrant youth from 30 ethnic backgrounds now are following a d iffuse culture(s) one should or
living in 13 different countries found four different pattern (see Figure 8.1). should not identify with.
adaptation patterns (Berry et al., 2006). Adaptation patterns have

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

GENERATION ONE
The CBC documentary Generation One: Living in Two with a younger generation of bicultural youth. She
Worlds looks at the experiences of bicultural youth. It finds that although there have been many changes
follows journalist Nahlah Ayed, who is the first genera- in Canadian society since she was in high school, the
tion in her family to be born in Canada, as she returns struggles with identity that bicultural youth face are
to her high school in Winnipeg, Manitoba, to speak similar to her own at that age.

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 6 3

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implications for youth’s psychological adaptation on the degree of income disparity between Indigenous
(their self-esteem, their mental health) and sociocul- and non-Indigenous populations. Approximately half
tural adaptation (their experiences in school and in of the Indigenous population has some type of post-
the community). Those who follow the integration secondary credential, compared to almost two-thirds
pattern, identifying with both their heritage culture of the non-Indigenous population (Statistics Canada,
and their new, national culture, have the most posi- 2015). With postsecondary credentials, the income
tive adaptation experience overall. Youth who orient disparity declines considerably—and with a university
themselves primarily to their ethnic culture experi- degree virtually disappears (Moyser, 2017; Statistics
ence positive psychological adaptation but negative Canada, 2015).
sociocultural adaptation and have negative school Analyses of the average incomes of immigrant
experiences and problems in the community. Those and Canadian-born populations have found that level
who follow the national pattern experience negative of education has less influence on income disparity.
psychological and sociocultural adaptation, as do At all education levels, immigrants earn less than
those who follow the diffuse pattern; however, the the Canadian-born. Income disparity is especially
negative adaptation experiences of the latter are more marked among those who have immigrated within
significant. the past five years, and that disparity has increased
A variety of factors influence how strongly the over the past several decades. The average earnings
children of immigrants identify with their ethnic ori- of recent immigrants declined by 15 percent between
gins. Stronger ethnic identities are found among youth 1985 and 1990 and by another 13 percent between
who are members of racialized groups, have a greater 1990 and 1995. From the late 1990s to the present,
sense of belonging with their families, speak a heritage their average earnings have remained stable (Hou &
language at home, and have a preponderance of co- Picot, 2016). And this income gap continues even
ethnic friends (Sano, Kaida, & Tenkorang, 2015). though immigrants in the 21st century have higher
levels of education and are more highly skilled than
Diverse Economic in the past as economic immigrants are selected on the
basis of their ability to contribute to our knowledge-
Experiences based Canadian economy (Hou & Picot, 2016). In
Economic experiences can vary considerably on the fact, a larger proportion of the immigrant population
basis of ethnicity. Economic variations become espe- than the Canadian-born population has a university
cially evident when we compare the average incomes degree, and those who immigrate to Canada as chil-
of Indigenous and non-Indigenous persons and dren are far more likely to pursue a university educa-
the average incomes of immigrants and Canadian- tion than their Canadian-born counterparts (Hou &
born. Bonikowska, 2016).
Income disparity between Indigenous and non- So, if immigrants are better educated than ever
Indigenous persons is considerable. This is accounted before, and are in fact better educated than the
for, in part, by differences in employment rates. Canadian-born, why does the income disparity exist,
Among those ages 25 to 54 (considered the prime and why has it grown over the past several decades?
working ages), the employment rate for Indigenous Several contributing factors have been emphasized
persons is 69 percent, compared to 82 percent for that are largely functions of the changing source coun-
non-Indigenous persons (Statistics Canada, 2017). tries for immigrants (from primarily European to pri-
However, even among those who are employed, marily Asian and South Asian): degree of proficiency
there is an income gap. Indigenous persons who in one of Canada’s two official languages; real or per-
are employed full-time have an average income of ceived differences in educational systems (the rec-
$26.00 per hour, compared to $27.41 per hour among ognition of foreign credentials); a preference among
their non-Indigenous counterparts (Moyser, 2017). employers for Canadian work experience; and racial
There are, however, significant differences among discrimination (Frank & Hou, 2017).
Indigenous groups, with First Nation persons having Ethnicity has implications for various aspects of
the lowest average income and Métis the highest daily life, including family structure, family inter-
(Statistics Canada, 2015). Indigenous persons are less dependence, intergenerational relationships, and
likely to be employed in the knowledge sector (which economic experiences. At a more macro level, rela-
tends to have higher wages) and are also less likely tionships between groups in society are affected by
to hold senior management positions (Moyser, 2017). sociocultural forces related to ethnicity, race, and
However, level of education has the greatest impact aspects of immigration.

1 6 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 6 5

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
the principal economic activity of Euro-Canadians. the Department of Indian Affairs had the power to fine,
With the decline of the fur trade, affiliations with detain, or arrest parents who tried to keep their children
Indigenous cultures came to be seen as less useful. at home. In British Columbia, where many Indigenous
Although the government of France had initiated children were already participating in the public school
a formal Christian conversion policy as far back as system, children were removed from those schools and
1632, the pragmatic realities of life in the harsh envi- placed in residential schools instead (Barman, 2003). By
ronment and the economic requirements of the fur 1896, there were already 45 residential schools in opera-
trade meant that cultural differences were tolerated. tion, and a total of 130 schools existed over a period of
As those economic alliances weakened, more atten- more than 100 years. Around 150,000 Indigenous chil-
tion was paid to implementing the conversion policy. dren attended residential schools (National Centre for
A series of policies followed, intended to convert every Truth and Reconciliation, 2016).
facet of Indigenous cultures. The reserve system, Until 1951, students in residential schools received
established in 1830, often compelled communities to only a half-day of academic instruction; the rest of the
abandon their traditional activities, such as nomadic day was spent in manual labour. Instruction was not
hunting and gathering. With the Act to Encourage only academic (e.g., arithmetic) but also religious and
the Gradual Civilization of Indian Tribes in This cultural. So even after six or seven years in school, most
Province (1857) and the Gradual Enfranchisement children remained at a Grade 1, 2, or 3 level (Barman,
Act (1869), the goal became full assimilation and the 2003). Education beyond Grade 8 was prohibited for
eradication of every aspect of those cultures (known Indigenous youth. Until the 1950s, most teachers
as ethnocide). Traditional ceremonies and celebra- in residential schools had no professional training.
tions were criminalized—even dancing was outlawed Instead, they were members of the religious order that
in Indigenous communities for 75 years. The Indian operated the school and were often more interested in
Act (1876) made all Indigenous people wards of the religious conversion than in education (Barman, 2003).
federal government. Inferior education was just one of the features of the
It took less than a century for laws and govern- residential school system that created a lasting legacy
ment policies to render Indigenous people almost in Indigenous communities. Psychological, physical,
completely dependent on Europeans. The government and sexual abuses were common (National Centre for
policy that had the most devastating effect involved Truth and Reconciliation, 2016). The first allegations
residential schooling. of physical and sexual abuse were made in 1880; of the
150,000 children attending the schools, 91,000 reported
RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLING being physically and/or sexually abused. Psychological
In the government’s view, the key to assimilation was abuse was even more common and included the use of
changing how Indigenous children were socialized. insults and derogatory names; as well, students’ letters
Schooling was seen as the most effective means to this home were censored. Neglect was even more prevalent
end. In 1831, the government launched a program to than abuse. Funding formulas were such that residen-
educate and assimilate Indigenous children. Residential tial schools received only a fraction of the government
schools would be funded by the government but oper- funding per student enjoyed by public schools; com-
ated by various Christian denominations. At first, these pounding this, many residential schools were being
day schools were located adjacent to reserves, and chil- operated for profit. As a result, students were often left
dren lived at home. However, the Davin Report (Davin, hungry, schools were overcrowded, and buildings were
1879) concluded that “the influence of the wigwam is unkempt and unsanitary. In the early 20th century, two
stronger than the influence of the schools” and that government reports documented horrendous living
assimilation would be better served by removing chil- conditions that had resulted in student death rates of up
dren from their homes and placing them in boarding to 47 percent in residential schools. Although neglect
schools. Although a few day schools continued to exist, and abuse were prevalent in many schools, ethnocide
residential schools came to predominate. occurred in all of them.
Because all “Indians” All aspects of the students’ traditional cultures were
were wards of the forbidden. When students first arrived at the schools,
ethnocide: The government, parents had no their hair was cut short, their clothing was burned, and
eradication of a culture. choice but to send their chil- their names were changed. They were to speak only
Residential schools: A dren away to these boarding English. Some schools used positive reinforcement for
boarding school funded by schools. By 1884, boarding the use of English. For instance, students received a
the Canadian government
used to assimilate
schools were mandated bag of buttons each week; each time they were caught
Indigenous children. for all Indigenous children speaking their mother tongue, a button was taken away,
under 16, and agents from and at the end of the week, the remaining buttons could

1 6 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

be exchanged for a prize. But other schools punished When the required period of schooling ended,
students for language transgressions—having to write former students found themselves stranded between
lines, having their mouths taped shut, being given the cultures. They had no traditional skills, but the infe-
strap, being deprived of food, and even having needles rior education they had received and the discrimi-
poked through their tongues. nation they faced meant they also had difficulty

SOCIOLOGY IN WORDS

THE VOICES OF RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL STUDENTS

• “I was literally thrown into St. Mary’s Residential • “I was hungry from the day I went into the school
School at four years of age.… My very first memory until they took me to the hospital two and a half
of my entry into the school is a painful flashback. years later. Not just me. Every Indian pupil smelled of
For whatever reason, I am thrown into a kneeling hunger.” (cited in Barman, 2003, p. 222)
position. My head is bashed against a wooden cup-
board by the boys’ supervisor.” (Kelly, 2008, p. 14) • “The constant message [was] that because you are
Native, you are part of a weak and defective race,
• “A nun shaved my head and stripped me bare in unworthy of a distinguished place in society.…
front of all the other boys, followed by months of That to me is not training for success, it is training
repeated beatings, whippings, sexual abuse and for self-destruction.” (cited in Barman, 2003, p. 229)
solitary confinement in a dark, locked closet. Why?
Because I was bad and deserved it. That’s what they
said.” (Kakfwi, 2008, para. 4)

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 6 7

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

MULTICULTURALISM IN CANADA
Federal multiculturalism has progressed through three costume, and dance. In 1982, the third phase of multi-
phases of development (Dewing, 2009). During the culturalism (known as institutionalization) began. During
incipient stage (pre-1971), Canada’s political, social, and the 1980s, multiculturalism policy moved away from
economic institutions were based on a British model. promoting multiculturalism to legislating it. With the
Large-scale immigration following the Second World War, Canadian Multiculturalism Act of 1988, Canada became
along with the activism of Indigenous people for greater the first nation in the world to pass a national multicul-
independence and redress of past wrongs, contributed to turalism law: “Under the Act, all government agencies,
the movement away from assimilation. Multiculturalism departments, and Crown corporations—not just the
became an official policy in Canada in 1971, and thus ministry responsible for multiculturalism—were expected
began the formative period of development (1971–1981). to provide leadership in advancing Canada’s multicultural
The objectives of the policy were these: mix and to take part in the design and implementation
of plans, programs, procedures, and decision-making
• “to assist cultural groups to retain and foster
strategies that enhance the full and equal participation
their identity;
of minorities within institutional structures” (p. 6). Ethnic
• to assist cultural groups to overcome barriers to diversity was considered valuable not only in itself but
their full participation in Canadian society…; also because the number of different languages spoken
and people’s ties to other nations were of value to the
• to promote creative exchanges among all economy. In the 1990s, multiculturalism policy drew
Canadian cultural groups; and attention to civic participation (i.e., it was important for
• to assist immigrants in acquiring at least one of all Canadians to shape their communities) and identity
the official languages” (p. 4). (respect for cultural diversity so that all people felt a sense
of belonging to Canada).
This era of multiculturalism had a folkloric orientation,
one that emphasized the celebration of the traditional Think Outside the Box: In your opinion, to what
practices often embodied in cultural festivals—food, extent have the objectives of this policy been realized?

1 6 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

© Wanda Robson. Reproduced with permission of Dr. Wanda Robson

anti-miscegenation laws prohibited interracial mar-
riage. Although many Canadians are unaware of it,
the segregation of blacks existed here as well. In
1945, Halifax resident Viola Desmond was arrested
for sitting in the “whites only” section of a theatre.
Although Canadian provinces enacted legislation
banning segregation in the mid-1940s, the under-
lying attitudes remained for some time. In 1954, two
black men were refused service in an Ontario res-
taurant. An undercover story by the Toronto Telegram
revealed that although segregation no longer existed
in law, it continued unabated in everyday practice
(Black History Canada, n.d.).
Population transfer forcibly expels members
of certain minority groups from a country or limits
Viola Desmond was arrested in a Nova Scotia theatre for
them to a particular location. In Canadian history,
sitting in the “whites only” section.
this has occurred multiple times. One example is
the reserve system established for Indigenous peo-
ples that was discussed earlier. As another example, Forcible assimilation,
segregation, and popula- segregation: Minority
in the mid-18th century, more than 7,000 Acadians groups are separated from
(an ethnic group of French descent living in the tion transfer have their the dominant group.
Maritimes) were expelled by the British, and all of foundations in prejudice
and discrimination. Both anti-miscegenation
their farms were burned to the ground. They were laws: Laws that prohibit
sent to France, England, and several American have long histories in interracial marriages.
states. Thousands later returned to Canada, where Canada and throughout
Population transfer: A
they reside today in New Brunswick, Prince Edward the world and continue to process whereby minority
Island, and Nova Scotia. Pubnico, Nova Scotia, is the be problematic in the 21st groups are forcibly
century. expelled or are limited to a
oldest Acadian village in the world still inhabited by specific location.
Acadians (http://www.pubnico.ca), and its museum
is listed on the UNESCO archives portal in recogni-
tion of the important historical material it has pre-
served. During both world wars, members of ethnic TIME TO REVIEW
groups defined as “enemy aliens” had their prop-
erty seized and were relocated to internment camps. • What are the differences between
During the First World War, it was mainly people dominant groups and minority groups?
of Ukrainian descent who were interned; they were • What forms of interaction can occur
used as forced labour—for example, they cleared the between the dominant group and
forest for what would become Kapuskasing, Ontario, minority groups in society, and what are
and they built roads through the Rocky Mountains. some examples?
During the Second World War, it was mainly those • How has multiculturalism changed in
of Japanese descent who were placed in internment Canadian history?
camps.

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 6 9

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LO6 PREJUDICE AND participants in the study would falsely recall “kind” as
being part of the description of the grandmother, even if
DISCRIMINATION it hadn’t been (Brewer, Dull, & Lui, 1981).
Prejudice is an attitude that is unrelated to reality
and is generalized to all members of a certain group. The Affective Component
Racism is a specific form of prejudice, one based on The affective component of prejudice reflects how we
aspects of physical appearance. Like all attitudes, feel. These are the emotions we attach to the stereo-
prejudice has a cognitive component and an affective type. We may feel dislike toward a particular group
component. It is also linked to a third component, the that we stereotype as being untrustworthy or admi-
behavioural component. These three components cor- ration for another group that we stereotype as being
respond to what we think, how we feel, and how we act hard workers. Sometimes we aren’t even aware of the
(Aronson et al., 2017). emotions we may be feeling. Another classic study
used the galvanic skin response (GSR) to overcome
The Cognitive Component this problem (Poirier & Lott, 1967). GSR devices are
attached to the skin using wires and sticky patches.
The cognitive component of prejudice reflects what we They are then able to measure the electrical conduc-
think, with stereotypes as the foundation. Stereotypes tivity of the skin. Electrical conductivity increases
are assumptions that members of a specific group are when we are feeling strong emotions. Participants in
more similar than they actually are; they reflect our this study completed a questionnaire that measured
image of the typical example of a member of a cer- their level of ethnocentrism—that is, the tendency to
tain group. Stereotypes can be directed at any type see things only from the point of view of one’s own cul-
of group—truck drivers, professors, women, ethnic ture—as the standard for the “normal” way of doing
groups, religious groups, and so on. Just as we may things. They were then attached to the GSR device
overgeneralize by saying that trees are green (when, and told to wait for a research assistant to come in
in fact, some trees have red or purple leaves), we may and assign them a problem-solving task. Researchers
overgeneralize about the members of a social group; for found that participants who were higher in ethnocen-
example, we may think that women are poor drivers trism showed greater GSR when in the presence of a
when, in fact, male drivers have more car accidents. black rather than a white research assistant; partici-
Once we hold a specific stereotype, we are more pants who were low in ethnocentrism did not show
likely to notice and remember information that is con- this pattern. In this study, ethnocentrism resulted in
sistent with it. In one classic study, participants were specific reactions to racial differences. Ethnocentrism
presented with photos and labels for people in certain can also contribute to the many forms of individual,
social categories (e.g., a photo of a smiling, grey-haired institutional, and systemic discrimination discussed
woman with the label “grandmother”). Then they were later in the chapter. Furthermore, we can see ethno-
given additional information about the person in the centrism when someone judges another culture’s food
photo (e.g., “kind”). At a later point in time, they were as “weird” or deems that people in England drive on
asked to recall the information about that person. The the “wrong” side of the road.
researchers found that information was best remem- It is the emotional component that makes preju-
bered when it conformed dice so resistant to change. It is much easier to cor-
to the stereotype associ- rect someone’s inaccurate cognitive beliefs (e.g., by
Prejudice: An attitude ated with that label; for presenting that person with accurate information that
that is unrelated to reality instance, it was easier to
and is generalized to all dispels their beliefs) than it is to change emotions (of
members of a certain
remember descriptions of which the person may not even be aware).
group. “kind” when shown the In addition to what we think and how we feel,
photo of the grandmother prejudice is connected to a behavioural component—
Racism: A specific
form of prejudice based than it was to recall “com- how we act.
on aspects of physical petitive.” Furthermore, in
appearance, such as skin trying to recall information
colour.
about a person in a stereo- The Behavioural Component
discrimination: typed group, we tend to Prejudice put into action is discrimination—treating
Treating someone unfairly falsely remember infor- someone unfairly because of his or her group member-
because of his or her group
membership. mation that is consistent ship. Discrimination can occur anywhere from the indi-
with that stereotype; vidual level (e.g., not sitting next to someone on the bus

1 7 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 7 1

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

HAS RACISM “ALL BUT DISAPPEARED”?

Some people describe racism as an artifact of the past Think Outside the Box: Does racism exist at your
and suggest that we have become a tolerant and school? Have you ever personally experienced or
accepting society. In fact, more than a decade ago, observed a behaviour, gesture, facial expression, or
one of your authors saw a textbook that contained comment that you consider to be racist?
the quotation, “Racism has all but disappeared from
Canadian society.” However, we have only to look at
the data on hate crimes to know this is not the case.

1 7 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

FRAMING ETHNICITY
As you learned in the chapter on media, from an interac- is socially problematic, in that certain racialized groups
tionist perspective, the media play a key role in framing are portrayed as posing some threat to society (e.g., the
issues, events, and people (Goffman, 1974). The overall news may emphasize that an Iranian man was recently
way that phenomena are portrayed in the media serves arrested for terrorism, but not a “white person of Irish
as the lens through which we come to understand descent”). The fourth frame of ethnicity is adornment,
those phenomena. Thus, the frames of ethnicity that which suggests overidealization (e.g., think of Tonto, the
exist in mainstream media (e.g., network television Lone Ranger’s trusty sidekick). The final frame of eth-
shows, Hollywood movies, and even animated Disney nicity is white-washed, where the experiences of racial-
films) have important implications (Bereska, 2017). ized groups are portrayed as no different from those of
In their analysis of various forms of media, Fleras and dominant, non-racialized groups. This last frame includes
Kunz (2001) found that certain frames of ethnicity are television shows and movies in which white actors play
pervasive and that they reproduce processes of racializa- non-white characters. For example, Johnny Depp played
tion in society. The first frame of ethnicity is invisibility, Tonto in The Lone Ranger and Scarlett Johansson played
in that members of racialized groups are largely absent Major Motoko Kusanagi in the Japanese manga adapta-
(e.g., think about who anchors the national news broad- tion film Ghost in the Shell.
casts on television). The second frame of ethnicity is
Think Outside the Box: What are the implications
stereotyping, in that when racialized groups are shown
of these frames of ethnicity, at both the micro level of
in the media, they are often presented in ways that sup-
individual choices and experiences and the macro level
port stereotypes (e.g., the basketball player in a televi-
of larger social structures and processes?
sion episode may be black). The third frame of ethnicity

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 7 3

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

THE INTERNATIONAL DAY FOR THE

ELIMINATION OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
On March 21, 1960, 69 peaceful demonstrators were available on YouTube and on the Government of
killed in South Africa during a protest against apart- Canada website (http://www.cic.gc.ca). Events are held
heid. Since then, the United Nations has declared in recognition of this day at universities and colleges
March 21 to be the International Day for the Elimina- across the country as well.
tion of Racial Discrimination. Canada’s first campaign
was in 1989, and since that time, most of its cam- Think Outside the Box: What events
paigns have been targeted at youth. In 1996, the are being held this year at your institution to
Canadian government launched an annual national commemorate the International Day for the
video competition associated with that day, open to Elimination of Racial Discrimination? Why are
youth ages 10 to 20. Today, the winning videos are those events important?

1 7 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Chapter Summary
LO1 Compare the concepts of ethnicity, LO3 List the three objectives of Canada’s
race, racialization, visible minori- immigration policy, outline the
ties, and racialized groups. types of individuals who enter
Ethnicity refers to classifications of self and others the country on the basis of each
based on cultural characteristics, such as shared of those objectives, and describe
ancestry, language, and cultural traditions; it has contemporary immigration
objective and subjective dimensions. Race is a
patterns.
socially constructed category used to classify people
according to physical characteristics, such as skin The three objectives of immigration policy are to
colour. Racialization is the process whereby racial reunite families, contribute to the nation’s economic
categories are constructed as different and unequal. development, and protect refugees. Immigrants
Visible minorities/racialized groups are those that in the family class are sponsored by close relatives
are non-Caucasian or non-white in skin colour. living in Canada. Economic immigrants are selected
on the basis of their ability to contribute to the
LO2 Describe contemporary patterns of Canadian economy. Refugees are persons who
have been forced to flee from persecution. More
ethnicity in Canada. than 20 percent of Canada’s population today is
More than 200 different ethnic origins are reported foreign-born, with immigrants increasingly coming
by people living in Canada. The most frequently from non-European countries. Immigration patterns
reported ethnic origins are those groups that have are based on a variety of “push” and “pull” factors.
the longest immigration histories in Canada, such Immigration peaked in 1913, when a larger number
as the English and the French. Nineteen percent of of immigrants came to Canada’s shores than at any
people in Canada are visible minorities and around time since.
4 percent are Indigenous.

NEL Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity: Defining Ourselves and Others 1 7 5

Recommended Resources
1. For an analysis of the ways racialized groups are Reconciliation, which is located at the University of
socially excluded in the educational, economic, Manitoba (http://umanitoba.ca/centres/nctr/).
and political spheres, see G.E. Galabuzi, Canada’s 3. To learn more about the ways that the media
Economic Apartheid: The Socialized Exclusion of equates Islam with terrorism (when, in fact,
Racialized Groups in the New Century (Toronto, ON: domestic, right-wing extremist groups are respon-
Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2006). sible for more violence), see the Media Education
2. To learn more about the colonization of Indigenous Foundation’s documentary Constructing the Terrorist
persons and the path to reconciliation, go to the Threat: Islamophobia, the Media and the War on Terror
website for the National Centre for Truth and (featuring Deepa Kumar) (http://www.mediaed.org).

For Further Reflection

1. How can prejudice be reduced? Do you think preju- 3. Many instances of institutional or systemic discrimi-
dice can be completely eliminated? nation have occurred in Canadian history. What are
2. What are the pros and cons of assimilation? the solutions to redressing these past wrongs?

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved May 7, 2017, from www.brainyquote.com.

1 7 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Canadian Families: Past,

Present, and Future

“ ”
iravgustin/Shutterstock

Other things may change us, but we start and end with families.
(Anthony Brandt)1

NEL

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 7 9

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

MY FAMILY
The opening quotation in this chapter suggests that life if and when we marry or enter a common-law rela-
families are of the utmost importance in determining tionship, have children, get divorced, remarry, acquire
who we are, creating the frameworks on which our additional children through remarriage, have our children
lives are built. Families are at the core of our socializa- move out of the family home, and become grandpar-
tion experiences throughout our lives. In childhood, our ents. We spend a considerable amount of time and
parents and other family members are key socializing energy interacting with and thinking about our families.
agents, providing us with some of the knowledge and
life skills we will carry with us throughout our lifetimes. Think Outside the Box: How would you describe
We undergo further socialization in the context of family your family?

LO1 WHAT IS A FAMILY? The census definition has changed a great deal over
the years, which means that caution must be exercised
The term “family” is used so regularly that we often when comparing data about families over time. For
take it for granted. Each of us can easily list the indi- instance, couples living in common-law relationships
viduals whom we consider family, but we may not were not integrated into the definition until 1981,
find it as easy to extrapolate from that list to a more same-sex couples were not included as common-law
general definition of “family.” Definitions vary with partners until 2001 or as married spouses until 2006
the specific context and the specific needs or interests (after same-sex marriage was legalized), and stepfami-
of the groups involved. For instance, federal benefits lies were not included as a distinct entity until 2011.
policy outlines a precise legal definition of family that The census definition is structural—that is, it
may differ considerably from how you define family. defines families on the basis of particular statuses (e.g.,
Various definitions may emphasize structure, pro- parent, child) and a specific physical location (the
cess, function, or emotion. But all definitions are both same dwelling). Its precision facilitates social policy
inclusive and exclusive, embracing certain individuals and program planning at the community, regional,
as legitimate family members for the purposes at hand and national levels, but that precision also makes it
while barring others. In this way, definitions have restrictive—that is, it does not include people you
macro- and micro-level impacts on people’s lives. may have listed in the description of your own family,
such as aunts, uncles, cousins, or pets. And most cer-
Structural, Functional, tainly, many would argue that families are about more
and Emotional Definitions
Much of the information describing the demographic
(i.e., statistical) characteristics of Canadian families
is drawn from census data, gathered nationally every
five years. The census uses a very precise definition
of “family”: a married or common-law couple with
or without children living in the same dwelling; a
lone parent with at least one child living in the same
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock

dwelling; or a grandparent living with at least one

grandchild (without a parent present) in the same
dwelling (Statistics Canada, 2017). Census families
are further classified as intact (where children are
the biological/adopted children of both parents) or
stepfamilies (where at least one child is from a previous
relationship of one of the spouses/partners). What is a family?

1 8 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

than just location and a narrow range of statuses. Any combination of two or more persons
Other definitions of family do go beyond structure to bound together over time by ties of mutual
emphasize family processes, functions, and emotions. consent, birth, and/or adoption or placement
Murdock (1949) provided an early anthropological and who, together, assume responsibilities for
definition of family that referred not only to its struc- variant combinations of some of the following
ture but also to its internal processes and functions. [emphasis added]:
He defined a family as “a social group characterized by
• physical maintenance and care of group members
common residence, economic cooperation and repro-
• addition of new members through procreation or
duction. It contains adults of both sexes, at least two of
adoption
whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship,
• socialization of children
and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexu-
• social control of members
ally cohabiting adults” (p. 1). By this definition, children
• production, consumption, distribution of goods
are necessary for a “family,” as is a heterosexual relation-
and services
ship that is “socially approved” (e.g., legal marriage).
• affective nurturance—love (Vanier Institute of
The Vanier Institute of the Family presents a con-
the Family, 2017a)*
temporary definition that emphasizes the internal
processes and functions of families—the everyday
*Vanier Institute of the Family, Definition of family. Found at: http://www
“doing” of family life. The institute defines a family .vanierinstitute.ca/definition_of_family#.U9pahEje56U (accessed December 3,
as follows: 2016).

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 8 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
This definition provides much looser boundaries and care—that are emphasized. This represents some-
around what a family is than does the census defini- thing of an idealized version of families, one that charac-
tion or Murdock’s structural/functional definition of terizes some families very well but that glosses over the
the mid-20th century. A family does not require the problems (e.g., family violence) experienced by others.
presence of children and does not have to be based on Second, by emphasizing only positive emotions, it fails
a heterosexual relationship; its members do not neces- to capture the complexity of emotions within families.
sarily live in the same dwelling; and it may engage in Even families characterized by positive emotional bonds
a range of functional activities that differ from those overall experience many challenges and conflicts, and
engaged in by other families. The Vanier Institute’s def- at times the members’ feelings toward one another can
inition also brings emotions into the picture—“love.” be ambivalent. For instance, you may enjoy travel-
Many of us would give a central place to the emo- ling to visit relatives each year and yet not truly con-
tional dimension of family life—or, at the very least, of sider this to be a vacation. As the famous 20th-century
what we think a family is supposed to include. A large- comedian George Burns (1896–1996) quipped: “[For
scale survey conducted in 1989 found that 74 percent some people] happiness is having a large, loving, caring,
of people defined a family as any group whose members close-knit family in another city [emphasis added].”2
love and care for one another (Coontz, 1992, p. 21), Whether we are talking about the structurally
and many of you might support that definition today defined census family, Murdock’s structural/functional
as well. In cultures around the world, individuals who family, the Vanier Institute’s functional family, or the
are not related by blood, marriage, or adoption may be “emotional” family of the average person, certain
brought inside the boundaries of one’s family as fictive individuals will be included within the family bounda-
kin (Ahern & Bailey, 1997; Johnson & Barer, 1990), in ries and others necessarily excluded. The boundaries
families of choice or what some Indigenous communi- placed around families by different groups of people in
ties refer to as families of the heart (Castellano, 2002, varying contexts have important real-world implica-
p. 23), assuming some of the benefits and/or some of tions. Definitions of family determine who is included
the obligations of family life. in social policies, who receives workplace or social
A growing body of research is exploring how benefits, who is accepted as a new immigrant, who
even pets are integrated into this conception of family can be legally married, and how people are treated in
(Irvine & Cilia, 2017; Laurent-Simpson, 2017). their social interactions. At the micro level, the way
Power’s (2008) analysis of dog owners found that you define family underlies the choices you make for
more than 95 percent viewed their dogs as family your own life, your judgments about other people’s
members, referring to them as their children, as sim- choices, and your attitudes toward changing trends in
ilar to their children, or as siblings; they also often Canadian families (see Sociology in My Life).
referred to their families as “packs.” This use of lan-
guage serves “to emphasize the intensive nature of the TIME TO REVIEW
relationship that people experienced with their dogs,
and to highlight the love, and ongoing emotional • How much of a role do families play in
and time commitment engendered by those rela- our lives?
tions” (p. 541). Power conceptualizes such families as • What are the similarities and differences
“more-than-human families” (p. 535). We have only between structural, functional, and
to look at the value of the pet industry to see how emotional definitions of family, and why
important pets are to Canadian families. More than are definitions of family important?
half of Canadians have at least one pet, and that pro-
portion rises to 75 percent among people ages 45 to
54. In 2015, Canadians spent more than $4 billion on
their pets—on food, toys, pet services, and clothing LO2 CHANGING FAMILIES
(Packaged Facts, 2015). The past several decades have been characterized by
Defining family on significant changes in family life, reflected in their
the basis of love offers the structure. Declining marriage rates and delayed
fictive kin: Individuals most flexibility, but that onset of marriage, more common-law relationships,
who are not related
by blood, marriage, or strength is also a weakness. increases in lone parenthood, fewer children, and the
adoption but who assume First, although it captures greater prevalence of same-sex couples are some of the
some of the benefits and/or
some of the obligations of
the emotional dimension more noteworthy changes. These changes in family
family life. of family life, it is only the structure have led some people to become concerned
positive emotions—love about the future of family life in Canada.

1 8 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

DEFINING MY FAMILY
The definitions of family presented above are just a Think Outside the Box: Which definition best
few among many specific definitions that exist. They corresponds to your earlier description of your own
do, though, represent the different types of definitions family?
of families that are often encountered both inside and
outside the academic world.

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 8 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
have increased for every age group, including people same time, property rights were also changing. In the
over 65, indicating the growing acceptability of such past, married women’s rights to property were limited,
relationships in society (Statistics Canada, 2012). so that even if a woman could prove abuse or adultery
Cohabitational relationships may result in marriage; in court, divorce often meant poverty for herself and
that said, people cohabit in a variety of circumstances her children. With the implementation of new divorce
that can range from a permanent alternative to mar- legislation and changing property rights, divorce rates
riage, to a “trial marriage,” to a more casual cost- increased, indicating that many couples had already
sharing arrangement while dating (Wu, 2000). been separated for at least that length of time; now,
legislation finally enabled them to legally end their
marriages. In 1986, the legislation was changed again,
More Divorces reducing the required period of separation to one year.
In the 1950s, fewer than 40 people of every 100,000 Again, divorce rates increased. However, since the
over the age of 15 divorced. In 2008 (the last year for late 1980s, divorce rates have been declining. Even
which data are available), 211 per 100,000 divorced divorced people continue to value marriage; the vast
(Milan, 2013) (see Figure 9.2). This increase does not majority of people who divorce eventually remarry
necessarily mean that significantly more marriages are (Ambert, 2009).
falling apart. In the past, legislation prevented many In the media, we often hear casual references to half
couples whose marriages had already “fallen apart” in of marriages ending in divorce, but that is not the case.
every meaningful sense from divorcing. Prior to 1968, That number is drawn from the United States, when
couples could divorce only if one spouse was able to divorces peaked in the 1980s. In Canada, the risk of
provide evidence of “fault,” such as abuse or adultery; divorce by the thirtieth anniversary is around 41 percent
even then, judges had the authority to refuse to grant a (Kelly, 2012). However, this number includes divorces
divorce. The Divorce Act was changed in 1968 to allow that occur in second (or subsequent) marriages as well,
couples to divorce provided that they had been sepa- when divorce rates are higher (Ambert, 2009).
rated for at least three years. Also introduced at that On remarriage, stepfamilies are often created. The
time was no-fault divorce, so that evidence of abuse 2011 census was the first to count stepfamilies as dis-
or adultery was no longer necessary; couples could tinct entities. Of all families with children, more than
divorce for any reason, such as falling out of love. At the 12 percent are stepfamilies. Most of those are simple
stepfamilies, in which one spouse brings a child into
the relationship and no additional children are born.
Five percent are complex stepfamilies—that is, both
Figure 9.2 spouses bring children from a previous relationship
and additional children may or may not be born, or
Divorce Rates, 1960–2008 (per 100,000 one spouse brings a child from a previous relationship
population ages 15+) and additional children are born. Stepfamilies must
deal with a range of unique issues, such as maintaining
400 relationships with an ex-spouse (as a co-parent of one
350 or more of the children), ambiguity over social roles
(e.g., whether a stepparent can legitimately exercise
300
discipline), rivalries between children who may be
250
step- or half-siblings, and more.
200
150
More Lone Parents
100
50
In 1931, 12 percent of children under the age of 24
lived with a lone parent. By 2011, that proportion
0
had increased to 22 percent (Statistics Canada, 2015)
1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
(see Figure 9.3). Among some groups, that propor-
tion is higher. For instance, 30 percent of Métis chil-
Source: Author drawn. Adapted from: A. M. Ambert, (2009). Divorce: Facts,
causes, and consequences, 3rd ed. Ottawa, ON: Vanier Institute of the Family dren and 37 percent of First Nations children live in
[Table 2, Pg. 7]; A. Milan, (2013). Marital status: Overview, 2011 [Table 2: lone-parent families (Vanier Institute of the Family,
Divorces and crude divorce rates, Canada, provinces and territories, 1981– 2017b). This increase is due, in part, to the increase in
2008 (Pg. 11)]. Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 91-209-X; Statistics Canada.
CANSIM Table 101-6501. Divorces and crude divorce rates, Canada, provinces divorce rates and the dissolution of common-law rela-
and territories, annual. tionships. Since 2001, the proportion of lone-parent

1 8 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

60 the late 1960s, the boom was over; women were get-
50
ting married later (in part due to their entry into the
40
30 labour force) and were postponing parenthood until
20 they were older (in part due to more reliable birth
10 control methods). As a result of these lower fertility
0 rates, by 2011, the average woman was giving birth
1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 to 1.6 children (see Figure 9.4) (Statistics Canada,
Year
2014). However, birth rates are higher among some
With common-law parents With married parents immigrant groups and Indigenous peoples (Adserà &
With lone parents
Ferrer, 2016; Vanier Institute of the Family, 2017b).
Delayed childbearing can have implications for
Source: Statistics Canada (2015). Lone-parent families: The new face of an couples, in that with increased age, women and men
old phenomenon. (Chart 1). The Daily: Canadian Megatrends. Catalogue No.
11-630-X2015002. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.
are more likely to experience reproductive difficul-
ties. Worldwide, around one in six couples of child-
bearing age experience infertility (European Society
of Human Reproduction and Embryology [ESHRE],
families headed by fathers has increased. However, 2016). Some may turn to artificial reproductive tech-
80 percent of lone-parent families remain headed by nologies (known as ART), such as donor insemina-
mothers (Statistics Canada, 2015). tion, fertility drugs, in vitro fertilization, or surrogate
mothers. Around 1 percent of children born in the
United States and more than 3 percent of those born in
More Same-Sex Couples Sweden, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Ontario was the first province to legalize same-sex Finland, and Iceland are the result of technologies
marriage, in June 2003. Two years later, same-sex mar- such as in vitro fertilization. Since 1978 (when the first
riage was legalized throughout Canada. Although less “test tube” baby was born in England), more than 5
than 1 percent of married or common-law couples are million babies have been born worldwide using these
of the same sex, the number of same-sex couples has technologies. These technologies provide a wide range
increased by more than 42 percent since 2006; this is of options to alleviate the burden of infertility, but
compared to only a 5 percent increase in the number critics point to a number of bioethical issues (Ambert,
of opposite-sex couples during the same period. The 2015). First, these technologies are intertwined with
2011 census reports that almost 10,000 children under social stratification and inequality. Because costs can
the age of 24 live with two same-sex parents, predomi- range up to tens (or even hundreds) of thousands of
nantly female parents (Statistics Canada, 2016a). dollars for many of the technologies, only those who
are socioeconomically advantaged are able to resort to
them. Second, the broader
Fewer Children context of reproductive
In 1851, the average woman gave birth to 6.6 children. technologies is such that baby boom: The period
from 1946 to 1965 during
After that time, birth rates steadily declined, until the children are no longer per- which several demographic
post–World War II. This era was known as the baby ceived as self-determining forces coalesced, resulting
boom, a time when birth rates increased substantially. human beings but rather in a larger number of births
than would normally be
In Canada, the baby boom occurred between 1946 as commodities —that the case.
and 1965 and was a result of several forces. First, the is, as raw materials to be
Great Depression of the 1930s caused many women to bought and sold. Children commodities: Raw
materials that can be
postpone having children; by 1937, the birth rate had become one more product bought and sold.
declined to 2.6 children. With strong economic growth available for purchase in

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 8 5

4.0
Number of children per woman

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
1926 1931 1936 1941 1946 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011

Source: Statistics Canada. (2014). Fertility: Fewer children, older moms. (Chart 1). The Daily: Canadian Megatrends. Catalogue No. 11-630-X2014002. Ottawa,
ON: Statistics Canada.

a consumerist society, such as a designer handbag or Mark Twain is not saying that statistics are fab-
a new car. Third, in cases that involve donor eggs or rications. Rather, he is saying that statistics take on
sperm or a surrogate mother, the resulting children meaning only through interpretation. In other words,
“have needs and rights separate from the wishes of the same statistics can be used to support very dif-
their parents” (Ambert, 2015, p. 239), which opens ferent and even opposing arguments. Consequently,
the door to a variety of legal and human rights debates. political, social, and moral arguments that use statis-
Outside of legal debates, additional questions may tics as a key source of support must be viewed very
arise about when it is and is not appropriate to use critically: could the same statistics be interpreted
ART. For example, in 2017, a 64-year-old woman in otherwise? On what basis has a particular interpreta-
Spain gave birth to twins after undergoing in vitro fer- tion been made? One’s definition of “family” and the
tilization (Associated Press, 2017). Although the twins images of family life associated with that definition
were described as “perfectly healthy,” many people serve as one’s framework for making interpretations.
questioned the mother’s age, arguing that there was a For those who adhere to definitions that stress diver-
very good chance that she might not live even to see sity, choice, and emotional connections, the changes
her children reach adulthood. imply greater freedom in society and the removal
Reproductive technologies are becoming more of constraints that at one time inhibited choice. For
common, even though success rates are not that high, those who adhere to definitions that emphasize mar-
ranging from a low of 25 percent (using frozen embryo riage, the presence of children, and heterosexuality,
transfer) to a high of 48 percent (using egg donation) “family change on the scale that we have seen and are
(ESHRE, 2016). So, in many cases, the decision to seeing smacks of moral decay” (Lewis, 2003, p. 13)
delay childbearing for too long means that biological and elicits concern over both what is causing these
children are no longer an option. changes and what the consequences may be: “Are we
Considerable changes have occurred in Canadian looking into the abyss where we will no longer care for
families. Since the mid-20th century, large numbers of our kin and learn the habits of industry and respect
people have been making very different choices about for others?” (p. 52) Is the family declining? For more
their family lives. The resulting changes in family than two decades, these questions have been at the
structures have led some people to express concern heart of the sociology of the family (Ambert, 2015;
about the future of the family in Canada. But are there Powell & Branden, 2007).
other ways to interpret these trends? What do these
statistics actually mean? LO3 Is “The Family” Declining?
There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies,
Concerns over family decline are not new. In 1893,
and statistics.
Charles Henry Pearson (1893/2003) argued that the
(Mark Twain)3 increase in non-arranged marriages, the growth of

1 8 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

THE PERFECT FAMILY DINNER

On YouTube, you can find a 10-minute public service family decline perspective. This video clip will make
announcement called “1950 Family Date, Dinner in a some of you laugh, whereas others may find them-
1950s Home.” It reflects the idealized, nostalgic image selves yelling at the screen. Show your own family
of family life that Coontz (1992) suggests underlies this clip the next time you are about to sit down for
the contemporary arguments of proponents of the dinner!

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 8 7

1 8 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

PATRIARCHY AND PATRILINEALITY TODAY

Because of the changes in gender roles over the past Think Outside the Box: In what ways do you con-
several decades, people often consider patriarchy and tinue to see patriarchy and patrilineality in society
patrilineality as characteristic of only the past. But today?
many scholars still consider Canadian society to be
patriarchal and patrilineal.

patriarchal, in that power is vested in the male head The sheer variability in family structures and
of the household according to social custom, religious arrangements in Indigenous cultures was viewed as
doctrine, and the law. Although there is some debate problematic by European colonizers, for whom the
over whether matriarchal cultures (wherein power only family form that was legally and religiously sanc-
is vested in the female head of the household) have tioned was monogamous, patriarchal, and patrilineal
ever existed, women have certainly held more power (Gaffield, 1990, 1992). In Euro-Canadian families,
within some cultures than within others. Some cul- religious doctrine and social norms dictated that
tures trace family lineage through the father’s side of the husband/father bore responsibility for his wife
the family (i.e., they are patrilineal), whereas others and children’s salvation. With short lifespans and
trace ancestry through the mother’s side of the family high death rates, especially for children and women,
(known as matrilineal) or both sides of the family achieving salvation was seen as an urgent matter.
(known as bilineal) (see Critical Thinking in Action). Considering this religious interpretation at the time,
Thus, when Europeans first arrived in the land along with the view of women and children as property
now called Canada, they encountered varied family rather than “persons,” it should come as no surprise
structures and arrangements in different Indigenous that paternal discipline of both wives and children was
cultures (Castellano, 2002). Some intimate relation- quite strict and sometimes even violent. Child abuse
ships were monogamous, whereas others were polyga- and wife abuse would
mous.4 Some households were nuclear, whereas others not be criminalized until
patriarchal: Power is
were extended. Although Indigenous cultures were not near the turn of the 20th vested in the male head
matriarchal, women frequently had greater power than century, several decades of household and men in
their European counterparts. Some Indigenous cul- after animal abuse was society more generally.
tures were patrilineal, whereas others were matrilineal criminalized. matriarchal: Power is
(Chansonneuve, 2005). Among most Indigenous cul- The relative absence vested in the female head
tures, the notion of family was (and still is) extensive, of patriarchal authority of household and women
in society more generally.
based more on relationships between people than on in many Indigenous cul-
static roles within a structure. Families were created tures, in conjunction with patrilineal: Lineage
is traced through the
and expanded through affiliations, adoptions, ceremo- different spiritual belief father’s side of the
nial practices, marriages that joined bloodlines, and systems, created dif- family, especially its male
the real or symbolic presence of past and future gener- ferent familial contexts. members.
ations (Perrault & Proulx, 2000). Language reflected Children were perceived matrilineal: Lineage
the various forms of family ties, so among the Inuit, as gifts from the Creator, is traced through the
qatangutgiit referred to family relationships based on gifts not only to the par- mother’s side of the family,
especially its female
blood ties, whereas ilagiit referred to an “outer” family ents but also to the entire members.
of extended relationships, and tuqlluraniq referred to community; as such, they
the ancestor whose spirit was thought to reside in a were the responsibility of bilineal: Lineage is
traced through both
particular child and after whom that child was named everyone in the commu- parents’ sides of the family.
(Chansonneuve, 2005). nity. As “gifts,” they were

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 8 9

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

(DIS)PLACED: INDIGENOUS YOUTH AND

THE CHILD WELFARE SYSTEM
In the documentary (Dis)Placed: Indigenous Youth the present day. In the film, Indigenous youth who
and the Child Welfare System, director Melisa Brittain have spent time in the child welfare system discuss
and First Nations advocate Cindy Blackstock point out their experiences in foster care, their strategies of
that just as the residential schooling policy of the past resistance to assimilation, and the implications from
forcibly removed Indigenous children from their homes the micro level of their own lives to the macro level of
and families, so too does the child welfare system of Indigenous cultures and Canadian society as a whole.

1 9 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 9 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Social Exchange Theory becomes more important as dating relationships pro-
gress and is associated with satisfaction within rela-
Social exchange theory is “among the most prevalent tionships and the likelihood of relationships lasting.
conceptual frameworks for examining and under- The role of equity continues to gain in importance
standing … relationship dynamics” (Paat, 2013, p. with marriage, where perceptions of fairness are based
938). It is most closely associated with social psy- on relationship outcomes meeting or exceeding a per-
chology, which studies individual thoughts, feelings, son’s expectations (Paat, 2013).
and behaviours in social situations. This area of study Previti and Amato (2003) evaluated the tenets of
straddles the line between sociology and psychology exchange theory in a 17-year longitudinal study of
and is practised by both sociologists and psycholo- married couples. They found that marital cohesive-
gists. This theory begins with the assumption that ness depended more on the rewards associated with
society is composed of individuals who are motivated the relationship (e.g., love, respect, friendship, good
by self-interest. Thus, in our social interactions, we communication) than on perceptions of alternatives
make choices based on a rational calculation of the or on barriers to divorce (the costs associated with
costs and benefits of those interactions. divorcing, such as loss of contact with children, finan-
According to Nye (1979), every relationship is an cial strain, and religious views). They concluded that
exchange between people that carries with it both ben- barriers to divorce keep unhappy couples together only
efits and costs; that is, in any relationship, we do some for a little bit longer. Some research analyzes the role
“giving” and we do some “getting.” The resources of specific types of resources in determining the likeli-
exchanged can be tangible, such as financial support, hood of divorce. As discussed in another chapter, on
or intangible, such as loyalty and affection. Ultimately, average, women continue to have lower incomes than
individuals wish to pursue or maintain relationships men. This means that in many heterosexual marriages,
in which a profit is derived—the positive benefits out- women have lower incomes than their husbands,
weigh the costs of being in that relationship. However, which reduces the range of alternatives for women
costs and benefits are relative rather than absolute. and thereby creates an obstacle to divorce. Although
First, there is the comparison level, where we ask higher levels of education and income tend to create
ourselves how much we are putting into and getting more satisfying marriages overall (and thereby reduce
out of the relationship compared to other people in the likelihood of divorce), women with more educa-
similar relationships. Second, there is the comparison tion and higher incomes are more likely than other
level for alternatives, where we compare our relation- women to leave dissatisfying marriages, especially in
ship to possible alternatives (“Could I find a better cases of domestic violence (Kreager et al., 2013).
partner?”). We also seek some level of equity in our Parent–child relationships are characterized by
relationships, such that the contributions made by exchange as well, especially once children reach adult-
each party are viewed as being fair. hood (Paat, 2013). You might consider your own situa-
As the most common tion or that of many of your classmates. As an adult, living
theory used in the study of with parents means sacrificing some of your freedom,
profit: The benefits families, social exchange
of being in a particular
privacy, and independence. Yet if you are a full-time
relationship outweigh the
theory has been applied postsecondary student, you might consider that sacrifice
costs. to a range of topics, begin- to be “fair” because of the financial benefits you derive
ning with dating and the from not having to pay the costs of living independently
comparison level: A
comparison of the costs
mate selection process (e.g., rent or a mortgage, groceries, utilities). Living in
and benefits of a particular (Paat, 2013). Principles of the family home as an adult often involves negotiations
relationship compared exchange come into play
to other people who about exchange as well. For instance, the adult child may
are in similar types of
even in deciding whom not have to pay rent but may have to adhere to parental
relationships. to date. Dating apps or rules (e.g., music volume; overnight partners), purchase
online dating sites make the groceries, or take care of the yardwork.
comparison level
for alternatives: the exchange explicit,
A comparison of our where dating profiles
relationship to alternative
possibilities for our lives.
offer the resources the Family Life Course
individual has (such as
equity: The contributions physical appearance) and Development Theory
each party is making in a
relationship are perceived
the resources sought in a This framework has as its core assumption the notion
as “fair.” dating partner (such as that families transition through a series of qualitatively
age or hobbies). Equity different “stages” over time. As families transition from

1 9 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

S
OCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

STRENGTHENING NEWCOMER FAMILIE

For recent immigrants to Canada, the challenges faced mothers with young children increase language skills,
in the transition to parenthood are magnified by the expand parenting skills, and develop tools to enhance
complexities of adapting to life in a new culture. The their children’s development. Similar programs can be
Global Gathering Place in Saskatoon offers a wide found in communities across the country.
range of programs and services for recent immigrants.
Think Outside the Box: Why might a group setting,
As part of their ESTEEM program (Enhancing Skills To
such as in BrightStart!, be especially beneficial for
Enrich Eager Minds), BrightStart! uses weekly songs,
young mothers who are new to Canada?
presentations, and structured play to help immigrant

one stage to the next, family structures, roles, and

relationships change. The transition to parenthood is
the stage of family development that has received the
most academic attention. As anyone who has made
this transition can likely attest, bringing one’s first
baby home is accompanied by a considerable amount
of stress, caused by everything from a lack of sleep to
changes in roles; in fact, research has found that this
is one of the most stressful family transitions. New

Design Pics/Thinkstock
parenthood takes a particular toll on the relationship
between spouses or partners, causing a significant
decline in feelings of “love,” as well as increases in
conflict and feelings of ambivalence about the rela-
tionship. This has been found with both biological Becoming a new parent is one of the most stressful family
and adoptive parents and with heterosexual, gay, and transitions.
lesbian parents (Goldberg, Smith, & Kashy, 2010).
However, the magnitude of this impact varies with the
psychological and social resources the parents bring to
their new roles (see Sociology in My Community). Functionalist Theories
Not only can the transition to parenthood affect In another chapter, you learned about Parsons’s theo-
the quality of the relationship between the parents, it rizing about the functionality of traditional gender
can also have a negative impact on psychological well- roles (Parsons, 1954; Parsons and Bales, 1955).
being. Women who have had an unwanted birth (i.e., Making males responsible for instrumental tasks and
who did not plan to have children) or a mistimed birth females responsible for expressive tasks ensured that
(i.e., who wanted a child, but at some time in the future) the family (a cornerstone of society, from the function-
are more likely to experience depression 5 to 13 years alist perspective) kept running smoothly. Of course,
later compared to women who have had wanted and in the 21st century, parents increasingly share instru-
appropriately timed births (Rackin & Brasher, 2016). mental and expressive tasks, and this has necessitated
So far, we have seen that sociological knowledge changes in social policy, such as policies governing
about families is often derived from perspectives out- parental leave.
side the core theoretical perspectives in sociology. Functionalist theorizing about families precedes
However, although the core theoretical perspectives the work of Parsons. Émile Durkheim questioned
are not applied as widely, we can see families being how modernization was affecting families and how
addressed within functionalist, conflict, feminist, and changes in families were affecting the social order. He
interactionist theories. addressed issues such as the liberalization of divorce,

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 9 3

Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

response to a colleague who decried a decline in par-
enting and the weakening of the family, Durkheim
argued that the family “is not appreciably worse than
it was; it is [just] different” (in Lamanna, 2002, p. 1).
Anne-Marie Ambert (2015) concurs, pointing out
that families today serve some additional functions
to those of the past, such as policing children’s use
of media, as well as integrating or coordinating the
various other sources of socialization that children According to conflict theories, some degree of conflict is
face (such as at school, in extracurricular activities, characteristic of all relationships, including within the family.
and with peers).
The functionalist perspective is also evident in
current debates about family decline, when family is Some conflict theories suggest that family con-
defined in terms of its internal processes and func- flict is distinctive because of the uniquely emotional
tions, such as the socialization of children and affec- nature of resources within families. Other conflict
tive nurturance (Murdock, 1949; Vanier Institute of theories, however, suggest that family conflict is a
the Family, 2017a). Functionalist assumptions can be microcosm of societal conflict, a reflection of broader
applied to a number of areas within the study of fami- social inequalities (White Klein, & Martin, 2015). In
lies. In this regard, there is a sizeable body of research a classic analysis of wife abuse in the United States,
on gender role differentiation and the household divi- Straus (1994) found some support for this latter view.
sion of labour (White, Klein, & Martin, 2015). Straus found that the prevalence of wife assault varied
across states, based on both gender inequality (e.g.,
differences in the average income of men and women)
Conflict Theories and social disorganization (e.g., high divorce rates,
In another chapter, you learned that Engels low levels of religious affiliation). Today, we see addi-
(1884/1972) proposed that the transition from feu- tional support in the fact that Indigenous women are
dalism to capitalism had resulted in patriarchy. Male much more likely to be victims of domestic violence
workers were subordinated by their employers, and than non-Indigenous women (Burczycka, 2016).
women and children were subordinated by adult men. Family violence is one of the topics to which conflict
Engels claimed that female subordination in fami- theories are most often applied. Feminist theories
lies would end if women entered paid employment. have also addressed family violence, among a range of
Shifting attention to inequalities within groups, con- other topics.
flict theories propose that resources are distributed
unequally within families; thus, conflict emerges as
family members compete over those resources. Feminist Theories
Conflict is viewed as an inherent (and normal) Families are central to feminist theorizing (Allen,
part of family relationships, which are characterized 2016; Fox, 2015). Families are highlighted as playing
by everyday disagreements. For instance, siblings a pivotal role in the gendering of people’s experi-
often have conflicts over valuable resources (e.g., ences at the micro level and in the reproduction of
the gaming console, parental attention). Conflicts the gendered structure of society at the macro level.
between full siblings (who share two parents) are more Feminist theories are critical of mainstream theories
common than between half-siblings (in stepfamilies). for reinforcing romantic images of family life. Instead,
Research suggests that this is because competition feminist theories have been central to “problematizing
over parental attention is a primary source of sibling assumptions of equality, fairness, and well-being in
conflict, and full siblings must compete over atten- marriage in family relationships, particularly as they
tion from two shared parents (rather than just one). disadvantage women” (Allen, 2016, p. 208). Feminist
Despite the higher levels of conflict, relationships theories were the first to draw attention to household
between full siblings tend to be closer than between responsibilities (like laundry and child care) as being
half-siblings (Tanskanen et al., 2016). “work” rather than “leisure,” women’s ambivalent

1 9 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

PARENTING AFTER SEPARATION

Parental separation or divorce carries with it significant on children, conflict resolution skills, and how to
psychological, social, and practical consequences for develop effective co-parenting plans. In most regions,
children. Research shows that how parents carry on PAS courses are free of charge, and any parent who
their roles as parents during and after separation is has recently separated may voluntarily enroll. Some
central to the magnitude of the effects on children and Canadian provinces and U.S. states go a step further
how long those effects last. In regions across North by mandating that parents must take a PAS course
America, Parenting After Separation (PAS) courses prior to filing a divorce application.
or workshops have been developed to address these
Think Outside the Box: From a symbolic interac-
issues. PAS courses provide information on legal issues,
tionist perspective, why are PAS courses beneficial?
child development, research on the effects of divorce

feelings toward motherhood, and the second shift everyday lives as family members. In a classic inter-
(whereby women tend to bear the brunt of house- actionist analysis of marriage, Jessie Bernard (1972)
hold responsibilities even when employed full-time) pointed out that husbands and wives often have very
(Allen, 2016; Fox, 2015). different perceptions of their marriage, such that one
Feminist theories were also the first to challenge can refer to “his marriage” and “her marriage.” For
heteronormativity and point out that there is no single, example, the husband may indicate that they rarely
monolithic “family” but rather a plurality of family have disagreements, whereas the wife may say they
forms (Allen, 2016; Eichler, 1988, 1997; Fox, 2015). often have disagreements; he may say he engages in
Today, that view is extended even further, “incorpo- childcare activities on a daily basis, whereas she says
rating intersectional and international perspectives on he does so only a few times a week.
how race, class, sexual orientation, nation, and other When two people have differing perceptions of
structures of social hierarchy differentially stratify and the same issue, there can be significant consequences.
challenge gendered experiences in families” (Allen, Research with divorced mothers and fathers shows
2016, p. 208). that they often have different perceptions of both
Even when feminist theories are not explicitly fathers’ parenting skills and mothers’ willingness to
applied, the knowledge we have about families owes a accommodate changes to visitation schedules. When
great debt to feminist scholars and activists. Although perceptions vary on these issues, parents are less able
feminist scholars were the first to emphasize the impor- to establish effective co-parenting styles, and conflicts
tance of analyzing the nature and implications of the
gendered division of labour within families, now soci-
ologists of all theoretical orientations explore this area
of study. And because feminist scholars pointed to the © Roy-Chris Taylor, ctan8, www.cartoonstock.com

power of gender in all aspects of our lives, gender is

now integrated into virtually every topic area in the
study of families, from mate selection to parenting to
aging families.

Interactionist Theories
Interactionist theories suggest that as the most “signif-
icant” of significant others, families shape our under-
standings of the world and our place in it. Similarly,
our understandings of the world come into play in our

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 9 5

Chapter Summary
LO1 Compare varying definitions of decline. By contrast, the family pluralism perspec-
tive suggests that changes in families are indicative
family and explain why the way of fewer constraints and greater freedom than in
family is defined is important. the past.
There are structural, functional, and emotional defini-
tions. Structural definitions emphasize family statuses, LO4 Outline the difficulties that some
whereas functional definitions focus on the everyday families face in Canada today.
“doing” of family life, and emotional definitions draw
attention to affection. The definition used has impli- Many children live in low-income families, which
cations at the macro level and the micro level. affects various aspects of their lives. Families of cer-
tain ethnic backgrounds face particular challenges
in terms of economic conditions and racialization.
LO2 Identify the key trends that indicate The effects of systemic/institutionalized discrimi-
changes in Canadian families. nation are especially evident when considering
Marriage rates have declined, cohabitation has Indigenous families, not just in the past but in the
increased, divorce has increased, same-sex relation- present day. The problem of family violence is not
ships have increased, and people have had fewer limited to any social group.
children.
LO5 Explain why the fact that some
LO3 Distinguish between the main families experience problems is not
assumptions of the family decline indicative of a decline of the family
and family pluralism perspectives. as a social institution.
The family decline perspective claims that recent The problems experienced by some families are indic-
changes in families are indicative of family crisis or ative of a lack of societal supports for the diverse

1 9 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Recommended Resources
1. For a broad introduction to the sociology of fami- 3. To learn more about how to educate children
lies, see M. Ward & M. Belanger, The Family about the value in family diversity, see the short
Dynamic: A Canadian Perspective (6th ed.) (Toronto, educational film Our Family: A Film About Family
ON: Nelson, 2015). Diversity (a joint production of Our Family Coalition
2. In media debates about children being raised by same- and Not in Our School). The film is available at no
sex parents, the voices of children themselves are cost on YouTube.
often absent. To hear some of their voices, see director
Maya Newell’s award-winning Australian documen-
tary film Gaybe Baby (http://thegaybyproject.com).

For Further Reflection

1. Where would you situate yourself in the family chapter do you think could best address that issue?
decline debate? Which of the theories do you think would be the
2. Consider an issue you consider central in your least useful in exploring that issue?
own family. Which of the theories addressed in this

ENDNOTES
1 Retrieved April 14, 2017, from “ThinkExist.com Quotations” 4 Some family historians (Bourgeault, 1991) suggest that
(thinkexist.com). polygamous marriages did not exist in Indigenous cultures until
2 Retrieved April 22, 2017, from “The Quotations Page” (thequota- after colonization, when intense competition in the fur trade,
tionspage.com). along with the central role of women in trade relationships,
3 Retrieved April 23, 2017, from “The Quotations Page” (thequota- required some men to take on multiple wives for pragmatic
tionspage.com). economic reasons.

NEL Chapter 9 Canadian Families: Past, Present, and Future 1 9 7

Learning What Is “True”:

Religion, Science, and Education

“ ”
alexskopje/Shutterstock

Facts are the enemy of truth.

(Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra)1

NEL

LO1 Belief Systems

To accept something as true, regardless of whether
it is actually true or not, is to have a belief. When
beliefs are interconnected in a systematic fashion and
shared among groups of people, they are called belief
systems (Stebbins, 1996). The different religions of
the world, disciplines of
science, and even ide-
ologies of political par- belief: Something one
ties are belief systems. accepts as true, regardless
of whether it is true or not.
Belief systems have three
different components belief system: A set of
interconnected beliefs that
(Ben-Yehuda, 1990) (see are shared among groups
Figure 10.1). First, they of people.
include claims about the

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 1 9 9

Religion
nature of reality. Thus, Buddhism tells us that rein- Religion is one of those terms that we implicitly
carnation is real, chemistry tells us that combining understand but find difficult to define. Just as we rec-
hydrogen and oxygen (in specific amounts) creates ognize varying definitions of “family,” there are var-
water, and social conservative political parties tell us ying definitions of religion. Durkheim (1915/1965)
that the family is declining. provides us with a sociological definition that is still
Second, belief sys- commonly used today: “a united system of beliefs and
tems include ethical and practices related to sacred things” (p. 47). Religion
Religion: A united system moral claims. Most of the plays a part in many people’s lives today, although to
of beliefs and practices
related to sacred things. world’s major religions a greater degree in some people’s lives than in others
explicitly tell us that the (see Sociology in My Life).

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

RELIGION IN MY LIFE
Religion is not unidimensional but rather yourself with a specific religion? Do you participate in
multidimensional. Thus, in examining the role of private religious activities, such as prayer or spiritually
religion in people’s lives, it is important to consider oriented meditation? Have you engaged in, or do you
religious affiliation, religious participation, and expect to engage in, religious rituals as part of certain
religious attendance. rights of passage (e.g., have a marriage ceremony con-
ducted by a religious figure)? Do you attend religious
Think Outside the Box: Consider the extent to which
services regularly?
religion plays a role in your own life: Do you believe in
a supreme being or a higher power? Do you identify

2 0 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 0 1

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

RELIGION IN THE LIVES OF CANADIANS

Reginald Bibby has studied religious patterns in example, by attracting and keeping youth interest. He
Canada over several decades and is also a practi- states: “What I am attempting to do is to present the
tioner of public sociology. In 2004, he brought the key findings with clarity, reflect on some of the major
results of sociological research into the “real world” implications, acknowledge a number of significant
of Canada’s Christian churches in his book Restless hurdles that have to be cleared, and spell out some of
Churches: How Canada’s Churches Can Contribute to the tangible responses that groups need to consider”
the Emerging Religious Renaissance. Directing his work (p. ix).
at an audience involved in ministry, he presents data
on religious beliefs, affiliation, and attendance. He Think Outside the Box: Reginald Bibby brings socio-
critiques media stories that equate declines in religious logical research to people involved in the ministry and
affiliation and attendance with a decrease in religious provides practical suggestions for making Christian
beliefs and points out that most Canadians are not churches more contemporary and relevant. What other
abandoning religion. Bibby makes suggestions for fields of work would benefit from greater sociological
what churches can do to remain contemporary—for knowledge?

Implications of Religion of substance use (Bailey et al., 2015; Schieman,

2008). Religion provides people with a community
Implications for Individuals and a sense of belonging. Among those who attend
At the micro level, religion has an impact on various religious services regularly, 22 percent say that the
aspects of people’s lives. Research has found that people, the community, and the fellowship are the
among adolescents, varied aspects of religiosity may main things that religious involvement adds to their
have different effects. In a study of Ontario students lives (Bibby, 2006). Religious involvement provides
in Grades 11 and 12, Good and Willoughby (2014) social capital (Bramadat, 2005; Putnam, 2000).
found that personal beliefs were important. Youth with Social capital refers to resources we accumulate from
strong religious beliefs had lower levels of depression our social networks. Just as a screwdriver enables us
and social anxiety and higher levels of self-esteem and to assemble the toys we bought our children and a
life satisfaction. They also suffered less stress from university degree provides us with a higher income,
daily hassles and experienced more positive relation- our relationships with other people provide us with
ships with parents and a stronger academic orienta- resources we can use in various aspects of our lives—
tion. Religious attendance they provide us with knowledge, skills, understand-
has a positive impact on ings of the world and ourselves, and a network of
Social capital:
Resources in the form
youth as well, contrib- support.
of accumulated social uting to lower levels of One form of social capital is bridging capital,
networks. substance use (Goldstein where the resources we accumulate through interac-
bridging capital: et al., 2013; Rawana & tions with our religious group can be used outside
Resources accumulated Ames, 2012). the religious realm, just as religious attendance pro-
within groups that can be Among adults, religi- vides people with intangible resources that steer them
used outside those groups.
osity is also associated away from substance use. Another form is bonding
bonding capital: with better physical capital—a sense of community and belonging, as well
Resources in the form
of community ties and
health, lower levels of as a social identity (Putnam, 2000). That bonding
identity. depression and anx- can have both positive and negative consequences for
iety, and lower levels society.

2 0 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Shutterstock.com
among university students, religiosity is associated
with higher levels of interaction with peers across
racial groups, which is important for erasing the
boundaries between social groups that can lead to Charitable work is an important aspect of many religious
prejudice and contribute to social inequality (Park & groups, as when Muslims give gifts to the less fortunate
Bowman, 2015). during Ramadan.
Furthermore, some research finds that Canadians
with religious affiliations are more philanthropic than
those without such affiliations, donating more money temples, mosques, and synagogues; and raise funds
to social causes and volunteering more of their time for various charities.
(Berger, 2006). Berger finds that feelings of communal Unfortunately, not all religious bonding capital
responsibility and reciprocity underlie this pattern, serves positive ends; negative bonding capital con-
feelings that are stronger in those with religious affili- tributes to social inequality, religious conflict, acts of
ations. On the other hand, some research calls these violence, and war. When a cohesive group sees itself
findings into question. Is it religious belief itself that as “part of a purely embattled minority” (Bramadat,
contributes to philanthropic behaviour or rather the 2005), an “us versus them” mentality is created.
bonding capital that arises from any type of structured Members of such groups perceive their belief system
group membership? Recent research investigates this and associated way of living as the only moral path—
question by comparing members of religious groups, their ways are “right,” and everyone else’s ways are
members of secular groups (such as sports teams or “wrong” (Rhodes, 2012).
book clubs), and people who do not belong to struc- Some groups may isolate themselves from the
tured groups (Galen, Sharp, & McNulty, 2015). The larger society, creating a separate existence based on
results indicate that religious belief, in itself, has little their own religious principles. In other cases, mem-
to no effect on philanthropic behaviour. Instead, bers of such groups or the group as a whole may try to
members of both religious and secular groups donated create large-scale change to either spread their belief
more time and money to charitable causes than did system or punish those with different belief systems
people who were not members of structured groups. (Bramadat, 2005). The consequences can be far-
Just as religious individuals may donate their own reaching. They include 500 years of war between the
money or time to social causes, religious groups take Christian and Islamic churches during the Crusades
on social causes, both historically and in the present. (from the 11th through the 16th centuries); the
During the Victorian era in Canada, the theology of the European “witchcraze,” when between 40,000 and
Social Gospel (which applied Protestant ideals to solving 100,000 people were per-
social problems) gave rise to the child-savers movement, secuted as witches from
which dedicated itself to the betterment of children’s the 14th through the 17th positive bonding
social conditions (Jordan, 1998; Platt, 1977; Valverde, centuries (Barstow, 1994; capital: Community ties
and sources of identity that
1991). The child-savers movement spearheaded sev- Quaife, 1987); the colo- benefit the wider society.
eral new pieces of legislation. Child labour laws placed nization of Indigenous
restrictions on the employment of children (e.g., min- groups worldwide and negative bonding
capital: Community ties
imum age, hours worked). Compulsory schooling laws Canadian residential and sources of identity that
required children to attend school for a certain number schooling; the murder harm the wider society.
of days each year until they reached a particular age. of doctors who perform child-savers
Criminal laws prohibited abuse and neglect. abortions by anti-abortion movement:
Today, religious groups often engage in charitable extremists; and terrorist A movement dedicated to
the betterment of social
work. They bring humanitarian aid following natural acts (such as those under- conditions involving
disasters; offer hot meals to the homeless; operate food taken or inspired by children.
bank pickup locations in the basements of churches, ISIS/ISIL).

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 0 3

a functionalist, suggested that religion plays an impor-

tant role in creating and maintaining social solidarity. He
stated that even in premodern societies, large numbers
of people would gather to participate in religious rituals.
These collective rituals would transmit the accumulated
wisdom of the culture to participants—a unified body
of knowledge known as the collective conscience. In
their group worship of sacred objects and ideals, people
would also be caught up in a collective effervescence,
an excitement or euphoria that enabled them to tran-
scend the challenges of every day to a degree not pos-
sible when alone. Both the collective conscience and
TIME TO REVIEW collective effervescence serve important functions: they
strengthen social bonds and thereby maintain the social
• What are the implications of religiosity order. In preindustrial societies, social order is main-
in the everyday lives of adults and tained through mechanical solidarity, or bonding based
adolescents? on sameness; in this context, religion plays a central role.
• What is social capital, and what types of Durkheim suggested that with industrialization and
social capital emerge from belonging to a the ensuing organic solidarity, other institutions would
religious group? increasingly take over some of the functions that were
• What are some positive and negative traditionally fulfilled by religion. For example, the school
outcomes of religious bonding capital? system now plays a greater role in socializing children to
treat others with kindness and respect. Contemporary
functionalists continue to focus on the role religion plays
in social integration. They also study the impact of reli-
your Sociological Toolkit gion on individual behaviours and outcomes, such as
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY those related to physical and mental health, substance
use, and philanthropic behaviours (as described earlier).
LO3 Sociology in Theory: Finally, they analyze some of the dysfunctions of religion,
such as residential schooling, war, and acts of violence.
Religion
When sociologists study religion, they do not try
to validate or to disprove particular belief systems.
Rather, they analyze “how individuals, social insti-
tutions, and cultures
construe God or the
collective conscience: sacred … how these ideas
The unified body of
cultural knowledge that penetrate public cul-
is transmitted in group ture and individual lives,
religious rituals. and … the implications of
rawpixel.com/Shutterstock

collective those interpretations for

effervescence: individual, institutional,
A euphoria that enables
people to transcend the
and societal processes”
challenges of everyday (Dillon, 2007, para. 6).
life—to a degree not Substantive approaches
possible when alone—
that emerges from group
focus on the meanings From a functionalist perspective, when people gather for
religious rituals. that are contained within religious rituals, they develop a collective conscience and get
specific doctrines and caught up in collective effervescence.

2 0 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Karl Marx (1844/1970) described religion as the interactionists study the ways that the social inter-
opium of the people. The oppressed proletariat escapes actions, rituals, and symbols that comprise religious
from the ugliness of their lives into religion. This pro- belief and practice contribute to people’s understand-
vides them with temporary relief from life’s difficul- ings of life and society and to the development of their
ties but also prevents them from seeing the structured identities.
inequality within which they live. Consequently, it Feminist perspectives focus on various aspects of
precludes them from rising up and overthrowing their religion, but with a shared emphasis on the absence or
oppressors. Contemporary conflict theorists continue the oppression of women. Feminist research on reli-
to look at the ways religion can serve as an agent of gion is intimately intertwined with forms of feminist
social control, creating, maintaining, and justifying religious and spiritual practice. Revisionists suggest that
inequality. For example, the conflict perspective gives if the doctrines of the world’s major religions are inter-
rise to analyses of inequalities that exist within religion, preted “correctly,” the true message is one of equality.
such as in religions that restrict the participation of Reformists draw attention to the sexist language and
women as religious leaders. At a more macro level, the rituals that have become a part of some religions; they
perspective also draws attention to the role of religion emphasize the importance of removing those aspects of
in perpetuating societal inequalities, such as the doc- religious practice and integrating more female imagery
trine that rationalized the colonization of the world’s and symbols. Revolutionaries look at how removing
non-Christians and the religious interpretations that are some of the traditional boundaries of certain religions,
often drawn upon in opposition to same-sex marriage. and integrating some images and rituals from outside
Perhaps the best-known sociological analysis of those traditional boundaries, can serve positive ends
religion comes from Max Weber, who analyzed the rela- for women in society. Finally, rejectionists perceive
tionship between religion and social change, studying inherent sexism in the world’s major religions and call
Protestantism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, for abandoning those religions while adopting female-
and ancient Judaism. His book, The Protestant Ethic and centred spirituality, such as Goddess Worship (Neitz,
the Spirit of Capitalism (1904/1958), has been ranked 2014; Paludi & Ellens, 2016; Stuckey, 1998).
as the fourth most influential sociology book of the Postmodern perspectives highlight the plurality
20th century (Drysdale, 2007). In that book, he analyzes of all religions and spiritualities. There is no singular
the foundational role that Protestant doctrine played in “Hinduism” or “Judaism” that we can speak of but rather
establishing early capitalism. Unlike Marx, who sug- a multiplicity of different forms. For example, the “Islam”
gested that changing economic structures create subse- of ISIS/ISIL-inspired extremists is not the same “Islam”
quent changes in thought, Weber argued that changes as that adhered to by most people who consider them-
in thought—the way people understand themselves and selves Muslim, yet this is arguably the strongest image of
the world around them—precede structural changes. the Muslim faith that is perpetuated by the media. Even
Catholicism had emphasized the abandonment of within the multiplicity of different forms of particular
worldly lives; people had to have a vocation in order religions, each individual has his or her own experience
to survive, but their attention should be focused on and perceptions of that religion and/or spiritual pursuit.
their faith. In contrast, Protestant doctrine established In terms of religious practice, postmodern perspectives
that participating in worldly economic activities was a are associated with individually focused religious and
morally worthy vocation. Each of us has been placed spiritual practice, such as “New Age” spirituality and
on the Earth for a specific purpose, whether it is “spiritual seeking,” which draw upon bits and pieces of
religious leadership, carpentry, or farming. Working a variety of world religions (especially Eastern religions,
hard at that vocation is fulfilling your life’s purpose. such as Hinduism or Buddhism) and other non-religious
Protestant doctrine also emphasized predestination, spiritual pursuits (e.g., astrology, crystals, yoga).
the belief that what would happen to your soul in the
afterlife was predetermined. Because there was no cer-
tain way to know what that future would be, people TIME TO REVIEW
experienced anxiety. However, achieving economic
success in one’s vocation could be taken as a small • What is the difference between
sign of your soul’s predestined path, thereby reducing substantive and functional approaches to
some of your anxiety. Thus, the accumulation of the sociological study of religion?
wealth was a sign of salvation to come, and the accu- • How is religion studied within
mulation of wealth is the foundation of capitalism. functionalist, conflict, interactionist,
In this regard, Weber’s work was the underpinning of feminist, and postmodern perspectives?
the future interactionist perspective. Contemporary

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 0 5

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LO4 The Transition to from any other types of truths. All forms of knowledge
are socially constructed, emerging from a complex
Scientific “Truth” web of social structures, processes, and interactions.
We examine these two approaches in the following
Although religion continues to play a role in the “truth”
sections.
of most people’s lives, since the Renaissance and the
scientific revolution, scientism—“a worldview that
uses the insights of natural science to inform people’s Scientific Knowledge as
way of living, their purpose in life, and the choices
they make” (Walach & Reich, 2005, p. 425)—has Objective Truth
increasingly characterized society. Science is an insti- Sociologists who perceive scientific knowledge as
tution that provides “a way to understand the natural objective and distinct from other forms of knowledge
makeup of the world by means of rational methods of focus their analyses on particular aspects of science.
inquiry” (Walach & Reich, 2005, p. 425). The truths They study “the institutional norms that regulate the
provided by science are often granted the greatest activity of the community of scientists; competition;
legitimacy in society—if science tells us something, the reward structure of science operating through
we presume it must be true. ‘recognition’ (citation processes, Nobel prizes, peer
Robert Merton (1973) is often credited as the review); and similar topics” (Varcoe, 2007, para. 2).
founder of the sociology of science (or scientific Merton (1973) describes the normative structure
knowledge). In the present day, the study of sci- of science, a set of norms that are embedded in the
ence is highly interdisciplinary, studied by sociolo- institution of science itself and that make science a
gists, historians, feminists, and philosophers. These self-governing institution based on objectivity. The
scholars tend to identify themselves in an interdisci- first norm is the norm of communism, the notion that
plinary way rather than associate themselves with any scientific knowledge is to be freely shared with others.
single discipline (Varcoe, The second is the norm of universalism—scientific
2007). Contemporary knowledge is to be free of any social biases, such as
scientism: A worldview social studies of science
that uses the insights of
racism. The third is the norm of disinterestedness,
natural science to inform share the basic assump- whereby scientists do their work for the purposes of
people’s ways of living, tion that science is discovering truth rather than for any personal gains.
their purpose in life, and
the choices they make.
intertwined with social The final norm is the norm of organized skepticism,
structures and processes the idea that scientific claims should be subjected
Science: An institution and is therefore a social to rigorous scrutiny before they are accepted. It is
that provides a way to
understand the natural endeavour (Hird, 2012). because of these four norms that scientific knowl-
makeup of the world by Outside of that shared edge is considered to be a distinct form of knowledge.
means of rational methods assumption, there are a Merton recognized that the norms of science could be
of inquiry.
myriad of ways in which perverted in some societies, such as Nazi Germany,
norm of science is studied. One and acknowledged that some individual scientists
communism: The way of looking at the might violate these norms. But when the institution
notion that scientific
knowledge is to be freely diversity in social studies of science was in a fit state, objective truths were
shared with others. of science is to explore uncovered.
norm of universalism:
perceptions of scientific
The notion that scientific truth.
knowledge is free of social
biases.
What is the nature Scientific Knowledge as
of scientific truth?
norm of Sociologists do not agree Constructed
disinterestedness: on the answer to that Those who perceive scientific knowledge as similar
The notion that scientists
do their work solely for the question. One approach to other forms of knowledge focus their analyses on
purposes of discovering proposes that scientific how scientific knowledge emerges, is accepted, and is
truth. knowledge is a distinct affected by social and political forces. Thomas Kuhn
norm of organized form of knowledge that (1962) placed science in an historical context and
skepticism: The notion provides an objective analyzed the processes by which scientific knowl-
that scientific claims should truth. The other approach
be subjected to rigorous
edge develops and comes to be accepted as truth. He
scrutiny. suggests that scientific suggested that the history of science is one of scien-
truths are no different tific revolutions rather than a gradual accumulation

2 0 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

SHIFTING PARADIGMS
Kuhn (1962) posited that paradigm shifts are restricted Historically, the developing self was contextualized in
to the natural sciences, where there is an ongoing debates over nature (i.e., biological factors, such as
search for the most accurate explanations of physical genetics) or nurture (i.e., environmental influences).
phenomena. In the social sciences and humanities, he Now the two are no longer considered mutually exclu-
argued, multiple paradigms coexist, each offering a sive. A child’s genotype can affect temperament to
different lens through which to view a social phenom- impact the type of parenting received, and some reac-
enon. In fact, the importance of looking at a social tions from early caregivers are now believed to change
phenomenon using a variety of different paradigms how genes are expressed in offspring via epigenetic
is inherent in the social sciences as the means of processes (Avinun & Knafu-Noam, 2015; Waddington,
developing the most comprehensive understanding 1942). Thus, socialization itself is now viewed as being
of phenomena. Nevertheless, the concept of para- influenced by a complex interplay between genetic
digm shifts has expanded beyond Kuhn’s restrictive preconditions and environmental factors.
view and is now used to refer to changing views in
the social sciences as well. In the chapter on socializa- Think Outside the Box: In what other ways have we
tion, you learned about one of these paradigm shifts. seen paradigms, in whatever form, shifting?

of knowledge. Certain paradigms (i.e., conceptual week in office as president of the United States, similar
frameworks) characterize particular sciences; these measures were taken against scientists working for the
paradigms govern how reality is understood. Most sci- Environmental Protection Agency (Learn, 2017).
entists operate within those paradigms for extended Also, social and political forces can shape sci-
periods of time, building knowledge within them and entific knowledge outside the ideologies of specific
refining that knowledge when necessary. But once in political parties. The success of the Human Genome
a while, a paradigm shift occurs—anomalies accu- Project, which completed a first map of the human
mulate, a scientist proposes a different way of under- genome in the early 21st century, opened up a new
standing the object of study, and this changes the world of genetic research. But scientific, social, and
scientific discipline forever (see Critical Thinking in ethical concerns have emerged regarding the potential
Action). However, this shift is often resisted. This is of that research to violate human rights if used in the
what happened when Galileo reiterated Copernicus’s wrong way. Consequently, some national governments
claim that the planets in the solar system revolve have passed laws to control potential harms—for
around the sun and was subsequently imprisoned. example, by prohibiting human cloning. Also, various
Other analysts draw attention to the fact that sci- international organizations have established broader
entific knowledge is “dependent on the social frame- frameworks to guide genetic research.
works in which it is produced” (Eriksson, 2007, Sociologists who study the social construction of
para. 7). Some scholars emphasize the ways that scientific truths also draw attention to the impact of
social and political influences shape the topics sci- funding structures, such
entists study and thus the scientific truths that are as those associated with
created. For example, under Prime Minister Stephen the corporatization of paradigm: A conceptual
Harper (2006–2015), the federal Conservative Party science (Bereska, 2018). framework or model for
organizing information.
(with a strong pro–oil sands platform) drastically Over the past few dec-
reduced funding for research on climate change and ades, the proportion of paradigm shift:
Movement away from
prevented government scientists from speaking to research funded by pri- a particular conceptual
the media (even though their research is funded by vate enterprises and con- framework.
Canadian taxpayers). During Donald Trump’s first ducted in commercial

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 0 7

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE
What is recognized as legitimate knowledge (and knowledge and Western science are not mutually
thereby the “truth”) emerges from social, economic, exclusive but rather complementary. With Indigenous
and political forces. In other words, knowledge is knowledge closely tied to the environment and long-
socially constructed. With colonization, Indigenous past events, bringing the two together is important in
knowledge—passed down over many generations solving some of the most important problems of our
through oral tradition—was devalued and, in fact, time, such as relationships between groups of people,
suppressed by colonialist authorities via various global sustainability, and the equitable management of
social policies (such as residential schooling). Recon- resources (McCallum, 2012; Snively & Williams, 2016).
ciliation requires that the legitimacy of Indigenous In fact, a growing body of research is drawing upon
knowledge and wisdom be recognized. On April 22, both Indigenous and Western science to further the
2017 (Earth Day), approximately 1,500 Indigenous development of knowledge about diverse topics such
scientists joined non-Indigenous scientists the world as prehistoric patterns of human migration and geo-
over in the March for Science, intended as support logical events (e.g., earthquakes) (Mortillaro, 2016).
for climate change research and a protest against There are also calls to integrate Indigenous knowledge
President Donald Trump’s anti–climate change (and into the K–12 science curriculum (McCallum, 2012).
anti-science) agenda. For Indigenous participants and
allies, the event was also a statement that “Indigenous Think Outside the Box: In addition to modifying the
knowledge is just as important as Western science” school science curriculum, what other changes might
(Fontaine, 2017) and, in fact, is science (Snively & be necessary for the legitimacy of Indigenous knowl-
Williams, 2016). Scholars point out that Indigenous edge to be recognized?

2 0 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

moral reasoning in females. Similarly, Erikson’s (1968)

theory of identity formation in youth is based on the
male experience, such that in his book, he has only
one chapter on identity formation in females. He has
a “theory of identity formation” and then a “theory
of female identity formation,” thus making the male
The institutionalized power of the Christian Church prior to
experience the normative one.
the Enlightenment meant that Galileo was punished for his For these feminist scholars, making science
scientific claims. “better” means removing the obstacles women may
face in becoming scientists, as well as the androcen-
tric biases that have long pervaded scientific research.
and corporations have to control research funds. In For other feminist scholars (Longino, 1990; Nelson,
this case, power affects not only what is accepted as 1990), improving science means tying it to social
knowledge but also what gets produced as knowledge and political action. Although the traditional model
in the first place. of science dictates that science should be value-free,
these scholars point out that knowledge and values
are tightly intertwined, that values should underlie sci-
Feminist Theories entific practice, and that scientists should allow their
Over the past two decades, feminist researchers have own political affiliations or social movement member-
devoted a considerable amount of time to analyses of ships to guide their research.
science, lending an explicit social justice dimension Finally, some feminist scholars present a vision of a
to the discussion. Given the diversity of feminist per- “new” way of practising science. For instance, Harding
spectives, there is substantial diversity in the analyses (1991) applies feminist standpoint theory to the realm
of science emerging from those perspectives. Broadly, of science. She argues that women occupy a distinctive
these researchers have emphasized (1) women in sci- location in society (i.e., a “standpoint”) as a marginal-
ence, (2) tying science to social and political action, ized and oppressed group. Because of their distinctive
and (3) proposing “new” ways of practising science. location, women see and understand the world in a
The position of women in science—in particular, different way than men do—women’s unique “stand-
their underrepresentation—has been the subject of point” is not only structural but also intellectual.
considerable work (Eriksson, 2007; Kerr, 2003). Harding claims that science emerging from the stand-
Feminist scholars address the underrepresentation of point of women (or other oppressed and marginal-
women as scientists and the challenges that female ized groups) would create a superior body of scientific
scientists have faced in a male-dominated profession. knowledge. Coming from more of a postmodern foun-
They also highlight the absence of women from the dation, Haraway (1991) suggests that “women” are
knowledge that science produces. For example, med- not a single cohesive group and do not reflect a unified
ical research has traditionally studied male research standpoint. Instead, each woman has multiple stand-
subjects and then presented the findings as applicable points based on all of the different aspects of her life
to all people—males become the generic “human,” (e.g., female, Indigenous, mother, scientist, Catholic).
and it is presumed that female bodies work in the Given their various achieved and ascribed statuses,
same fashion. Consequently, there is a relative lack of women’s perspectives are constantly shifting and may
knowledge regarding how various diseases may vary even conflict with one another at times. Constructing
in men and women (e.g., the most common symptoms “better” scientific knowledge means having as diverse
of heart attacks) and how pharmaceuticals may affect a group of scientists as
them differently (e.g., varying side effects). possible, who hold var-
In the social sciences, an androcentric (or male) ious statuses and have androcentric bias:
A tendency to favour
bias has also long been present. In courses in child developed different stand- males.
development or the sociology of youth, you may learn points accordingly.

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 0 9

life” (http://www.zygonjournal.org).
In people’s lives, both religion and science play
important roles. A survey of more than 400 undergrad-
uate students found that 88 percent think that a person
can be both religious and scientific—that one does not
necessarily exclude the other. Three-quarters of them
say that science influences their own daily lives, whereas
almost half indicate that religion affects their daily lives.

2 1 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

EDUCATION IN CANADA
There is no one unified system of education in Canada. and school supplies, mandatory fees associated with
Instead, Canada’s Constitution Act, 1867, grants student supervision (i.e., lunch hour), payments asso-
educational jurisdiction to each of the provinces and ciated with school activities (e.g., field trips, clubs,
territories to develop and deliver education from sports), and costs incurred through various fundraisers
the elementary through the postsecondary levels. (e.g., hot-lunch programs, book sales). In addition to
Each province and territory has one or two educa- public schooling, parents can choose from a range of
tional departments, most of these led by a provincial alternative schooling options for their children using
cabinet minister. Public education is provided to all a range of funding and policy models: mainstream
Canadians for free, funded by provincial and territo- public schools, charter schools, faith-based schools,
rial governments and sometimes also by funds raised private schools, single-sex schools, home schooling,
through local taxes (Council of Ministers of Educa- and more.
tion, Canada, 2017). Although public education is
Think Outside the Box: In what ways might the
“free” to all Canadians, there are many hidden costs
hidden costs of education impact upon Canadian
of sending children to school, including the purchase
families who are low-income earners?
of school clothes (e.g., indoor and outdoor shoes)

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 1 1

Education The Manifest and Latent Functions

Education is a complex field of study. It includes a of Education
vast range of processes and functions beyond the In Chapter 1, you learned the distinction between
basic three Rs associated with Reading, Writing, and the manifest (i.e., intended) functions of social insti-
Arithmetic (i.e., functional literacy). It occurs at dif- tutions and their latent (i.e., unintended or hidden)
ferent stages of people’s lives, from the earliest pre- functions. Functionalists analyze these different func-
school years to postsecondary schooling in adulthood. tions within the education system (Merton, 1957).
Because of the complexity of this area of study, Manifest functions are formally documented in pro-
sociologists often specialize in particular areas. Some vincial school acts, incorporated into assessment prac-
focus on what is taught in schools, others on gendered tices by teachers, and communicated to parents via
school experiences, and still others on differential out- student report cards. Four main manifest functions of
comes for particular groups. As a result of this com- education are summarized as follows:
plexity, divergent viewpoints emerge with respect to
describing the overall functions of education for indi- 1. Skill and knowledge development. At each grade level,
viduals and society. students are taught a standardized curriculum rele-
vant to their age and/or existing level of knowledge
and skills. For example, a student in Grade 1 would
Functionalist Perspectives be expected to be able to sort objects and demon-
Functionalist perspectives focus on how educational strate an understanding of repeating patterns as part
practices help promote stability and order in society of early math skills.
by training members to obey the law, respect one 2. Historical and cultural transmission. Schools play a
another, and work productively. Durkheim (1956) central role in passing on historical knowledge and
emphasized the importance of education for instilling teaching cultural values and norms. For example,
cultural values and norms that help maintain moral high school graduates in Alberta are expected to be
order in society: “Education is the influence exercised well versed in the history and geography of Canada;
by adult generations on those not yet ready for social understand Canada’s political, social, and economic
life. Its objective is to arouse and develop in the child systems; and show respect for Canada’s cultural
certain physical, intellectual, and moral states that diversity (Alberta Education, 2016).
will be demanded of him by society as a whole and in 3. Social development. The education system helps
the milieu for which he is destined.” socialize members of society so that they can get
Similarly, Parsons (1959) explained how schools along with one another in a variety of contexts.
transition individuals from informal, person-centred Teachers provide opportunities for children to
roles in their families to more formal roles required play, cooperate, and share with one another and,
by a highly competitive, achievement-oriented work conversely, enact consequences for behaviour
domain (Wotherspoon, 1998). For example, in pre- considered to be unacceptable. As children progress
school and kindergarten, a teacher (usually a woman) through school, social skills are taught more
provides a lot of nurturing and encouragement, similar formally in health and life skills courses. In Grade 9,
to that experienced in the home. Children are allotted for example, students learn how to refine personal
free time to play with toys and make crafts and often goals relevant to career paths and to develop strat-
sit together in unstructured groups, such as while egies for risk and stress management (Alberta
listening to a story. As children progress through the Education, 2017).
grades, more emphasis is placed on structure and rules. 4. Social control. Students learn the importance of
Students sit in rows at desks and learn to be on time respecting authority figures and following rules. This
and to respect the rights of other students and school begins in early childhood education and is reflected
property, as well as to follow the teacher’s directions; in various practices, such as raising your hand before
free time is limited to short periods of recess. Students speaking, waiting in a line to exit and enter the
are increasingly assessed and compared on measures classroom, sitting quietly at a workstation for a given
of individual achievement through assignments and period of time, keeping a workspace organized, and
exams. Over time, the knowledge and skills taught completing projects in the time allotted.

2 1 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Social control is one of the main functions of education.

The expectation is that most students will achieve

particular normative learning outcomes as well as
some more specialized forms of knowledge that will
enable them to contribute to society as citizens and inequality (Gintis and Bowles, 1980). As noted in the
employees. For example, after a basic education to the chapter on gender, although women now constitute
end of Grade 12, students in Alberta are able to read, the majority of postsecondary students, jobs in which
write, and speak clearly; use math; understand the women are overrepresented tend to be lower paying
scientific method; and describe the history and geog- and of lower status. Similarly, more Indigenous people
raphy of Canada. In addition, they are able to work are obtaining high school and postsecondary educa-
independently, manage time, and demonstrate impor- tions than in the past, but non-Indigenous people
tant social characteristics such as fairness and respect are still more likely to graduate from high school and
for others (Alberta Education, 2016). pursue a postsecondary education. Members of the
The education system also has latent functions. lower classes are also underrepresented among high
Because of changing patterns of parental employment, school and postsecondary graduates. These inequali-
they now provide primary daycare functions, such as ties are often discussed by critical theorists as resulting
lunch-hour supervision and after-school care. Schools from education-based practices known as the hidden
also serve a latent matchmaking function: students curriculum, streaming, and credentialism.
often develop their first serious crush on a classmate Hidden Curriculum. Conflict perspectives are con-
or begin to date fellow students. Clearly, schools help cerned not only with whose values and norms are
develop important friendships and social networks, transmitted but also with how learning takes place and
which can provide future benefits, such as business the environment in which it takes place, something
contacts and perhaps, eventually, spouses. that Philip W. Jackson (1968) originally termed the
hidden curriculum in his book, Life in Classrooms. The
Critical Perspectives hidden curriculum refers to the process whereby stu-
Functionalist views emphasize the many benefits of dents inadvertently learn, through participation in the
education for producing skilled employees. For their school system, a subtle agenda of norms, values, and
part, conflict and feminist views highlight how the expectations that fall outside the formal curriculum.
education system reproduces the existing social order Much of the knowledge learned via the hidden cur-
and poses disadvantages for particular groups. riculum resembles indi-
cators of social control,
such as raising your hand hidden curriculum:
The Social Reproduction of Class before answering a ques- The process by which a
subtle agenda of norms,
Because of hidden school costs (see Sociology in tion and sitting quietly at values, and expectations
Practice), the school experience can be quite different a desk for long periods that fall outside the formal
for children of different social classes. But according to of time. But the hidden curriculum is learned
inadvertently through
conflict perspectives, the education system does more curriculum also includes participation in the school
than just treat the social classes differently; it actually more subtle lessons and system.
maintains and reproduces class differences and social messages learned during

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 1 3

EDUCATION AS CONTROL
In 1979, Pink Floyd released its album The Wall, which through a meat grinder, until some become aware of
would go on to become one of the top-selling albums their oppression and rise up to destroy their school.
of all time. The song “Another Brick in the Wall” cri- Concerned about the potential effects of the song and
tiques the British educational system as an oppressive film on youth audiences, the South African govern-
regime designed to create obedient automatons rather ment banned the song in 1980 after it became the
than critical thinkers. In the 1982 musical film based anthem for a national strike involving students pro-
on the album, this view of the education system is testing the social stratification of education based on
reflected with the imagery of students being processed race (Sievert, 2010).

the educational process as a function of teaching it is linked to socioeconomic status. Children of

methods and the interactions among and between higher-income families are disproportionately repre-
teachers and students. You may recall from the chapter sented among those in the higher academic streams
on gender that the hidden curriculum conveys impor- (Hamlin & Cameron, 2015).
tant messages about gender that have a lasting impact Streaming may be influenced in part by pro-
on people’s lives. cesses and practices that inadvertently include com-
Streaming. School systems also aid in social ponents of cultural capital, a mechanism whereby
reproduction through an educational policy called higher classes exclude the lower classes. Bourdieu and
streaming in Canada (or tracking in the United States Passeron (1964, 1970) explained how initial differ-
and more broadly known throughout the world as ences in cultural capital are legitimized in the school
“student selection”), which places students in spe- system in ways that contribute to social reproduction
cific programs and levels of curriculum based on per- (Izquierdo & Mínguez, 2003). Because the school
ceived individual levels of achievement. In elementary is viewed as a neutral forum, students in the lower
school, streaming is generally used to identify children classes come to accept status symbols associated with
with learning or behavioural challenges, who may high culture (e.g., theatre, ballet), even though these
require specialized assistance (Curtis, Livingstone, & are not cultural elements they are likely to experience
Smaller, 1992). In high school, this practice is used for themselves (Feinberg & Soltis, 2009).
mainly to sort students into an advanced upper tier Students from lower classes are also socialized
bound for university and a lower tier geared more within their families in ways that may further differen-
toward vocational training (Davis & Guppy, 2006; tiate them from those in the higher classes within the
Taylor & Krahn, 2009). Your own high school may educational system. For example, Lareau (2011) has
have required students to select an “academic” or found that middle-class parents take a concerted cul-
“applied” route for core classes based on some combi- tivation approach to parenting: they impress on their
nation of previous grades, teacher assessments, advice children the value of education, enroll them in struc-
of counsellors, and/or parental input. Tracking occurs tured after-school activities that enhance problem
in all 35 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and solving and critical thinking, and take a proactive
Development (OECD)2 countries at a median age of role in identifying resources when their children are
15 but may start as early having problems in school. Lower-class parents are
as age 10 (e.g., Austria, less able to instill the value of education in their chil-
streaming: A process German) (OECD, 2012). dren (because they tend to have lower levels of educa-
whereby students are
placed into specific Although this practice is tion themselves). Because of restricted resources (e.g.,
programs and levels designed to help facili- money, time), they are less likely to place their chil-
of curriculum based
on perceived levels of
tate career goals given dren in structured activities that facilitate learning;
achievement. the different interests instead, their children spend their free time playing
and skill sets of students, with friends in the neighbourhood—a natural growth

2 1 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Petition for an Inclusive Curriculum

In April of 2017, a petition was developed and Calls to Action made by the Truth and Reconcili-
circulated by Robert Green, a history teacher and ation Commission (TRC). The current reform has
chair of the Committee for the Enhancement of the ignored these recommendations. We also want a
Curriculum of History in Quebec. The committee, curriculum that reflects the current scholarship on
consisting of parents and educators, seeks changes to Indigenous history which reveals the active role
the educational curriculum in Quebec on the grounds of Indigenous people in shaping North American
that the recently revised curriculum fails to appropriately history in every historical period, rather than por-
represent Indigenous peoples, Anglophones, and traying them merely as hapless and passive victims
minorities. Three excerpts are provided below. of colonization. Achieving these goals will require
extensive consultation with Indigenous communi-
PETITION FOR AN INCLUSIVE HISTORY ties and scholars at every step of the curriculum
development process.
CURRICULUM
Quebec’s Secondary III & IV History Curriculum: In • We want a curriculum that acknowledges the
Need of Change struggles and positive contributions of Quebec’s
What We Are Asking For various ethnic minority and local communities.
• First and foremost, we want a curriculum whose Students need to learn about the over 4,000
content acknowledges the complexity and diver- Black and Indigenous people enslaved in Quebec
sity of Quebec society and challenges students to during the French regime, about the struggles
develop critical thinking skills in examining historical against discrimination faced by Jewish, Italian
events. A curriculum that seeks to indoctrinate and Greek immigrants during the early waves of
students with a simplistic ideologically driven narra- immigration, about the more recent efforts to
tive is an insult to the intelligence of students and a welcome refugees fleeing war and oppression in
disservice to society as a whole. To be clear, we are places like Vietnam, Lebanon, Chile, Haiti or Syria.
not asking to replace one narrow ideological vision The history of Quebec’s Black community also
of history with another. This is not about replacing needs to be integrated into the curriculum rather
a sovereignist narrative with a federalist one or than leaving it to be taught at the discretion of
a conservative narrative with a liberal one. Con- individual teachers. The current curriculum has
servative nationalist perspectives have a place in completely omitted the historical contributions of
the telling of Quebec’s history. But they, like other its minority communities. No community that has
important currents of thought, should be presented contributed to the development of Quebec society
as that, perspectives, not the defining narrative. should be rendered invisible or demonized.
Source: “For an Inclusive History Curriculum,” https://www.change.org/p/
• We want a curriculum that addresses Indigenous ministre-de-l-éducation-du-loisir-et-du-sport-pour-un-programme-d-
History as noted in items 62, 63 and 64 of the histoire-inclusif-for-an-inclusive-history-curriculum.

approach to parenting. The latter approach to par- tracks en route to university, whereas the lower classes
enting enables children to develop greater independ- are disproportionately streamed into lower educational
ence and the ability to entertain themselves, but the tiers (Oakes, 2005). Contemporary debates centre on
former approach facilitates better performance in whether streaming diverts lower-class students from
school. Furthermore, written and spoken assessments the university track and into lower-status and lower-
as well as intelligence quotient (IQ) tests that are used paying jobs or whether it helps them develop the skills
in school to gauge ability use language that is more they need to become productive workers. Shavit and
familiar to children from the upper classes, providing Müller’s (2000) comparative research on tracking found
them with a distinct advantage. that vocational secondary education in a number of
From a critical perspective, streaming promotes countries served as both a diversion and a safety net.
social reproduction because those in the middle and That is, tracking into vocational routes helped produce
upper classes are more likely to end up in the upper more skilled rather than unskilled workers, but it also

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 1 5

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

PEOPLE FOR EDUCATION

People for Education is a charitable organization that aimed at non-Indigenous Canadians to help them
acts as an advocate for public education in Ontario. learn more about Indigenous issues. For more infor-
The organization conducts independent research on mation, visit http://www.peopleforeducation.ca.
publicly funded schools, organizes educational con-
Think Outside the Box: Consider the core subjects,
ferences, and makes policy recommendations in an
such as math, science, and humanities, as well as the
effort to improve public education. One current area
typical extracurricular activities offered in schools, such
of focus is Indigenous education and building better
as physical education. What is one additional skill you
relationships with Indigenous peoples. In addition to
feel should be developed into a course to help stu-
reports and other efforts to increase Indigenous edu-
dents become active members of society? Explain why
cational opportunities, People for Education’s website
this skill is important.
brings together a wealth of Indigenous educational
materials for all grade levels, including resources

2 1 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

The teacher, believing that he has an attention-deficit/

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), moves the student to
a table separated from the rest of the class designated
for extra help. Because the boy has now been moved
into the “special” section, other students become more
tolerant and accepting of his infractions because he
probably “can’t help himself.” The student continues
to fidget and not complete his work because he now
realizes that the teacher will perceive him as unable
to finish it himself and eventually help him finish his
work—a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Are students always streamed appropriately based
on their true abilities and according to objective, fair,
Conflict theorists claim that credentialism repro- and equitable criteria? Webb et al. (2005) suggest that
duces inequality because it is linked to class privilege, many children (especially boys) who are actually gifted
which is why people with higher education attain- with high IQs are misdiagnosed as having ADHD.
ment end up in better-paying jobs (Bills, 2004). In Because they are not being intellectually challenged
other words, as educational requirements increase in in school and subsequently become restless, teachers
relation to specific occupations, so do the odds that (and, later, parents and physicians) incorrectly label
those positions will be disproportionately filled by their misbehaviour in the classroom as indicative of an
members of society who came from privileged families inability to maintain focus.
who could afford to send them to the best schools and A classic study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)
universities. Combine credentialism with government illustrates the role of the self-fulfilling prophecy in
cutbacks and increases to tuition and you can begin to classrooms. In this study, teachers were informed that
appreciate how those in the upper echelons of society a special intelligence test would not only measure
have a tremendous advantage over those in the lower IQ but also identify which students would make the
classes when it comes to completing a postsecondary most significant progress over the academic year;
education. these children were labelled “academic bloomers.”
The test really did nothing more than measure IQ,
Interactionist Views and the “academic bloomers” were actually selected at
To understand how educational practices influence random. However, a second intelligence test given at
individuals, it is necessary to understand how teachers the end of the year revealed that those students who
perceive their students, how teachers act and react in had been randomly identified as “academic bloomers”
relation to the meanings they ascribe to the actions showed an increase in IQ of approximately 12 points.
and words of pupils, and, in turn, how students inter- Once the students were falsely labelled as “academic
pret their instructors, the curriculum, and the behav- bloomers,” the teachers began to perceive and treat
iour of fellow students. Power differentials between them as children who would make significant pro-
students and teachers can play an important role in gress. Subsequently, these students began to perceive
how meanings are constructed in classroom settings. themselves in that way, and their academic behaviours
The teacher is the authority figure who can make and changed to enable them to meet those expectations.
enforce rules, whereas a student is in a position of def-
erence to the teacher, who at any given time may label Postmodern
a student’s behaviour appropriate or inappropriate. self-fulfilling
Because of the generalized other and the looking- Perspectives prophecy: An originally
glass self, how one is labelled by others has impor- Postmodern perspectives false belief that becomes
true simply because it is
tant implications for future behaviours and one’s discount traditional the- perceived as such.
self-esteem. One potential outcome of labelling in the ories of education that

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 1 7

Chapter Summary
LO1 Explain what belief systems are LO3 Compare key sociological theories
and identify their components. of religion.
Belief systems are sets of interconnected beliefs that Substantive approaches focus on the meanings
are shared among groups of people. They consist contained within specific doctrines and how those
of claims about the nature of reality, ethical/moral meanings are understood by people in their eve-
claims, and technologies. ryday lives. Functional approaches emphasize the
social aspects of religion, the functions it serves,
LO2 Describe religious patterns in and its implications for individuals and for society.
Canada and identify the implica- Sociological theorizing about religion is as old
as the discipline of sociology itself. Durkheim
tions of religiosity for individuals addressed the role of religion in maintaining social
and for society. solidarity, Marx spoke of religion as an obstacle
The largest religious group in the world is Christianity, to proletarian revolution, and Weber explored
followed by Islam. In Canada, Catholicism is the most the role of Protestantism in establishing early
common religious affiliation; with recent immigration capitalism. Diverse feminist perspectives share a
patterns, a variety of Eastern religions are becoming foundation in analyzing the oppression of women
more predominant. Religious affiliation and attend- in religion, and postmodern perspectives draw
ance have declined since 1986, but religion continues attention to the multiplicity of individual religious
to play a role in most Canadians’ lives. Religiosity experiences.
has positive implications for individuals in terms of
physical and mental health, social capital, and perfor-
mance in school. At a societal level, religiosity can be
associated with positive or negative outcomes.

2 1 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Recommended Resources
1. For an overview of the religious patterns of (1973) is The Sociology of Science (Chicago, IL:
Canadians, as well as what those patterns may University of Chicago Press, 1973).
mean, see R. Bibby, Beyond the Gods and Back 3. Non-Indigenous (settler) peoples are invited to
(Lethbridge, AB: Project Canada Books, learn more about Indigenous issues (e.g., terminol-
2011). ogy, treaties, and residential schools) by visiting the
2. Robert Merton is often credited as the founder of website Groundwork for Change at http://www
the sociology of science. His groundbreaking book .groundworkforchange.org.

For Further Reflection

1. Some scientists may engage in scientific misconduct, such a person reconcile those two belief
such as forging data. How might this practice be systems?
connected to the corporatization of science? 3. Do you have any siblings? In what ways do you think
2. Do you think a person can be both the educational experience of a younger sibling is
religious and scientific? In what ways might affected by that child having an older brother or sister?

ENDNOTES
1 Retrieved June 2, 2017, from Goodreads.com (www.goodreads.com). 2 The OECD is a group of 35 countries committed to working
together for the benefit of economic prosperity.

NEL Chapter 10 Learning What Is “True”: Religion, Science, and Education 2 1 9

Social Control, Deviance,

and Crime

“ ”
Shutterstock

All societies have ways of keeping deviants under control…. The ancient
Greeks killed them; nineteenth-century societies hid them in their closets and
attics, and twentieth-century societies rationalized this solution by building
large institutions in which they were hidden.
(Newman, 2008, p. xi)
NEL

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 2 1

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

ARE YOU SOCIALLY CONTROLLED?

There are myriad forms of social control, ranging from said or did? Were you ever bullied or harassed for the
informal to formal, from retroactive to preventive, colour of your skin, accent, gender identity, socioeco-
from controls directed at us to controls we impart nomic status, or sexuality? Did your parents ever make
upon ourselves. Considering how many varied meas- you go back to your room and change your clothes
ures of social control we are subjected to reveals how before going out? Have you ever gone on a diet or
all of us are, at some points, viewed as deviant in our started lifting weights to increase muscle mass? Have
lives—or at least potentially deviant. you ever received a speeding ticket? Were you ever
disciplined by a teacher in some manner? Have you
Think Outside the Box: Have you ever received a
ever been arrested? What other forms of social control
dirty look from someone because of something you
have you experienced in your life?

“most Canadians” disapprove of (e.g., racism)? Maybe

LO2 WHAT IS DEVIANCE? it is those that violate norms, as the dictionary sug-
At its most general level, deviance refers to those gests (e.g., closing the elevator door when someone
people, behaviours, or characteristics that are viewed is rushing to get on). Each of these four qualities has
as unacceptable. But why are some perceived as unac- served as the definition of deviance for some scholars.
ceptable, whereas others are not? What do being too But even “objective” criteria can be called into
thin, committing a crime, being gender non-con- question because there are times when a behaviour fits
forming, and speeding have in common? one of these criteria (e.g., is statistically rare) yet is not
Perhaps what they have in common is that they considered unacceptable or subjected to measures of
violate norms. In fact, you will often see “deviance” social control (e.g., unusual sports prowess, such as
defined as a behaviour that violates society’s norms. embodied in NHL star Connor McDavid). Conversely,
This is even the definition of deviance you will find in alcohol consumption is statistically common among
the dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2017). But from a high school students (Boak et al., 2015) but is still
sociological perspective, deviance is far more complex considered to be unacceptable by many parents (who
than this definition suggests. Norms are not universal punish their underage children for coming home drunk
and unchanging but rather are socially constructed. from a party) and by the state (in that the law prohibits
Societies evolve and change over time, which means the sale of alcohol to people under a certain age).
that norms change over time as well. Furthermore, Because of the shortcomings in defining deviance
society is composed of countless different social on the basis of a single objective quality, many devi-
groups. Which group’s specific expectations for behav- ance scholars today propose a “subjective” definition
iour are the ones being used as the standards for judg- instead, one that draws attention to the social processes
ment in society more generally? that teach us how to label acts as good/bad, right/
Thus, within academia, there is some disagreement wrong, and normal/abnormal (Bereska, 2018; Sacco,
over the definition of deviance. Some scholars put for- 1992). This view emphasizes the subjective manner
ward “objective” definitions that highlight a specific in which deviance is socially constructed and how it
quality that inherently makes certain acts deviant and is influenced by the structure of power in society. For
in need of social control (Bereska, 2018; Sacco, 1992). instance, although alcohol consumption is considered
At the same time, these scholars often dispute precisely acceptable now (among adults), the sale of alcohol
what that quality is. Are behaviours that are statistically was considered criminal during a period of national
uncommon the ones in need of control (e.g., being very prohibition from 1918 to 1919. And today, you might
thin, having purple hair)? Or is it those that cause harm argue that the legalized substance of alcohol causes
that are unacceptable (e.g., criminal activity, cyberbul- more harm to society than do the illicit drugs that are
lying)? Might it be behaviours and characteristics that prohibited by law. In the chapter on health and illness,

2 2 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

TIME TO REVIEW
• What is social control, and what
relationship does it have with deviance?
Patrik Slezak/Shutterstock

• What forms does social control take?

• What are the various “objective” criteria
that some scholars use to define
deviance?
Most of us would agree that medical malpractice is deviant. • How do other scholars define deviance
In contrast, there would likely be disagreement over subjectively (rather than objectively)?
whether it is acceptable for medical staff to sport tattoos
and dreadlocks. • What topics are studied by deviance
scholars, and why has a distinct area of
study evolved to study criminal forms of
deviance in particular?
you will see that alcohol misuse is one of the top three
leading actual causes of illness and death worldwide.
From this perspective, deviance is defined as
“people, behaviours, and characteristics that society’s
dominant moral codes deem to be unacceptable and in
LO4 CRIME
need of control” (Bereska, 2018, p. 14). So, then, why Which behaviours, exactly, are considered criminal?
are you given a ticket for speeding? Because legislators They are those that are deemed by legislators as so
have determined that speeding is unacceptable, and law unacceptable that they must be embodied in govern-
enforcement agencies are tasked with enforcing that ment legislation. At that point, a behaviour is labelled
view. Why are individuals who date others of the same a crime; in other words, a crime is any behaviour that
sex too frequently victimized by hate crimes? Because violates criminal law. Which acts receive this label is
they are perceived by some as stepping outside the not static but varies over time. For example, in the
dualisms equating sex, gender, and sexuality that have chapter on sex, gender, and sexuality, you learned that
historically dominated Euro-Canadian discourses. In in Canada before 1969, having a (consensual) sexual
some cases, there will be agreement in society that a relationship with someone of the same sex was con-
specific act is unacceptable (e.g., murder). In other sidered criminal. As a result of LGBTQ activism, that
cases, there will be less agreement or even consider- behaviour is no longer labelled a “crime.”
able dispute (e.g., body modification). Although we might initially assume that there
Deviance scholars study a wide range of behav- is considerable agreement that criminal activity is
iours and characteristics (Bereska, 2018): cyberde- unacceptable, there is
viance (e.g., cyberbullying, digital piracy); body some question of how criminologists:
modification (e.g., tattoos); the sex industry (e.g., por- much consensus is really Researchers who specialize
nography, exotic dancing); bodies deemed to be “too involved in determining in the study of criminal
behaviour.
fat” or “too thin”; substance use; mental illness; alter- which behaviours are
native religious groups; criminal activity; and more. legislated against. In fact, criminology: The
there are several different academic discipline that
focuses on the study of
perspectives on the nature
LO3 Deviance and Crime of the law (Linden, 2016;
crime and those labelled as
criminals.
Criminal behaviours are often viewed as acts that most Siegel & McCormick,
crime: Any behaviour
of us would agree are unacceptable. Furthermore, they 2016). The consensual that violates criminal law.
are subjected to the most formal, institutionalized view of law is that the

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 2 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
behaviours legislated against in criminal law are those English “common law.” The common-law system was
that most people agree should be legislated against; developed by judges, based on decisions from indi-
furthermore, it is presumed that the ensuing measures vidual court cases that set “precedents” such that
of social control are then equally applied to everyone. future cases of that nature were to be treated in a sim-
However, other scholars argue that “law creation is ilar fashion. Since its origins, common law has con-
a political activity, wherein the [behaviours] that are tinuously evolved as sociocultural circumstances have
embodied in law do not necessarily reflect the view of broadened (Siegel & McCormick, 2016). In Canada,
the majority of citizens” (Bereska, 2018, p. 12). The there are two main types of law: private law and public
conflict view argues that the ruling class creates and law. Private law concerns relationships between indi-
uses the law as a tool for oppressing powerless groups viduals, often in the form of contracts and agreements
in society and serving its own interests. The interac- (e.g., marriage, property, and wills), whereas public
tionist view proposes that legislation emerges from law concerns relationships between the individual
interactions between special interest groups who have and society (e.g., constitutional law, criminal law, and
identified a social problem and powerful groups they taxation law) (see Figure 11.1).
approach to resolve that problem (the government). When there is an issue involving private law
Finally, others view the law as a “balance” that has (i.e., wrongs against a person), the offending party
been struck among the opinions of special interest pays for damages or otherwise compensates for the
groups, the attitudes of the majority, and the interests wrongdoing (Vago & Nelson, 2014). For example,
of the powerful. Whatever the process of law creation, traffic laws pertaining to speed limits are developed
in Canada, we can find the outcome of that process at the provincial and municipal levels under pri-
in the Criminal Code of Canada (1985), which lists vate law, and offenders pay fines, receive demerit
crimes and their corresponding penalties. points, and/or pay compensation to victims. In con-
According to Canadian legislation, a criminal trast, issues under public law are considered wrongs
offence has occurred when a criminal act has taken against the state. For example, by trafficking an
place and there was corresponding intent to commit illegal substance, a drug dealer is considered to be
the act (Verdun-Jones, 2015). Intent here refers to causing harm to society as a whole; consequently,
“blameworthy” in the sense that a “reasonable” person under public law, court cases are not between a
would understand the outcome of those actions. For victim (e.g., the person who became ill from the
instance, an adult may deliberately take and keep drugs he or she purchased) and the accused but
someone’s unattended purse, including the money rather between the Crown and the accused. When
it contains. In contrast, there would not be intent if wrongs are against the state, the penalties are more
the person took the purse in order to return it to the severe (such as imprisonment). The public law in
owner. Criminal laws apply equally to everyone, inde- Canada, which includes the Criminal Code, the
pendent of ascribed or achieved characteristics, such Youth Criminal Justice Act, and the Controlled
as ethnicity or social status. Hence, all who commit the Substances Act, is the area of law that criminologists
same act of theft and who have the capacity to do so focus their attention on. All of these acts are located
with intent are subject to arrest and, if convicted, will on the federal government’s “Justice Laws Website”
face similar consequences for this violation against (http://www.laws-lois.justice.gc.ca).
society. However, research has found that although
the law may be intended to apply to everyone, in prac-
tice, the application of the law is not always neutral.
Members of some social groups (especially racialized
TIME TO REVIEW
groups) are more likely than others to be monitored by • What is the formal definition of
law enforcement, arrested, charged, found guilty, and “crime,” and how is this similar
sentenced to imprisonment (Becker, 1963; Chan & to and different from the concept of
Chunn, 2014). We see this today in the overrepresen- deviance?
tation of Indigenous people in the Canadian criminal
justice system. • In practice, are laws applied equally
to everyone?
• Are the crimes studied by sociologists
Types of Crimes and Laws primarily part of private or public
In Canada, there are several different types of laws; law?
criminal law is only one of them. As one of Britain’s • What does intent refer to?
former colonies, our legal system has its roots in early

2 2 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

THE LAW

Positive law All other conceptions and

notions of binding law

Public international law Domestic law

Substantive law Procedural or adjectival law

Public law Private law

Constitutional Criminal Contracts Torts Property

law law

Taxation Administrative Wills and Family Company Patents

law law trusts law

Real Agency Etc.

estate

Source: Figure 2.7 “The Law” from The Canadian Legal System, Fifth Edition, by Gerald L. Gall (2004 edition 0-459-24128-1 (HC); 0-459-24153-2 (PB)), Chapter 2
The Divisions of Law, Pg. 29. Adapted by permission of Thomson Reuters Canada Limited.

Crime Classifications was used, whether there was a threat to a third party,
and the amount of harm incurred by the victim)
and Statistics (Criminal Code, 1985);
Crimes are often categorized on the basis of their they are referred to as
perceived seriousness. Summary conviction offences hybrid offences because Summary conviction
are perceived as causing the least harm; they include they can be prosecuted offences: Less serious
criminal offences that are
acts such as theft under $5,000, unauthorized use as summary or indictable punishable by a maximum
of a computer, and taking a motor vehicle without convictions (Jourard, of six months in prison
and/or a fine of not more
consent. The maximum punishment for summary 2017). than $5,000.
offences is a fine of not more than $5,000, a jail sen- Crimes are also treated
tence not exceeding six months, or both (Criminal somewhat d ifferently Indictable conviction
offences: More serious
Code, 1985). Indictable conviction offences are within the legal system criminal offences than
those that are viewed as causing the most harm; depending on the intended summary offences with
examples include trafficking in persons, terrorist victim of harm. Violent penalties that vary but could
result in life imprisonment.
activity, and murder. They correspond to more severe crimes are offences
penalties, such as a lengthy prison term (Criminal committed against a Violent crimes:
Code, 1985). Some offences, such as assault or sexual person, such as assault, Criminal offences that
involve physical harm to
assault, range in the level of seriousness depending sexual assault, man- another person.
on a number of factors (e.g., whether or not a weapon slaughter, and homicide.

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 2 5

Figure 11.2
Police-Reported Crime Rates, Canada, 1962–2014

Rate per 100,000

population
12,000
Total
10,000 Property crimes
Other crimes
8,000 Violent crimes

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014
Note: Information presented in this chart represents data from the UCR Aggregate (UCR1) Survey and permits
historical comparisons back to 1962. New definitions of crime categories were introduced in 2009 and are only
available in the new format back to 1998. As a result, numbers in this chart will not match data released in the
new UCR2 format. Specifically, the definition of violent crime has been expanded. In addition, UCR1 includes
some different offences in the “Other” crimes category. Populations are based upon July 1 estimates from Statistics
Canada, Demography Division.

Source: J. Boyce, (2015, July 22). Police-reported crime statistics in Canada, 2014. [Chart 2: Police-reported crime rates, Canada, 1962–2014, Pg. 5]. Juristat.
Catalogue No. 85-002-X. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.

2 2 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Census metropolitan
area1,2,3

St. John’s
Halifax
Moncton*
Saint John*
Saguenay
Québec
Sherbrooke
Trois-Rivières
Montréal
Gatineau5
Ottawa6
Kingston
Peterborough
Toronto Canada = 66.7
Hamilton
St. Catharines–Niagara
Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo
Brantford
Guelph
London
Windsor
Barrie
Greater Sudbury
Thunder Bay
Winnipeg
Regina
Saskatoon
Calgary
Edmonton
Kelowna
Abbotsford–Mission
Vancouver
Victoria
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Crime Severity Index

Source: J. Boyce, (July 22, 2015). Police-reported crime statistics in Canada, 2014. [Chart 8: Police-reported Crime Severity Index, by census metropolitan area,
2014, Pg. 5.] Juristat. Catalogue No. 85-002-X. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada.

overrepresented (e.g., crimes deemed a priority by indi- exchange of illegal goods or services; they include
vidual police agencies). To help gain a broader perspec- drug use, prostitution, and online gambling. These are
tive, official statistics are sometimes supplemented by sometimes referred to as “crimes involving morality”
data obtained from victimization surveys. The General or “crimes against public order” (Winterdyk, 2016).
Social Survey (GSS), which is conducted regularly in High levels of debate often surround victimless crimes.
Canada, includes questions on whether respondents We see this quite clearly when looking at the debates
have been victimized by a criminal act in the past 12 over the decriminalization of prostitution.
months and whether they reported the incident to the Prior to 2013, in Canada, the act of prostitution
police. The 2014 GSS reported that about one in every (exchanging money for some type of sexual behaviour)
five Canadians age 15 and over had been a victim of was not illegal. However,
a criminal incident within the previous year. Yet just it was difficult to engage Victimless crimes:
under one-third of these incidents were reported to the in prostitution without Criminal offences that
involve consensual
police (Perreault, 2015). violating a criminal law relations in the exchange of
Some crimes are classified as “victimless.” related to prostitution, illegal goods or services.
Victimless crimes involve consensual relations in the such as communicating

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 2 7

often think about street crimes such as prostitution,

assault, car theft, and break and enter. But criminol-
ogists draw our attention to other types of criminal
activities as well, such as white-collar crime (the mis-
appropriation of financial resources, or identity theft)
and corporate crime (false advertising or failing to
comply with safety standards).
Perhaps the newest area of crime, one that is
In June 2014, sex trade workers across Canada held a rapidly evolving, is cybercrime , which involves
national day of action to protest the federal government’s criminal acts committed using computer technology.
new prostitution law. Cybercrimes are wide-ranging and include the sexual
exploitation of children (e.g., child pornography sites;
pedophiles using social networking sites to commu-
in public in order to obtain prostitution services, oper- nicate with children); cyberbullying; stalking; sales
ating a bawdy house (a brothel), or living off the avails scams; identity theft; and organized crime (two or
of prostitution (pimping). In 2013, the Supreme Court more people participating in illegal activities for gain).
of Canada struck down Canada’s prostitution laws, In May of 2017, a massive cyberattack using ran-
stating that they threatened the health and safety of somware with the name “WannaCry” was launched
sex trade workers and that the workers were entitled worldwide, with reports of 75,000 cases in more than
to the same level of occupational safety as employees 99 countries (BBC News, 2017) The attack encrypted
in any other industry (CBC, 2013). Once these laws computer user files, including those of the National
were struck down, sex trade workers were able to hire Health Service in England and Scotland, and restricted
bodyguards, work in a common location (a brothel), access until a ransom was paid.
hire drivers, and take other steps to improve their
safety. Although many sex trade workers, as well
as the Sex Professionals of Canada, applauded this
ruling, others argued that the ruling would drive pros-
titution indoors, where
police officers and social
white-collar crime: workers would have
Criminal offences involving
the misappropriation of
more difficulty identi-
financial resources. fying those who might be
in need of help (Bereska,
corporate crime:
Criminal offences carried
2018). The Supreme
out by organizations or by Court gave the federal
knowledgeable employees government one year to
in the course of their
employment.
develop a new prostitu-
tion law if it so chose.
cybercrime: Criminal In 2014, the government
acts committed using
computer technology. did introduce new legis-
Nicescene/Shutterstock

lation, emphasizing the

organized crime: criminalization of “johns”
Two or more persons
consorting together (the customers) and
on a continual basis pimps. Many sex trade
to participate in illegal
activities, either directly or
workers, and the Sex
indirectly, for gain. Professionals of Canada, In 2017, more than 75,000 people worldwide woke up to
were outraged, arguing this ransomware message on their computers.

2 2 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

SOCIOLOGY ONLINE

CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN CANADA

A diagram outlining Canada’s court system along with • Correctional Service Canada, http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca
a description of how the various courts are organ- • Royal Canadian Mounted Police, http://www
ized can be found on Canada’s Department of Justice .rcmp-grc.gc.ca
website (http://www.justice.gc.ca). Other organizations
associated with criminal justice in Canada include the • Parole Board of Canada, https://www.canada.ca/en
following, among others: /parole-board.html
• John Howard Society of Canada, http://johnhoward.ca

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 2 9

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

PRISON AS DETERRENCE: INCARCERATING US

The United States has the largest prison popula- ineffectual campaign resulting in excessive punish-
tion in the world, with more than 2 million people ments, racial discrimination, and innumerable costs to
incarcerated. In Incarcerating US (2016), filmmaker families, communities, and taxpayers. The film gives us
Regan Hines argues that this state of affairs is the important insight into the question, “What is the pur-
outcome of the decades-long “war on drugs”—an pose of prison?” (https://incarceratingus.com)

2 3 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

OMBUDSPERSON FOR FEDERAL INMATES

The Office of the Correctional Investigator (OCI), cur- A report sent to parliament on February 15, 2017,
rently under the direction of Dr. Ivan Zinger, serves as an details the death of Matthew Ryan Hines, who, at age
ombudsperson for federal inmates. An ombudsperson 33, died while in federal custody at New Brunswick’s
is an independent body with authority to conduct thor- Dorchester Penitentiary following a series of incidents
ough, impartial, independent investigations and to make involving force (e.g., being taken to the ground and
recommendations to government organizations with pepper sprayed). The report outlines various areas
respect to the problems of citizens. The OCI provides of non-compliance by Correctional Service Canada,
oversight of Correctional Service Canada to ensure that including “inappropriate use of inflammatory spray” and
federally sentenced offenders experience “safe, lawful “failure to provide emergency health care” (Office of
and human corrections” by providing “accessible, the Correctional Investigator, 2017a). The OCI concludes
impartial and timely investigation of individual and sys- that Matthew Hines’s death was preventable and lists 10
temic concerns” (Office of the Correctional Investigator, major findings, such as “multiple uses of unnecessary
2017b). The OCI investigates complaints made by federal and inappropriate force contributing to ensuing medical
offenders (about issues involving themselves or made emergency and death” and “questions about quality,
on behalf of other offenders) or complaints initiated by timeliness and adequacy of health care response” (Office
family members on behalf of inmates. The OCI also prior- of the Correctional Investigator, 2017a).
itizes a variety of issues, including access to physical and
Think Outside the Box: Why is it important for an
mental care, deaths in custody, conditions of confine-
independent authority to provide oversight for Correc-
ment, Indigenous issues, safe and timely reintegration,
tional Service Canada?
and federally sentenced women (Office of the Correc-
tional Investigator, 2017b). Finally, the OCI writes reports Source: Office of the Correctional Investigator (2013b). Annual report of the Office
of the Correctional Investigator, 2011–2012, Pg. 30, 32. Ottawa, ON: Her Majesty
on its findings that include recommendations for acts the Queen in Right of Canada. Found at: http://www.oci-bec.gc.ca/cnt/rpt/annrpt/
that need to be taken to improve corrections in Canada. annrpt20112012-eng.aspx.

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 3 1

RESTORATIVE JUSTICE: HOME FIRE

Home Fire (2014) is a candid documentary on family community leaders, and individuals working in the
violence and restorative justice. Viewers learn about criminal justice system (National Film Board of Canada,
colonization, historical trauma, grassroots healing 2017). This film, by Greg Miller, is available from the
programs, and the benefits of involving community National Film Board of Canada.
members in a process of justice from elders,

critical and feminist criminologists have developed alter- the premise of rebuilding relationships (Zehr, 2002).
native frameworks to the “war on crime.” For example, Restorative justice practices have taken a number of
peacemaking criminology is a non-violent movement forms, including victim–offender reconciliation pro-
and approach to crime that centres on transforming grams, victim–offender mediation, community justice
individuals and society in order to reduce the suffering circles, and reparative probation programs (Winterdyk,
and social injustices that result from structural inequali- 2016). Prior to colonization, Indigenous peoples reg-
ties based on class, race, and gender (Braswell, Fuller, & ularly practised restorative justice, and more recently,
Lozoff, 2001; Pepinsky & Quinney, 2001). attempts have been made to reimplement restorative
In addition, many criminologists now support justice programs in various communities. For example,
restorative justice, an approach based on informal the Tsuu T’ina Peacemaker Court in Alberta (estab-
processes that emphasize healing and the reparation lished in 2000), the Cree-speaking and Dene-speaking
of harm that offenders have caused victims and com- courts in Saskatchewan (introduced in 2001 and 2006
munity members rather than focusing on punishing respectively), the Gladue Court in Ontario (which com-
the offender (Elliot, 2011; Woolford, 2009). In this menced in 2001 and was expanded to three courts in
approach, the offender is required to assume respon- 2007), and the First Nations Court in British Columbia
sibility for his or her actions and to attempt to make (which opened in 2006) all utilize sanctioned tradi-
some kind of restitution to the victim (such as a formal tional forms of dispute resolution (Whonnock, 2008).
apology). Restorative justice also emphasizes the need
to involve all of the stake-
holders in the process of TIME TO REVIEW
restorative justice: justice (victims, offenders,
An approach to justice
• On what bases do abolitionists call for the
emphasizing healing and
and other members of overhauling of the criminal justice system?
reparation of harm. the community). Finally,
restorative justice rests on • What is peacemaking criminology?
• What are the premises on which
restorative justice rests?
Canada, 2017. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister
/institutions/001002-4007-eng.shtml, (c) Correctional Service

of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2017.

Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge, http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY

LO7 EXPLAINING DEVIANCE

AND SOCIAL CONTROL
A variety of theories are used to analyze criminal-
ized and non-criminalized forms of deviance. Like
the study of families, wherein some theorizing is
done from within the core theoretical perspectives
Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge, Maple Creek, Saskatchewan. in sociology (e.g., functionalist theories), but other

2 3 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
theorizing arises from outside those boundaries (e.g., rather than followers, and attain respect. We are taught
social exchange theories), the same is true for the that the legitimate means for attaining those goals
study of deviance. Although functionalist, conflict, include getting a good education, working hard, and
interactionist, feminist, and postmodern theories are investing money wisely. However, Merton pointed out
applied, so are theories specific to the study of devi- that society is structured in a way that some people,
ance (e.g., neutralization theory). Some theories focus such as children growing up in inner-city neighbour-
on the causes of deviant behaviours; these theories are hoods, have less access to those legitimate means.
positivist (see Chapter 1). Other theories emphasize Regardless of their lack of legitimate means, most
social construction—how we come to perceive behav- people will still dream of achieving institutionalized
iours or characteristics in a given way and then exert goals; hence, a “gap” exists between the goals and the
certain forms of social control over them. These are means for obtaining them, which creates a sense of
interpretive and critical theories (see Chapter 1). “strain.” People respond to this “gap” in different ways;
that is, they engage in different modes of adaptation.
Most people continue to aspire to conventional
Explaining Deviance goals and do their best to pursue the legitimate means
Functionalist Theories of achieving them (e.g., getting a university degree).
Merton labelled this mode of adaptation conformity,
of Deviance and the associated behaviour is considered acceptable.
Functionalist theories propose that the social structure Others respond to the gap by accepting the goals
causes deviance. Durkheim indicated that deviance of wealth, power, and prestige but rejecting the legiti-
emerges from anomie (see Chapter 1). When society mate means of obtaining them. Using innovation,
changes too rapidly (such as during the process of indus- they find alternative means—for instance, obtaining
trialization or when a large-scale natural disaster occurs), wealth through credit card fraud, becoming powerful
people become unsure of precisely what is expected of through gang membership, or gaining prestige by
them, and feelings of normlessness emerge. In a context using performance-enhancing drugs to become a star
of normlessness, people begin to engage in excessive athlete. Some people engage in ritualism, giving up on
levels of deviant behaviour, including the commission the institutionalized goals but continuing to engage in
of crimes. But Durkheim suggested that only excessive the means, such as by reliably working at their low-
levels of deviance are harmful to society, when they dis- paid jobs until retirement even though they will never
rupt the smooth running of the social order. Less than earn enough money to obtain a mortgage for a home.
excessive levels of deviance can actually contribute to Others may adapt to the discrepancy between means
the maintenance of the social order. For instance, seeing and goals by rejecting the institutionalized goals and
someone being punished for a transgression reminds us the legitimate means, perhaps escaping into sub-
of the rules; this resembles the concept of general deter- stance abuse or not even bothering to look for work
rence, discussed earlier in the chapter. anymore—a mode of adaptation called retreatism.
In another chapter, you learned about Robert Finally, some people engage in rebellion, rejecting the
Merton as the founder of the “sociology of science.” current goals and means but living according to an
But what Merton (1938, 1968) is best known for is alternative set of goals and means. For instance, in
his theory of deviance, known as classic strain theory. the 1960s, some hippies created alternative lifestyles
This theory dominated the study of deviance for for themselves in communes, pursuing peace and
several decades and is recognized by some as one of love and sharing material goods. In the present day,
the most significant sociological theories of all time extremist groups (such as the Aryan Nations and ISIL/
(Featherstone & Deflam, 2003). ISIS) reflect rebellion in their use of violence to create
Like Durkheim, Merton connected deviance to a world that corresponds to their ideological visions.
the social structure. He explained that an individual’s For several decades, Merton’s theory was primarily
location within the social structure—for example, in applied in explanations of
terms of socioeconomic status—contributes to devi- criminal activity, such as institutionalized
ance. People who occupy certain locations face more property crimes, illegal goals: The goals that we
constraints than those located in other parts. These drug use, white-collar are supposed to aspire to
in contemporary society.
constraints, which can lead to deviance, arise from crimes, and corporate
institutionalized goals and legitimate means. The crimes. Today, it is also legitimate means:
institutionalized goals of society today include wealth, The socially accepted ways
applied to non-criminal of attaining wealth, power,
power, and prestige. From early childhood, we are behaviours, such as peo- and prestige.
socialized to aspire to earn a lot of money, be leaders ple’s pursuit of fame and

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 3 3

Gray et al., 2015; Hawdon, 2012; Janssen et al., 2016).

A learning theory of deviance that is especially
popular today is Sykes and Matza’s (1957) neutrali-
zation theory. This theory proposes that we learn
During the countercultural era of the 1960s, peace, love, techniques of neutralization—that is, rationalizations
and music were at the core of the hippies’ “rebellion.” that allow us to justify our deviant acts to others and
to ourselves. With the denial of injury, we can claim
celebrity, as well as anti-ethnic and anti-immigrant that we really aren’t hurting anyone, as in the case of
prejudice (Hövermann et al., 2015; Parnaby & Sacco, perpetrators of supposed “victimless crimes.” Denial
2004). of the victim involves the claim that the person on the
In Merton’s description of the structural con- receiving end of our behaviour deserved what he or
straints that lead some people into deviance and she got. For instance, someone who shoplifts may
Durkheim’s suggestion that excessive levels of devi- claim that stores jack up their prices anyway.
ance emerge in contexts of anomie, we see the foun- With denial of responsibility, the transgressor argues
dational assumptions of functionalism at work. That that he or she isn’t really responsible for what happened.
is, something in the social structure, rather than in the Instead, that person shifts the blame onto someone or
individual, causes varied forms of deviance. something else, such as a parent (e.g., for being absent)
or the community (e.g., for being “boring”). Condemning
Learning Theories the condemners involves the transgressor arguing that the
Learning theories lie outside the four core theoretical person or group that is condemning him or her is hyp-
perspectives in sociology but are important to the ocritical and guilty of its own misdeeds. For example,
study of deviance. These theories propose that deviant cyclists who use performance-enhancing drugs claim
behaviours emerge through processes of learning— that everyone uses substances to enhance performance,
that is, some people “learn” to act in deviant ways, whether it is drinking a cup of coffee before an exam to
whereas others do not (Bereska, 2018). Thus, social increase alertness, taking aspirin to get rid of a headache
learning theory states that deviant behaviours occur at work, or having a beer to facilitate social interaction
when individuals are with new acquaintances (Sefina, 2012). Finally, in an
rewarded for those acts; appeal to higher loyalties, transgressors claim that they
techniques: The skills
needed to engage in either
are not punished for those engaged in deviance for a good reason. For instance,
deviant or conforming acts; or, through imitation environmental activists who are arrested for vandal-
behaviour. and modelling, see others izing company property in the oil sands may claim that
motives: The reasons for being rewarded for sim- their actions were necessary to draw attention to how oil
engaging in either deviant ilar acts. Social learning companies are destroying the environment.
or conforming behaviour. theory has been applied
techniques of to behaviours ranging
neutralization: from criminal activity, to Social Control Theories
Rationalizations that allow
us to justify our behaviour
youth drug use, to cyber- Like learning theories, social control theories also fall
to others and to ourselves. bullying (Li et al., 2016; outside the core theoretical perspectives in sociology
Norman & Ford, 2015). but are central to studying deviance. It is important to

2 3 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
note that social control theories are distinct from the Explaining Our Perceptions
measures of social control that are directed at unac-
ceptable behaviours or characteristics. Social control of, and Reactions
theories draw attention to the factors that restrain to, Behaviours and
most of us from unacceptable acts (Bereska, 2018).
Hirschi’s (1969) early social control theory rested Characteristics
on the premise that social bonds prevent most people
from engaging in deviance. Social bonds are connec- Interpretive Theories
tions people have to conventional society. Emotional Interpretive theories have a foundation in the interac-
attachment to others (e.g., parents) holds us back from tionist perspective. From this perspective, through
deviant behaviour. Commitment to the conventional our interactions with significant others and the gener-
world (e.g., a job, a scholarship, or home ownership) alized other, as well as the influence of the looking-
constitutes an “investment”—people simply have glass self, we develop understandings of what acts are
too much to lose by engaging in deviance. People acceptable or unacceptable; we also come to under-
who are high in involvement are so busy carrying out stand ourselves in this context and choose our actions
conventional activities (e.g., studying and working on that basis. Although some of those understandings
part time) that they don’t have time to engage in devi- will be shared with other people, our interactions are
ance as well. Finally, belief in the norms and values of not identical to anybody else’s, and as such, different
the conforming world (such as respect for the law) understandings may develop as well. Thus, you might
restrains people from deviance—put simply, they see understand facial piercing to be deviant, whereas
behaving as the right thing to do. Several studies have someone else does not.
found that people who have these social bonds are Edwin Lemert’s (1951) labelling theory emerges
less likely to be criminally active or engage in other from this interactionist foundation. Lemert states that
unacceptable acts and have better attitudes toward the we all engage in acts of primary deviance—minor acts
police (Salvatore & Taniguchi, 2012; Wu, Yuning, & that are done rarely or infrequently (e.g., drinking
Cao, 2015). alcohol to excess). Because infrequent transgressions
Travis Hirschi is now also associated with a are likely to go undetected, people are able to maintain
second theory—initially called the general theory of a non-deviant self-image. However, with more frequent
crime and now more commonly known as self-control acts of deviance, the chances of detection are greater.
theory (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Grasmick et al., Lemert argues that getting caught at deviance is the
1993). Self-control theory rests on the assumption impetus for a chain of events that change how people
that self-control develops in early childhood (through are treated and how they come to understand and iden-
socialization by parents) and restrains most of us tify themselves. For example, getting caught drinking
from deviance. It follows that the failure to develop alcohol at work may lead an employer to label an
adequate self-control leads to deviance. Low levels employee a “problem drinker” or “alcoholic.” Because
of self-control are associated with a variety of risky of that label, people start to treat that person differently;
behaviours, such as substance use and risky driving a person who is labelled a problem drinker at work may
behaviours (such as texting while driving) (Koeppel be reprimanded by the boss, avoided by co-workers, or
et al., 2015; Quisenberry, 2015). required to seek treatment. Perceived as deviant, the
legitimate world starts to reject him or her, and only
similar others in the deviant world, such as one’s fellow
patrons of the familiar bar, continue to accept him or
TIME TO REVIEW
her. Also, the deviant comes to view himself or herself
• What are the basic assumptions of differently as a result of the label, increasingly accepts
functionalist, learning, and social control the label, and builds a lifestyle and an identity around
theories of deviance? it—this is known as secondary deviance. A person
who has been labelled a
• How is deviance explained by Durkheim “problem drinker” may
and within classic strain theory? drink even more to cope primary deviance:
• How is deviance explained by differential with deteriorating rela- The little acts of deviance
that many of us engage in
association theory and neutralization tionships at work and/or occasionally.
theory? at home because he or she
has internalized that label secondary deviance:
• How is deviance explained by social Chronic deviance as a
bonds theory and self-control theory? and is acting in accord- lifestyle.
ance with its role.

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 3 5

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

YOUTH CONFRONTING THE STIGMA

OF MENTAL ILLNESS
Mental illness (which is discussed in the chapter stigmatization. Resources are available to assist youth
on health and illness) affects the majority of on high school and university campuses to set up
Canadians, either directly (through the experience their own Jack.org chapters; currently, there are more
of mental illness) or indirectly (through having than 100 chapters across Canada. The organization
a relationship with someone who has a mental makes available toolkits, TEDx talks, funding
illness). Nevertheless, mental illness continues to be opportunities, and guest speakers for local chapters
stigmatized in society, characterized by damaging and holds an annual cycling event to raise funds (Jack
media portrayals and overwhelmingly negative public Ride). As an organization “designed for young people
attitudes (Goodwin & Tajjudin, 2016; Mental Health by young people,” its goal is to “end the stigma of
Commission of Canada, 2016; Parrott & Parrott, mental illness in our generation.”
2015). The organization Jack.org (https://www
.jack.org) is “the only national network of young Think Outside the Box: Does your campus have
leaders transforming the way we think about mental a Jack.org chapter? What other resources are available
health.” They use peer-to-peer engagement to on your campus to resist the stigmatization of mental
provide information on mental illness, as well as its illness and facilitate positive mental health?

Goffman (1963) spoke of a similar process, problems; mothers of school shooters; those involved
whereby people who engage in certain acts or who in criminal activity; and members of certain religious
have particular characteristics face stigmatization in groups (Halushka, 2015; Keene, Cowan, & Castro-
society; that is, they become treated as “outsiders” Baker, 2015; Melendez, Lichenstein, & Dolliver.,
once they are labelled as such. Those individuals 2016; Moore, Stuewig, & Tangney, 2016; Sohrabi &
may respond to stigmatization in a number of ways, Farquharson, 2016) (see Sociology in My Community).
ranging from trying to hide that stigmatized charac- Interpretive theories involving processes such as
teristic to developing a lifestyle around it and publicly labelling and stigmatization, then, explain how we
embracing it. Thus, the person who often drinks to come to understand certain behaviours, characteris-
excess may try to prevent detection by using mouth- tics, and people (including ourselves) as deviant, as
wash or drinking vodka out of a water bottle, or alter- well as how we learn to respond accordingly. Critical
natively may be known to friends as throwing the best theories explain why some people’s understandings of
parties because of a well-stocked bar. deviance have more of an influence in society overall,
The process described in labelling theory and are accepted by larger numbers of people, and end up
Goffman’s notion of stigmatization are similar in that reflected in society’s institutions (e.g., the criminal
they propose that once our deviance has been detected, justice system, the education system, the mass media)
people begin to treat us differently, with implications (Bereska, 2018) (see Critical Thinking in Action).
for how we feel about ourselves and the choices we
make for future actions. Although this process was
initially applied to studies of criminal activity, it Critical Theories
is now used to under- Conflict theories propose that structures of power deter-
stand diverse groups of mine which behaviours or characteristics are defined
stigmatization: people who are nega- and treated as deviant. Although the various conflict
The process by which tively labelled or stigma- theories describe that structure of power in distinct
individuals are excluded
because of particular
tized: ex-cons trying to ways (see Chapter 1), they all agree that holding
behaviours/characteristics. enter the labour force; power enables groups to define their own behaviours
people with financial as “normal” while defining the behaviours of others as

2 3 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL CONTROL ON YOUR CAMPUS

walking across your campus, you can see
messages about the actions that are considered
acceptable or unacceptable and forms of social
control. As you walk across campus looking for
“the strange in the familiar” (see Chapter 1), look
closely at the following: the posters located on
bulletin boards; the physical structure of campus
buildings (e.g., the behaviours that are expected,
condoned, frowned upon, or prohibited in particular
locations); the university’s policies and regulations;
and the social interactions of people (e.g., in
classrooms, hallways, library, cafeteria, fitness
centre, pubs).
DeiMosz/Shutterstock.com

Think Outside the Box: What behaviours or

characteristics are socially constructed as acceptable
or unacceptable on your campus? What formal and
informal measures of social control are directed
at those deemed to be unacceptable? Are those
behaviours rare? Do they cause harm? Do “most
people” on campus disapprove of those actions? Do
As you have learned in this chapter, social control is they violate norms (and if so, whose norms)? Who
not just directed at “some people”; it is directed at has the power to claim that those behaviours are
each one of us, for a variety of reasons. Simply by unacceptable?

“deviant” and in need of social control. The powerful appearance when we walk down the street. Because of
then also have the means to enforce those measures this perception of ongoing monitoring, we eventually
of social control, whether in creating criminal laws, monitor our own behaviours—we weigh ourselves
legislating physical appearance (as with Bill 62 on the once a week or slow down when we see the speed
wearing of conspicuous religious attire, which you limit sign on a given street. Self-surveillance has been
learned about in Chapter 3), police “carding” of black studied with a wide range of topics, including distin-
high school students in Toronto, or viewing mem- guishing between responsible gambling and problem
bers of racialized groups as “police property” (Hayle, gambling in our lives or the caution that gender non-
Wortley, & Tanner, 2016; Reiner, 2013). conforming individuals must use in choosing a public
From a postmodern perspective, Foucault (1995) restroom (Bender-Baird, 2016; Miller et al., 2015).
focused his attention, in part, on the internalization Feminist theories draw attention to facets of devi-
of social control. He focused on why we often don’t ance such as the differential standards that women
have to be controlled by others but actually control and men face in determining what is considered
our own behaviours through self-surveillance. We live deviant and the varying experiences they have of
in a society where we are constantly monitored, or at being socially typed as
least feel that we are being monitored, through surveil- deviant and subjected to self-surveillance:
lance cameras, photo radar, bureaucratic mechanisms measures of social con- Monitoring our own
behaviours in order to
that influence everything from who is/is not allowed trol. For instance, they prevent being considered
to drive to what class you must take as a prerequisite point out that what are deviant.
for another course, and strangers judging our physical considered acceptable

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 3 7

TIME TO REVIEW
ArtOfPhotos/Shutterstock

• What is the role of interpretive and

critical theories in those approaches
to deviance that emphasize its socially
constructed nature?
• What are the basic interactionist
Foucault proposes that we don’t always need other people assumptions regarding deviance, and
to monitor us for transgressions because we often monitor how are those reflected in Lemert’s
ourselves. labelling theory and Goffman’s notion of
stigmatization?
behaviours/characteristics in society are gendered. • What aspects of deviance do conflict
A male who wishes to be a daycare worker is more likely theories, Foucault’s work, and feminist
to be considered deviant than a woman with that same theories focus on?
wish, whereas a woman who wants to work on an oil

Chapter Summary
LO1 Define social control, identify its LO2 Compare the different criteria that
relationship to deviance, and differ- are highlighted as the founda-
entiate among its varying types. tion for determining deviance and
Social control refers to measures intended to prevent, explain the view that deviance is
punish, or cure unacceptable (i.e., deviant) behav- socially constructed.
iours and characteristics. Social control can stem Some scholars highlight “objective” characteristics,
from organizations (formally) or from the actions of such as rarity, harm, normative violation, or a nega-
individuals in everyday interactions (informally). Some tive reaction by “most people” in society. Others
measures are directed at deviance that has already view deviance as socially constructed and inter-
occurred, whereas others prevent deviance from twined with structures of power.
occurring in the first place. Some forms are directed
at others, whereas other forms we direct at ourselves.

2 3 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Recommended Resources
1. To gain a better understanding of the origins of crime in Canada: A detailed look at the Crime Severity
the sociological study of deviance, we recommend Index at http://www.statcan.gc.ca.
a classic book by H. Becker (Ed.), The Other Side: 3. The Centre for Justice and Reconciliation offers
Perspectives on Deviance (New York, NY: Free Press, an online tutorial that teaches you about restora-
1964). tive justice (e.g., more on what it is; its values,
2. To view a short Statistics Canada (2016) video that programs, conceptual issues, implementation issues,
explains the crime severity index, visit: Measuring and benefits); see http://restorativejustice.org.

For Further Reflection

1. Why do media portrayals of crime contradict the gender, and sexualities; race and ethnicity),
actual patterns of crime, which show that crime is at where have you seen certain behaviours and
its lowest point since 1972? characteristics identified as being deviant and
2. Considering what you have learned in the other then subjected to formal or informal measures of
chapters in this book thus far (e.g. media; sex, social control?

NEL Chapter 11 Social Control, Deviance, and Crime 2 3 9

Health and Illness: Is It

“Lifestyle” or Something More?

“ ”
Lyubov Kobyakova/Shutterstock

Every human being is the author of his [or her] own

health or disease.
(Prince Gautama Siddharta, 563–483 BCE, founder of Buddhism)1

NEL

LO4 Describe patterns of tobacco use,

alcohol misuse, diet, and physical LO1 THE SOCIOLOGY
inactivity and describe their roles
in morbidity and mortality. OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS
Medical sociologists are one of the largest groups of
LO5 Outline the “fundamental” causes sociologists in the world. They are found both within
of illness and describe how academia (e.g., sociology departments, medical schools,
health and illness are affected nursing schools, schools of public health) and outside
academia in government agencies and research orga-
by socioeconomic status and
nizations. The sociology of health and illness emerged
ethnicity.
in the post–World War II, largely as an applied field
advocating public health and formulating health poli-
LO6 Describe the evolution and cies (Cockerham, 2007). Weeks (2016) points to four
objectives of the Canadian important changes in medicine in the 1950s and 1960s
healthcare system and identify the that contributed to the rapid development of medical
challenges it faces in contemporary sociology. First, as degenerative diseases such as heart
society. disease replaced infectious diseases as the primary
causes of death, the role of social patterns and lifestyles
LO7 Explore how functionalists, became more obvious. Second, preventive medicine
and public health efforts drew attention to signifi-
interactionists, conflict
cant factors such as poverty and malnutrition. Third,
theorists, feminist theorists, and
modern psychiatry emphasized the role of the social
postmodernists address health and environment in psychological healing. Finally, medicine
illness. became more bureaucratic and administrative (in the
regulation and delivery of medical care). Research funds
were made widely available to study the “social causes
and consequences of health and illness” (Cockerham,
2007, para. 1), and the sociology of health and illness
developed rapidly.
Today, the sociology health: A state of
of health and illness complete physical, mental,
and social well-being and
focuses on a variety of not merely the absence of
specific topics, from the disease or infirmity.
everyday experiences of

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 4 1

Figure 12.1
The Epidemiological Transition

Decline in
Epidemics of Degenerative
Famine, infectious and epidemics, increase
infectious and diseases and new
parasitic diseases in degenerative
parasitic diseases infectious diseases
diseases

Source: Author drawn. Adapted (text only): G. Budrys, Unequal health: How inequality contributes to health or illness. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017.

2 4 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

SOCIOLOGY ON SCREEN

PREVENTING NEW GLOBAL PANDEMICS

The PBS documentary Spillover—Zika, Ebola, and Beyond these “new” diseases originated in other animals and
(2016) draws attention to the fourth stage of the epide- have since been transmitted to humans. The film looks at
miological transition, when new infectious and parasitic the process of animal-to-human transmission, the social
diseases emerge. Zika in Brazil, Ebola in Africa, and factors that underlie it, and what scientists and govern-
MERS in the Middle East are only a few of the disease ments are doing to prevent a global pandemic. You can
outbreaks the media has covered in recent years. All of find out more about the film at http//www.pbs.org.

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 4 3

Accidents are the leading cause of death in Canadians ages 1 to 44.

2 4 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 4 5

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

THE THUMBS UP! THUMBS DOWN! PROJECT

youth volunteers (ages 14 to 22) are trained to gather
the data. They record information on the number of
tobacco images, the use of tobacco by lead actors,
the contexts and implications of tobacco use, the
messages conveyed by the tobacco images (e.g., sexy,
rebellion, loser), and more. Since its inception, more
than 1,000 youth volunteers have contributed to the
Maksim Toome/Shutterstock

project, gathering data on more than 2,000 films. The

data are analyzed at the Center for Tobacco Control
Research and Education at the University of California
(San Francisco) (https://tobacco.ucsf.edu). The project’s
website (http://scenesmoking.org) contains a database
of all of the movies ever reviewed and information on
Smoking in youth-rated movies has a significant impact on the previous week’s top 10 movies (which are rated
youth attitudes toward smoking and smoking behaviours— using a pink, light grey, dark grey, or black lung). In
especially when the lead characters are smoking. 2016, 18 youth-rated Hollywood movies were given
a lung rating of dark grey or black (the worst ratings),
Images of tobacco in Hollywood films impact youth including X-Men: Apocalypse, Miss Peregrine’s Home
in particular. Interestingly, youth are playing a central for Peculiar Children, and Fantastic Beasts and Where
role in drawing attention to the issue, contributing to Find Them.
to academic research, and mobilizing change. The
Thumbs Up! Thumbs Down! Project, which is physi- Think Outside the Box: Why do you think images of
cally based in California, monitors tobacco images smoking have a greater impact than tobacco adver-
in films grossing at least $1 million each week, and tising on youth?

Alcohol Use and Misuse religious and cultural reasons (World Health Organiza-
Alcohol is directly related to more than 3.3 million tion, 2014). In Canada, the situation is very different. The
deaths worldwide per year (World Health Organiza- Canadian Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey (CTADS) is
tion, 2017a), but the harms caused by alcohol misuse a biennial survey of more than 15,000 Canadians over
vary across nations. The Global Information System the age of 15. In 2015, the CTADS found that 91 percent
on Alcohol and Health (GISAH) evaluates the drinking have consumed alcohol at some point in their lives and
patterns in different countries on the basis of several 77 percent in the past year (Health Canada, 2017).
factors, such as the proportion of the population that There are significant variations in alcohol use
drinks daily, the number of drinks consumed per based on both gender and age. Men are more likely
occasion, and the proportion of drinking occasions than women to drink, with 81 percent of men and
that involve drunkenness. Nations receive a score on 73 percent of women having consumed alcohol within
a scale of 1 through 5, where 1 indicates the least risky the past year. Male and female drinking patterns vary as
and 5 the riskiest drinking patterns. Two countries— well. Men drink more frequently and are more likely to
the Russian Federation and Ukraine—receive a score engage in high-risk drinking. Among those who have
of 5. In contrast, Canada receives a score of 2 (World consumed alcohol within the past week, 40 percent
Health Organization, 2014). Countries with high levels of men and 30 percent of women exceeded low-risk
of alcohol use, combined with poor public health drinking guidelines (Health Canada, 2017).
resources, experience more morbidity and mortality. There are also age variations in alcohol use. People
Worldwide, 62 percent of adults have not consumed over 25 are more likely to have consumed alcohol in
alcohol within the previous 12 months, mainly for their lifetimes (93 percent) than either 20- to 24-year

2 4 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

70% In the early 1800s in Canada, taxes on alcohol pro-

60% ducers generated more than half of all government
50% funds in some regions (Heron, 2003). The economic
40%
power of the alcohol industry has only increased since
then. In the fiscal year ending March 2016, provin-
30%
cial and territorial governments generated more than
20%
$11.5 billion in alcohol-related revenues, including
10% “sin taxes” on consumers and revenues from liquor
0% licences and permits (Statistics Canada, 2017g). Alco-
15–19 20–24 25+
Age Group
hol’s role as an economic powerhouse is also evident
in sales by retail outlets and distributors. During that
same year, retail sales of alcohol in Canada totalled
Source: Adapted from Health Canada. (2017). Canadian Tobacco, Alcohol and
Drugs Survey (CTADS). [Table 1]. Retrieved from http://www.canada.ca.
more than $22 billion. The physical amount of alcohol
sold, as measured in “litres of absolute alcohol,” is
staggering. “Litres of absolute alcohol” is a calcula-
olds (89 percent) or 15- to 19-year-olds (66 percent) tion that standardizes the amount of pure alcohol sold
(see Figure 12.3) (Health Canada, 2017). Still, alcohol (accounting for differences in the alcohol content of
plays a prominent role in the lives of youth, wherein beer, wine, and spirits); this enables one litre of any
more than half of those in Grade 12 have used alcohol type of alcohol to be equated with one litre of any
within the past month (Boak et al., 2015). Younger other type of alcohol. In that same fiscal year, more
age groups tend to engage in higher-risk drinking pat- than 246 million litres of absolute alcohol were sold
terns, with the highest rates among 20- to 24-year-olds, in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2017h)—equivalent to
where more than half of those who have consumed 8.2 litres per person (ages 15 and over). Governments,
alcohol within the past week exceeded low-risk when they craft policies for alcohol, try to strike a
drinking guidelines (see Sociology in My Life) (Health balance between long-term health and shorter-term
Canada, 2017). economic development.

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

HOW DOES ALCOHOL AFFECT YOUR LIFE?

To many people, university life and alcohol-fuelled par- on university campuses. Ever since research was first
ties appear to go hand in hand, a perception reflected conducted on the issue in the early 1990s, a consistent
in the media. From the classic frat-party film Animal 35 to 40 percent of students have engaged in binge
House (1978), to college party drinking games on drinking within the previous few weeks—a larger
Pinterest, to a list of “6 Frat Movies That Will Make proportion than their same-age peers who are not
You Drink! Freshman!” found on the movie review site in university (Byrd, 2016; Johnston et al., 2016). The
screenjunkies.com, we are bombarded by messages harms that arise from the misuse of alcohol are greatest
suggesting that being a university student means con- among youth. Almost 10 percent of all deaths in people
suming alcohol. And indeed, alcohol use is common ages 15 to 29 have alcohol-related causes, and in the

continued

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 4 7

Again, the patterns of alcohol consumption across more than 35,000 participants) (Garriguet, 2007).
age groups, in males compared to females, and within Half of adults were not eating enough fruits and veg-
university culture indicate the importance of broader etables, nor were 60 to 70 percent of children between
sociocultural forces. The same is true of diet and phys- 4 and 13. A significant proportion of Canadians were
ical activity. not consuming sufficient amounts of dairy, grains,
or protein either. One food group that all Canadians
Poor Diet and Physical were consuming more than enough of was the “other”
category—soft drinks, salad dressings, sugars/syrups/
Inactivity preserves, beer, and fats (in that rank order). In fact,
Some people use tobacco or consume alcohol, whereas these “other” low-nutrient, high-calorie foods comprise
others do not. But everybody eats and engages in some approximately one-quarter of all calories consumed.
level of physical activity. Precisely what you eat and More recent data on fruit and vegetable consump-
how much physical activity you engage in have a sig- tion suggest that Canadians’ eating patterns have not
nificant impact on health and illness. Globally, low improved. In 2015, less than one-third of both adults
consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated (ages 18 and over) and adolescents (ages 12 to 17) ate
with 1.7 million deaths per year, and physical inac- the recommended five or more servings of fruits and
tivity accounts for another 1.6 million deaths (World vegetables per day (Statistics Canada, 2017d).
Health Organization, 2017f). Although a poor diet and
physical inactivity may be associated with being over- Physical Inactivity
weight for some people (which may also contribute to If the eating habits of Canadians leave something to be
morbidity), they impact patterns of illness in people of desired, levels of physical activity are even worse. The
all weights. When we narrow our focus to Canada, we World Health Organization (2017b) provides the fol-
see the magnitude of these problems. lowing guidelines for physical activity: adults should
engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate physical
Eating Habits activity or 75 minutes of vigorous activity weekly and
The 2004 Canadian Community Health Survey was the children at least 60 minutes daily. Strength training is
first national survey of eating habits conducted since an essential component of that weekly activity for both
the 1970s. More than a decade later, it remains the children and adults, and senior citizens should also
most comprehensive survey of its kind to date (with integrate flexibility and balance training. Self-report

2 4 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

TOBACCO AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The health risks arising from tobacco are not limited in that city alone, cleaning up tobacco waste costs the
to people’s exposure to first- or second-hand smoke. city US$22 million annually (World Health Organiza-
Human health is affected by the full life cycle of tobacco tion, 2017d). Unfortunately, the full impact of tobacco
products via their impact on the environment (see on the environment (and therefore on people’s health)
Figure 12.4). From the health problems experienced is unclear, in large part because many of the data arise
by tobacco farmers and their families (primarily in low- from the tobacco industry’s voluntary policies rather
income countries), to pollution arising from the trans- than from objective third-party research.
portation and distribution of tobacco products, to the One of the strategies recommended by the World
toxic chemicals released into the environment by the dis- Health Organization to address tobacco’s environ-
posal of used cigarettes, human health and the environmental impact is for nations to implement Extended
ment as a whole suffer significant harms (World Health Producer Responsibility (EPR) and Product Steward-
Organization, 2017d). Post-consumer tobacco litter is ship programs for tobacco companies. Under EPR
the largest component of litter globally, creating 340 to programs, tobacco companies would be liable for
680 million kilograms of waste annually and releasing verified environmental damage (e.g., deforestation);
more than 7,000 toxic chemicals into the air, ground, be responsible for economic expenses associated with
and water supply. One in three cigarettes is tossed recollection, recycling, or disposal of products; carry
directly into the environment (rather than into a garbage physical responsibility for the product’s full life cycle;
can), and cigarette butts or packaging constitute 30 to and be required to provide accurate data on the envi-
40 percent of the waste collected during neighbour- ronmental risks associated with the product (World
hood or coastal clean-up days (e.g., “Clean Up in the Health Organization, 2017d). Many countries have
Park”). One study done in San Francisco estimates that already implemented EPR programs for a variety of

continued

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 4 9

Agricultural impacts
of tobacco leaf
growing
Land and water use,
pesticide use,
deforestation due to
land clearing
Post-consumer waste Tobacco curing
Cigarette butts and toxic Deforestation results from
third-hand smoke (THS) demand for wood to cure
materials pollute the tobacco leaves
environment

Cigarette and
other tobacco
Consumption
product manufacture
Toxic residue from
Greenhouse gases
tobacco smoke lingers emitted and other
in the environment waste from
Tobacco product manufacturing
transport
and distribution
Greenhouse
gases emitted

Source: World Health Organization. (2017d). Tobacco and its environmental impacts: An overview. [Figure 1, p. 3]. Geneva, CH: Author.

other products, such as batteries, pesticide containers Think Outside the Box: Why can we not rely solely
and packaging, and paint. You will learn more about on research from the tobacco industry regarding envi-
environmental issues in another chapter. ronmental or health impacts?

patterns of morbidity and mortality. Initially, these

Summary choices appear as micro-level behaviours. However, if
The top three “actual” causes of death are tobacco “lifestyles” were purely a matter of individual choice,
use, poor diet and inactivity, and alcohol use. Glob- then related behaviours would be randomly distributed
ally, these patterns of behaviour are having a growing across social groups and we would not see the gender
impact on patterns of morbidity and mortality. Because and age patterns mentioned earlier (Strohschein &
of this, the World Health Organization and its member Weitz, 2014). These patterns tell us that something
states have developed global strategies to reduce these more than lifestyle is at play. When we shift our focus
behaviours and their impact (see Sociology in Practice). to an even more macro level, we find “fundamental”
Behaviours related to smoking, drinking, diet, and causes of health and illness—and we learn that their
physical activity are significant for national and global foundations are rooted in social inequality.

2 5 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
educational opportunities, and control over one’s work.
TIME TO REVIEW
A lack of some material resources (e.g., clean water and
• What are the patterns of tobacco use? healthy food) can have a direct impact on health and
illness. A lack of material resources can also indirectly
• Why do youth start smoking, and what
affect health and illness through other factors, such as
role do the media play in smoking
chronic stress. Stress causes physiological changes in
initiation?
the body, such as an increase in heart rate and blood
• What are the patterns of alcohol use, pressure and the release of the hormone cortisol.
and how prevalent are high-risk drinking These physiological changes can be functional when
patterns? we are facing an immediate threat (e.g., being chased
• Why may governments be reluctant to by a bear) or a short-term stressor (e.g., having to stay
implement alcohol reduction strategies? awake to complete a term paper). When stress is long
term, such as ongoing job insecurity, these physiolog-
• To what extent do people eat well and
ical changes are dysfunctional and contribute to high
engage in physical activity?
blood pressure, heart disease, and digestive diseases
(Strohschein & Weitz, 2014).
Beyond stress and job insecurity, control of des-
tiny (having control over one’s life) is an important
LO5 THE “FUNDAMENTAL” contributor to health and illness (Marmot, 2005).
People of lower socioeconomic status have a feeling of
CAUSES OF HEALTH AND less control over their lives, and this may reduce the
impetus to engage in healthier behaviours (Bolaria &
ILLNESS: SOCIAL INEQUALITY Bolaria, 2009). Furthermore, smoking can give the
We have already demonstrated that sociocultural forces false impression of easing stress, and the effects of
impact our experiences of health and illness by influ- alcohol can provide a temporary escape. Even physical
encing lifestyle behaviours. Sociocultural forces are activity can be a challenge (World Health Organization,
intertwined with stratification in society, and in this 2017b). Low socioeconomic status means that people
regard, two of the most significant “fundamental” probably cannot afford gym memberships. That leaves
causes of health and illness are socioeconomic status the option of exercising at home. However, going for a
and ethnicity (Raphael, 2016). 30-minute walk around the neighbourhood may not be
possible if that neighbourhood is unsafe due to crime
rates or environmental conditions (e.g., pollution),
Socioeconomic Status and even working out inside one’s home may be diffi-
The single most important determinant of health cult if one lives in overcrowded conditions. Low socio-
globally is socioeconomic status: a higher posi- economic status may also mean working at more than
tion in the social structure is associated with better one job, leaving little leisure time for physical activity.
health (Beckfield, Olafsdottir, & Bakhtiari, 2013; Eating an adequately nutritious diet is also more
Strohschein & Weitz, 2014). Canadians with lower challenging for low-income individuals (Statistics
incomes have shorter life expectancies and poorer Canada, 2017d). Processed, high-calorie, low-nutrient
health overall (Auger & Alix, 2016; Canadian Institute foods are often much cheaper than healthy fare. An
for Health Information [CIHI], 2016a). Furthermore, analysis of food costs in 10 high-income countries
health inequalities based on socioeconomic status (including Canada) found that a nutritious diet costs
have not improved over the past decade. In fact, health approximately $550 more per person in one year, or
inequalities have increased for some indicators (e.g., $1.50 more per meal; for a family of four, this would
self-rated mental health, hospitalization for chronic total $2,000 per year (Rao et al., 2013).
obstructive pulmonary disease) (CIHI, 2016a). One Also, people may have limited access to healthy
Norwegian study found that a lower socioeconomic foods. Large supermarkets provide a wider range of
status has a cumulative negative effect on health over nutritious foods, and at lower prices, than do con-
the lifespan and may carry its greatest effects when venience stores; having access to supermarkets is
poverty is experienced during childhood (Claussen, associated with better eating habits. People living in
Davey Smith, & Thelle, 2003). lower-income neighbourhoods are less likely to have a
Socioeconomic status is associated with access supermarket within a reasonable distance for walking
to material resources, such as adequate housing, safe or easy public transit (Hilmers, Hilmers, & Dave, 2012;
neighbourhoods, healthy food, clean water, clean air, Ni Mhurchu et al., 2013), and low-income individuals

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 5 1

Schwabenblitz/Shutterstock
and has significant health implications (McIntyre &
Anderson, 2016; Tarasuk, 2016). According to Statis-
tics Canada (2015), more than 1 million households
experience food insecurity. Lone-parent households
are especially at risk, wherein 23 percent are food inse-
cure (compared to 8 percent in Canada overall).
Food insecurity varies across Canada, with the In Nunavut, two-thirds of children live in food-insecure
highest levels in the three territories: Nunavut, North- households.
west Territories, and Yukon (Statistics Canada, 2015).
The situation is the worst in Nunavut, where 37 per- and diet. Importantly, even when lifestyle factors are
cent of households experience moderate to severe controlled for, socioeconomic status continues to have
food insecurity and two-thirds of children under the an effect on morbidity and mortality. Not only is phys-
age of 18 live in food-insecure households (Le Vallée ical health influenced by socioeconomic status, but so
et al., 2017). There, the lack of highways and railways is mental health.
means that consumer goods must be flown in. Elec-
tricity costs are higher for refrigeration. A monopoly by Socioeconomic Status
a single food supplier means a lack of competition in
the marketplace. All of this has resulted in astronom- and Mental Health
ical food prices. After a scathing report by the United Most Canadians are affected by mental illness. One-
Nations, in 2011, the federal government implemented fifth of the population will experience a mental dis-
the Nutrition North Canada (NNC) program, which order, and 80 percent personally know someone who
gives subsidies to Northern retailers so that food prices has a mental disorder. Depression is projected to be the
can be controlled. As a result of this program, prices second leading disease burden by 2020 (behind heart
on “eligible” foods have been reduced by an average disease) (World Health Organization, 2016).
of 15 percent. However, in a territory where the min- Mental illness is both a contributor to and an out-
imum wage is only $13 per hour and the unemploy- come of lower socioeconomic status (World Health
ment rate is more than 15 percent, grocery shopping Organization, 2016). The social selection hypothesis
continues to be a challenge: 1.36 litres of apple juice proposes that if people’s mental disorders are not effec-
(with an average price tively treated, they may experience functional difficulties
social selection of $2.21 in the rest of in school or work that cause them to “drift” into a lower
hypothesis: The Canada) costs $8.95; 1 kg socioeconomic status or prevent them from rising into
suggestion that people of celery is $12.44 (com- a higher status position. The social causation hypoth-
with mental disorders may
drift into lower levels of pared to $3.38); and 1 kg esis posits that a lack of material resources creates stress,
socioeconomic status or be of carrots is $6.90 (versus which contributes to the development of mental disor-
prevented from rising out $2.25) (Nunavut Bureau ders. Research lends greater support to the social causa-
of lower levels of status.
of Statistics, 2016). tion hypothesis, especially for depression and anxiety
social causation In addition to all of (Eaton, 2001; World Health Organization, 2016).
hypothesis: The this, socioeconomic status Besides socioeconomic status, several other social
suggestion that the stresses
associated with having has an impact on the factors are associated with poor mental health. These
a lower socioeconomic extent to which people include rapid social change, low levels of education,
status contribute to the engage in lifestyle behav- stressful work conditions, gender discrimination, and
development of mental
disorders. iours related to tobacco, human rights violations (World Health Organization,
alcohol, physical activity, 2016).

2 5 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN THE NEWS

FROM THE DAVIS INLET TO NATUASHISH

Until 1967, the Innu in Labrador lived nomadic lives. also formed to help resolve the community’s social
In 1967, the federal government relocated them to a problems.
permanent settlement in order to better provide ser- However, critics point out that to this day, many
vices for them. Told that they would be given comfort- social problems persist. Within just a period of a few
able homes and schools and access to healthcare, they months in 2017, two youth committed suicide (in a
were relocated to a distant island off the coast, where population of only 936 people). Although the commu-
their way of life completely changed. nity voted to ban alcohol back in 2008, recently RCMP
The government did not keep its promises. officers reduced the frequency of baggage checks with
Instead, the Innu were left to endure overcrowded people coming into the community (via ferry in the
living spaces that lacked running water, reliable summer and by air in the winter). As a result, bootleg-
heating, and flushable toilets (White, 2017). Sub- gers are bringing alcohol into the community (charging
stance use was rampant, family violence increased, $300 for a single bottle), and alcohol abuse is increasing
and the suicide rate was the highest in the world. The (White, 2017). One community leader says that boot-
situation came to a head in 1993, when a videotape leggers and drug dealers are “… killing our youth and
surfaced of three teenagers sniffing gasoline and killing our culture and killing everything we hold pre-
screaming to a tribal police officer that they wanted to cious.” Community leaders say that a combination of
die. Subsequently, the federal government agreed to factors are necessary for healing, including cooperation
relocate the Innu back onto the mainland. This finally from law enforcement in preventing bootlegging, more
occurred in 2002, when the community of Natuashish resources to treat addiction and give young people
was formed. The Labrador Innu Healing Strategy was hope, reduced isolation, and cultural reclamation.

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 5 3

Immigration and Health • What are the sociocultural forces that

influence health and illness, and what
Socioeconomic status alone does not explain pat-
are two of the “fundamental” causes of
terns of morbidity and mortality by ethnicity. Recent
health and illness?
immigrants are actually healthier than people who
are Canadian-born; this is known as the healthy • In what ways does socioeconomic status
immigrant effect (Vang et al., 2015). Immigration influence health and illness?
policy prioritizes those who have higher levels of • How does socioeconomic status affect
occupational skills and education, which means that lifestyle behaviours?
immigrants tend to be located at higher levels of the
• How does the health of Indigenous and
social structure in their countries of origin and there-
the health of non-Indigenous populations
fore experience the health benefits of those social
in Canada compare, and why do these
positions.
disparities exist?
However, the healthy immigrant effect quickly dis-
sipates, especially for women and racialized groups. • How do patterns of health and illness
Within four years, their health patterns become similar for recent immigrants compare to the
to those who are Canadian-born. Despite the higher Canadian-born, and how do patterns for
statuses they may have occupied in their countries immigrants to Canada change over time?
of origin, as well as their higher levels of education,
people who are foreign-

healthy immigrant
born have lower occupa-
tional statuses and lower
LO6 HEALTHCARE
effect: Recent immigrants incomes than people The prevention and treatment of illness and injury
tend to have better health
than people who are
who are Canadian-born. exist in the broader context of healthcare systems.
Canadian-born. Even when controlling In Canada, the first systems of medicine were those
for socioeconomic status, of Indigenous cultures, each of which had its own

2 5 4 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

mission on Health Services was formed. This led to

the Medical Care Act (1966), which created Canada’s
system of universal medical insurance, more commonly
known as “medicare.” It had four objectives: (a) univer-
sality, that is, equal access to medical care for all resi-
dents of Canada regardless of income, age, social group,
or previous health conditions; (b) portability across
provinces; (c) comprehensive coverage of all necessary
In New France, some medical care was provided by barbers,
medical services; and (d) administration that would be
who were also trained as surgeons. nonprofit. In 1984, a fifth objective was added, that of
accessibility—medicare would involve the redistribu-
tion of income from richer to poorer provinces.
definition of what constituted health and illness, as
well as its own medical treatments. Depending on the
specific culture, medical care was provided by sha- The HealthCare
mans, medicine men, or other members of the com-
munity, such as the Midewiwin of the Ojibway. Many
System Today
of the plants that were used to treat illness have since Because of medicare, Canadians have more access
been found, by modern science, to have treatment to medical services than in the past. Still, there are
properties. For instance, the Iroquois introduced early questions about the extent to which the objectives
European explorers to the bark of the white cedar of medicare have been achieved. Canada has lower
(now known to be high in vitamin C) to prevent p hysician-to-population ratios than most other

scurvy, which was one of the greatest health dangers member countries of the Organisation for Economic
explorers faced during long periods at sea (Historica Co-operation and Development (OECD). In 2015, we
Canada, n.d.-a). had 2.5 physicians per 1,000 population; only three
Early settlers in New France received medical member countries had lower physician-to-population
treatment at the hands of apothecaries, who acted ratios (Korea, Poland, and Mexico) (OECD, 2017).
as general practitioners, and barber-surgeons—bar- The shortage of family and general practitioners in
bers who were also trained in some forms of surgery, particular has resulted in widespread concern over the
most commonly the amputation of limbs. By the early “doctor shortage”; more and more Canadians have to
19th century, Euro-Canadians were receiving treatment use walk-in medical clinics, where wait times are long
from a wide variety of practitioners—lay healers who and staff turnover is high. Besides problems of access,
had no formalized training, homeopaths, midwives, some medical services require out-of-pocket expen-
and, for the wealthy, physicians trained in the United ditures (e.g., dental care, prescription medications),
States or Great Britain—as well as through products which not all Canadians can afford.
sold by travelling salespeople (Clarke, 2016). The healthcare system today is in a state of tran-
Canada’s first medical school was established in sition. At a time when concerns are growing about
1832, and after the implementation of the Ontario Med- out-of-pocket medical expenditures, a shortage of phy-
ical Act (1869), a number of privately owned medical sicians, and long wait times in the nation’s emergency

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 5 5

Figure 12.5
Age Pyramid of Canada in 1871 and 2016: 150 Years of Demographic History

Age
1916 100 1916
1921 95 1921
1926 90 1926
1931 2016 85 1931
1936 1871 80 1936
1941 75 1941
1946 70 1946
Year of birth (2016 pyramid)

Year of birth (2016 pyramid)

1951 65 1951
1956 60 Baby boomers 1956
1961 55 1961
1966 50 1966
Baby busters
1971 45 1971
1976 40 1976
1981 35 1981
1986 30 1986
1991 25 1991
1996 20 Millennials 1996
2001 15 2001
2006 10 2006
2011 5 2011
2016 0 2016
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
per 1,000

Source: Statistics Canada. (2017a). Age and sex, and type of dwelling data: Key results from the 2016 Census. The Daily. [Infographic 1: Age pyramid of Canada in 1871
and 2016: 150 years of demographic history.] Catalogue No. 11-001-X. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170503/g-a001-eng.htm

2 5 6 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

25,000

Per Capita Healthcare Spending (dollars)

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

0
65–69 70–74 75–79 80+
Age

Source: Adapted from Canadian Medical Association. (2016). The state of seniors’ healthcare in Canada. Ottawa, ON: CMA.

how significantly the population has changed. In 1871, Chronic health conditions are not an inevitable
there was a large proportion of the very young and part of aging; they are closely linked to lifestyle behav-
smaller proportions of older age groups. In 2016, the iours (which are intertwined with social factors, such
structure of the Canadian population is quite different. as socioeconomic status) (see Critical Thinking in
The bulge in the pyramid indicates baby boomers, who Action). Ramage-Morin and Shields (2010) analyzed
were between 51 and 70 years old in 2016 (Statistics eight different lifestyle behaviours among people ages
Canada, 2017a). 45 to 64 and 65 and over: smoking, weight, physical
activity, diet, sleep, oral health, stress, and social par-
IMPLICATIONS OF THE AGING POPULATION ticipation. Each behaviour was individually associ-
ated with health; the greater the number of positive
As people age, they are more likely to develop chronic behaviours, the better the resulting health. Although
health conditions; between 75 and 80 percent of advancing age is associated with poorer health
seniors have at least one chronic health condition overall, seniors who reported five or more positive
(Canadian Medical Association, 2016). Thus, as people behaviours were actually in better health than 45-
age, healthcare costs tend to increase (see Figure 12.6). to 64-years-olds who reported two or fewer positive
The annual per capita healthcare spending associated behaviours.
with those ages 65 to 69 is approximately $6,000, and
it rises to more than $20,000 for seniors over the age
of 80 (Canadian Medical Association, 2016). But it is
TIME TO REVIEW
not age itself that determines healthcare utilization;
rather, it is the presence of multiple chronic condi- • How has the healthcare system changed
tions. The CIHI (2011) has found that, controlling in Canadian history?
for chronic health conditions, older seniors (those
• What are the five objectives of medicare?
ages 85 and over) do not use more healthcare services
than younger seniors (those ages 65 to 84). Seniors • What challenges are being faced within
with three or more chronic health conditions made the healthcare system today?
three times more visits to health professionals than • In what ways does Canada’s aging popu-
those with only one or two conditions. People with lation affect larger patterns of health
multiple health conditions make up only 24 percent and illness and patterns of healthcare
of the seniors population but account for 40 percent utilization?
of healthcare use in that age group.

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 5 7

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

IMPROVING THE HEALTH OF THE NATION

In this chapter, you have learned that degenerative of health and illness—socioeconomic status and ethnic
diseases are the leading causes of morbidity and inequality. Thus, patterns of health and illness reflect
mortality in Canada. Many of these diseases are, to a a complex interplay between multiple factors at the
large extent, a consequence of behaviours related to micro and macro levels.
tobacco use, alcohol consumption, diet, and physical
Think Outside the Box: Given the complexity of
activity. Furthermore, those behaviours are influenced
these relationships, how can we best improve the
by sociocultural forces; they vary on the basis of gender
nation’s health? What factors are most important to
and age and are affected by the broader cultural envi-
address? What solutions would make the biggest dif-
ronment (such as advertising and images in movies).
ference for the widest range of people?
They are also influenced by the “fundamental” causes

your Sociological Toolkit

absence. Second, the sick person is not considered to be
SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY responsible for his or her condition but rather is given
sympathy. Third, it is the sick person’s responsibility to
try to get well; failure to do so results in the sick role no
LO7 SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY longer being considered legitimate. Finally, it is the sick
The sociology of health and illness began primarily as person’s responsibility to seek competent technical help
an applied, non-theoretical field of study, exploring and cooperate with the physician’s directions.
patterns of morbidity and mortality, personal and social Subsequent research has found that the com-
determinants of health, and the structure and func- ponents of the sick role do not always apply. For
tioning of the healthcare system. However, sociolog- instance, the extent to which someone is exempted
ical theorizing about health and illness has expanded from normal social roles varies with the nature and
since the mid-20th century. As the functionalist per- severity of the illness (De Maio, 2010; Perry, 2011).
spective dominated the discipline of sociology in the In your workplace, a cold may not be considered a
mid-20th century, the first theorizing about health and legitimate excuse for missing a day of work, whereas
illness was also functionalist. a chronic health problem (e.g., diabetes) may result
in an ongoing level of exemption. Sometimes indi-
viduals are blamed for their illnesses. For example,
Functionalist Perspectives: Perry (2011) found that people who are diagnosed
with more severe mental disorders have larger, more
The Sick Role functional support networks than those diagnosed
Talcott Parsons was one of the preeminent sociologists with milder mental disorders. Because the symptoms
of the mid-20th century. When he theorized about the of the latter are less overt, other people may wonder
sick role, he added legitimacy to the new field of medical why the individual cannot simply “snap out of it”; he
sociology (Parsons, 1951). Parsons described sickness or she is assigned responsibility for the lack of well-
as dysfunctional for society. When people are sick, they being. Finally, even when able to legitimately occupy
are unable to fulfill their roles as students, employees, a sick role, some individuals face constraints. Those of
or parents. Instead, they adopt the sick role, a tempo- lower socioeconomic status may not be able to afford
rary role associated with certain rights and responsi- to lose the wages associated with missing one or more
bilities. There are four components of the sick role. days of work. Lone parents bear the full brunt of child
First, the sick person is granted a temporary exemption care, and if they do not have other resources to draw
from his or her normal social duties. It is acceptable upon (e.g., family or friends), they must continue
to miss an exam or a day of work, although some offi- with the daily responsibilities of parenting, regardless
cial documentation may be required to legitimize the of illness.

2 5 8 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Beginning in the 1960s, functionalist perspectives Conflict Perspectives: The
began to lose their dominance as the interactionist,
conflict, feminist, and postmodern perspectives took Consequences of Power and
their place. Inequality
The interactionist perspective emphasizes the subjec-
Interactionist Perspectives: tive meanings of health and illness at the micro level;
The Cultural Meanings of conflict theories focus on the macro level. They ana-
lyze topics such as the role of inequality in patterns of
Health and Illness health and illness and problems with the healthcare
Whereas demographers analyze patterns of health and system. Because of social inequality and relations of
illness, sociologists who apply interactionist theories power, different groups have varying levels of access
focus on the experience and meanings of health or ill- to both health-promoting resources and sickness-
ness. In a classic study, Schneider and Conrad (1983) causing factors. We saw this earlier in the chapter in
distinguished between sickness and illness. Sickness is the context of patterns of morbidity and mortality
a pathology of the body, whereas illness is the meaning among people of low versus high socioeconomic
attached to that physical experience. Schneider and status, Indigenous people, and recent and longer-term
Conrad interviewed people who had been diagnosed immigrants.
with epilepsy, which is a “sickness” of particular Engels (1845/1985) was the first conflict theorist
etiology. They found that something as seemingly to address sociocultural influences on health and ill-
straightforward as following physicians’ instructions ness. He argued that with capitalism, large numbers
is actually embedded in a complex system of meaning of people left rural agricultural life for wage labour in
and understanding; this is the individual’s experience urban areas. But the bourgeois owners of the means of
of “illness.” Using medication is not simply a matter production were guided by their own profit motives.
of following physicians’ instructions; it emerges from To make the largest profits possible, they underpaid
the interaction between physicians’ instructions and their workers, who had no choice but to live and work
one’s own relationships, beliefs, and experiences. Thus, in unhealthy conditions. This set the stage for the
the manner in which people with epilepsy use their emergence and transmission of infectious diseases.
medication is based on factors such as the meaning Navarro (1976) indicates that there is an inherent
that seizures have for the individual, perceptions of contradiction between the profit motive of capitalism
the side effects of the medication, the desire to prevent and the health needs of people. The corporate need for
others from becoming aware of the epilepsy, and the profit that results in people having to live or work in
need to prevent seizures in some social situations more unhealthy conditions has continued beyond Engels’s
than others. time into the 21st century, during which multinational
Sense of self lies at the core of people’s expe- corporations are moving their production facilities to
riences with illness. People with the same illness low-income countries that often have lower occupa-
may adopt very different identities. Ethnographies tional health and safety standards.
of children with leukemia reveal that some adopt Besides analyzing the social determinants of health
a resistant identity, seeing themselves as they have and illness, conflict theorists critique the healthcare
always been (e.g., an athletic teen) and talking about system itself, such as the state’s power to legitimize
cancer as a “fight” that they will win (Rindstedt, some forms of healthcare (e.g., a visit to a physician)
2016, p. 281). Others adopt a distinctive patient over others (e.g., a visit to a holistic health practitioner)
identity, following the instructions of medical staff and the power of the corporate elite in the healthcare
to the letter but immersed in sadness about being system. In a capitalist system, health becomes a com-
separated from friends and their previous lives modity, and the pursuit of health occurs via gym mem-
(Rindstedt, 2016). An individual’s illness identity berships, athletic shoes, vitamins and supplements,
can have implications for recovery. For example, meditation classes, and audio recordings to help you
among young people with eating disorders, those quit smoking. Health is about convincing people to
who adopt a positively valued illness identity resist engage in health-promoting behaviours (using the
treatment, whereas those who develop a recovery right products) rather than about changing the struc-
identity—especially a socially based recovery iden- tural conditions that contribute to health and illness in
tity with others who have the same disorder—are the first place. The capitalist motive is even evident in
more likely to comply with treatment (MacNamara fundraising efforts, in what is called “cause marketing”
& Parsons, 2016). or “social marketing” (Firestone et al., 2017). When

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 5 9

nist researchers and activists pointed to the ways

that women’s lives were increasingly being medi-
calized. For most of human history, issues related
A lack of occupational safety standards led to the collapse of
to pregnancy and childbirth were handled by other
Rana Plaza (in Bangladesh), which housed garment factories women, such as midwives. But in the more medical-
that supply several multinational corporations, including Joe ized environment of the 20th century, both became
Fresh and Walmart; more than 1,000 people were killed. conditions that required a physician’s care. Even the
normal functioning of the female body (e.g., PMS,
menopause) became a condition to be monitored
and treated by medical professionals (McHugh &
one purchases a particular product within a certain Chrisler, 2015).
period of time—a shade of lipstick, a specially marked
case of beer, a cup of Tim Hortons coffee, a McDonald’s
Big Mac, or even a certain model of car—a portion of Postmodern Perspectives:
the proceeds will go to support a particular cause, such
as breast cancer or autism.
Knowledge, Power, and
Discourse
Feminist Perspectives: Postmodern approaches also address the medicaliza-
tion of society, in terms of the relationship between
Women’s Health and Illness knowledge and power (Foucault, 1965, 1966). Those
Feminist analyses of health and illness are diverse and claims to truth that emerge from institutionalized posi-
address topics ranging from the micro level to the macro tions of power become legitimized and accepted as
level. For example, at the micro level, feminist scholars “truth.” As medical science became increasingly inter-
analyze the “moral boundary work” (Pryma, 2017, twined with rational-bureaucratic healthcare systems
p. 66) that women with chronic pain engage in when in the 20th century, physicians’ claims about health
trying to manage their interactions in the healthcare and illness gained supremacy over those of other types
system (Kempner, 2014). Historically, women’s physical of health practitioners, such as midwives (Frailing &
symptoms were often dismissed as the result of stress Harper, 2010). Once medical discourses become
or anxiety rather than physical illness. Scholars point increasingly legitimized, more aspects of people’s lives
out that this tendency continues to this day. Women are subjected to the medical gaze and monitored by the
face “barriers to credibility as their symptoms are medical profession—and its closely affiliated partner,
read through gendered and moral discourses that cast the pharmaceutical industry (McHugh & Chrisler,
women as hypochondriacs, and weaker, less rational, 2015). And because medical discourses are elite dis-
more emotional, and more likely to complain than men” courses, we perceive them as the only possible means
(Pryma, 2017, p. 66). Women with chronic pain must of understanding the world.
use various techniques in order to be perceived as cred- In a classic study, Fox (1993) applied Foucauldian
ible by not only medical professionals but also friends assumptions to an analysis of communications
and family members. For instance, they try to strike between physicians and patients during post-sur-
a careful balance in the way they style their hair and gical ward rounds. Fox notes that the way surgeons
makeup prior to a visit to a physician. If they looked too structure postoperative communications ensures that
put together, doctors would assume that their physical medical discourses remain privileged. Physicians
health was fine (Kempner, 2014; Pryma, 2017). begin these communications while patients are still
At a more macro level, some feminist analyses recovering from sedation or are under the influence
of health and illness have focused attention on the of high doses of pain medication, which immediately

2 6 0 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

Chapter Summary
LO1 Outline the development of the these epidemics due to changing social conditions.
In the third phase, infectious and parasitic diseases
sociology of health and illness and decline even further, and degenerative diseases pre-
describe its focus. dominate. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries,
The sociology of health and illness emerged in the the fourth phase of the epidemiological transition
post–World War II. This field of study, found both has emerged, where an increase in degenerative
inside and outside academia, analyzes the social diseases is accompanied by the emergence of new
causes and consequences of health and illness. infectious diseases.

LO2 Describe the four phases in the LO3 Identify the top causes of death in
epidemiological transition. Canada today and explain what the
The epidemiological transition refers to changes in “actual” causes of death are.
morbidity and mortality, from a predominance of The top three causes of death are cancer, heart dis-
infectious diseases to a predominance of degen- ease, and stroke. The top causes of death vary for
erative diseases. The first phase is characterized by women and men and for people of different ages.
famine as well as epidemics of infectious and para- The actual causes of death are tobacco use, poor diet
sitic diseases. The second phase features a decline in combined with physical inactivity, and alcohol misuse.

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 6 1

Recommended Resources
1. For an overview of theories of health and 2. To see the low-risk drinking guidelines adopted
illness, see F. De Maio, Health and Social Theory, in Canada and elsewhere, see the website for the
Themes in Social Theory Series (Series Editor: Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction
R. Stones) (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, (http://www.ccsa.ca) or the Centre for Addiction and
2010). Mental Health (http://www.camh.ca).

2 6 2 Part 3 The Micro and Macro of Our Everyday Lives NEL

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved June 3, 2017, from www.thinkexist.com.

NEL Chapter 12 Health and Illness: Is It “Lifestyle” or Something More? 2 6 3

World
nito/Shutterstock

CHAPTER 13:
Social Change: Collective Behaviour
and Social Movements
CHAPTER 14:
“Going Green”: Environmental
Sociology
CHAPTER 15:
Globalization:
The Interconnected World

NEL

Social Change: Collective

Behaviour and Social Movements

“ ”
Rena Schild/Shutterstock

Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens

can change the world. Indeed, it is the only thing that ever has.
(Margaret Mead)1

NEL

Nationally, certain women gained the right to vote as early as 1917 with the inclusion of most British subjects by 1918.

Canada supports the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1947/1948).

Non-enfranchised Indigenous peoples (i.e., with Indian Status) are given the right to vote in 1960.

The Canadian Civil Liberties Association is formed in 1964.

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is enacted in 1982.

Canada adopts the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989.

Same-sex marriage is legalized via the Civil Marriage Act in 2005.

Bill C-16 protecting gender identity and expression passed in 2017.

what is considered normative. For example, people crowd is a gathering of people who by proximity alone
rioting in the street after a popular sporting event such happen to be in the same location at the same time.
as the Stanley Cup playoffs could be yelling, drinking, For example, several individual families might be
smashing windows of nearby businesses, climbing in the same park on the same day at the same time;
light posts, and even lighting cars on fire. That is not some might be having lunch, others might be playing
to say that all collective behaviour is entirely random games, and others might be taking a walk. Since casual
and destructive—just that compared to conventional crowds do not originate for any intended larger pur-
behaviour, it is less predictable and less institutional- pose or shared interest, they are not a focal point for
ized. Let’s begin with a look at the behaviour of crowds. collective behaviour. That is, people who are part of a
casual crowd are most likely to engage in rule-abiding
individual (and even parallel) forms of conventional
LO2 Collective Behaviour in behaviour.
Localized Crowds A conventional crowd is a group of people who
have gathered in the same place at the same time
Casual, because of a shared interest or objective. For example,
crowd: A temporary
gathering of people who Conventional, as a conventional crowd, you and your classmates
are in the same place at the are currently attending a scheduled sociology lec-
same time. Expressive, and
ture. Similarly, people in a movie theatre constitute
casual crowd: Acting Crowds a conventional crowd with a specific shared objec-
A gathering of people who A crowd is a temporary tive. A conventional crowd’s behaviour tends to be
by proximity alone happen
to be in the same location gathering of people in the planned, structured, predictable, and controlled by
at the same time. same place at the same social norms. For example, people sit quietly in a the-
conventional crowd:
time (McPhail, 1991). atre in seats, facing forward, in order to watch the
A group of people who Herbert Blumer (1969) show. They also put their cellphones on silent mode,
have gathered in the same distinguished four main and when they eat and drink, it is only products pur-
place at the same time
because of a common
types of crowds: casual, chased at the theatre concession. Like casual crowds,
shared interest or objective. conventional, expres- conventional crowds generally do not lead to collec-
sive, and acting. A casual tive behaviour.

2 6 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

expansion and publicly declaring Mohawk ownership

of the property. In the ensuing 78-day dispute, the
group set up barricades that restricted access to road-
ways, confronted Quebec’s provincial police, and stood
up against members of the RCMP and the Canadian
Armed Forces before finally negotiating an agreement
to stand down (Alfred, 1995; Ciaccia, 2000; Swain,
2010). In an earlier failed attempt to mitigate the
Saskatchewan Roughrider fans wear melonheads to support
crisis, Quebec’s Native affairs minister, John Ciaccia,
their team. wrote a letter to the mayor and councillors in which
he pointed out the stakes involved and requested a
suspension of the golf course plans. Ciaccia (2000)
An expressive crowd is a gathering of people argued that historical land claims, cultural context,
who share a common interest and are gathered at the and community relations went well “beyond the strict
same event at the same time for an explicit participa- legality of the situation as
tory purpose (see Sociology in My Life). Whereas the interpreted by our tribu-
conventional crowd is attending a movie in order to nals, which base them- expressive crowd:
watch the show, the expressive crowd has gathered selves on laws put into A gathering of people
who share a common
because as a group it can respond or react emotion- place by our society, laws interest and are gathered
ally in particular ways (e.g., by shouting or cheering which do not necessarily at the same event at the
to indicate encouragement). Fans at a hockey game answer to the claims of same time with an
explicit participatory
engage in a variety of collective behaviours: they wear Native people” (p. 59). purpose.
jerseys to denote their favourite players/teams, they The Oka Crisis under-
paint their faces, and they participate in spontaneous scored the importance acting crowd:
A group of people
“waves.” of recognizing Mohawk gathered at the same place
Finally, an acting crowd consists of people gath- land claims and their at the same time who
engage in overt collective
ered at the same place at the same time who engage in fight to retain traditions behaviour in pursuit of a
overt collective behaviour in pursuit of a common goal. they had been following common goal.
For example, in 1990 in Oka, Quebec, the Mohawk since 1770.

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

FAN BEHAVIOUR
Think about the last time you were part of a crowd place. These are examples of conventional forms
attending some kind of entertainment event (e.g., of behaviour. Also think about any unconventional
a sporting event or a concert). Consider the norms behaviour displays you witnessed or any audience
governing the behaviour of attendees. Likely, fans actions that were particular to this event.
were expected to sit in their designated seats and
could purchase food, drinks, and memorabilia from Think Outside the Box: Would you classify these
the established vendors, but they were not allowed latter behaviours as forms of collective behaviour?
onto the stage where the performance was taking Why or why not?

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 6 9

Convergence Theory
Photography by Michael Caswell - Vancouver, BC

Contagion theory suggests that anyone who happens

to be in a crowd is likely to get caught up in the action;
by contrast, convergence theory posits that people in
crowds come together in a particular location specifi-
(www.sceneinthedark.com)

cally in order to behave in accordance with their prior

predispositions. In other words, like-minded individuals
“converge” on a place, where collective behaviour then
ensues. In this sense, crowd behaviour is not irrational,
as suggested by contagion theorists; instead, it is the
natural outcome of existing psychological impulses.
Contagion theory helps explain the impulsive behaviour From this we can infer that “certain kinds of people have
displayed by crowds. the propensity to engage in certain kinds of behaviour”

2 7 0 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
(Goode, 1992, p. 59, emphasis in original). This view, explicates a process whereby collective behaviour results
which suggests that the blame lies within individual from the sharing of information in groups, which helps
actors, reflects preconceived ideas about groups that establish situation-appropriate forms of social action.
are well known for engaging in violent collective acts
(neo-Nazi groups and Islamic extremist groups such as
TIME TO REVIEW
ISIL). It fails to account for group influences, just as
contagion theory cannot account for individual differ- • According to contagion theory, what
ences. A more middle-of-the-road approach is offered promotes the development of a collective
by emergent norm theory. mind?
• What does convergence theory point
Emergent Norm Theory to as the main contributor to collective
Turner and Killian (1987) contend that collective behaviour?
behaviour is both rational and diverse and that various • According to emergent norm theory, how
courses of action are available to members of a group. is situational ambiguity resolved?
A particular course of action results from new norms
being established as meaning is constructed by a group
in a particular situation. Thus, collective behaviour in
crowds is the end result of norms being developed that LO4 Dispersed Forms
redefine “right” and “wrong” in response to unique of Collective Behaviour
situational events (Turner & Killian, 1987).
Recall that crowds are considered to be localized when
For example, imagine you head for your class
people are gathered in one place at the same time.
tomorrow as per your usual schedule. Normally, your
Fairly large numbers of people can also be engaged
instructor is already in the classroom setting up her
in similar behaviours or be invoked by similar causes
laptop for a PowerPoint lecture when her students arrive.
while not in the general proximity of one another. For
But this time, when you reach your class, the door is
example, men dispersed across Canada who have never
locked and the students are gathered in the hallway.
been in contact with one another sport beards, whereas
Due to the uncertainty of the present situation (your
women wear jeggings in accordance with the latest
instructor appears to be absent and the door is locked),
styles in fashion. Canadians also participate in local
the student crowd is likely to start offering up ideas about
events such as Canada Day breakfasts or Pride parades
what is taking place (perhaps the instructor is ill or has
(refer to Sociology in My Community) that may take
gone to find security to open the locked door). People
place in different cities on the same day.
who have never spoken to each other in or out of class
may now converse as they attempt to figure out what is
going on. Eventually, they discuss what they should do Fads and Fashion
next: should everyone wait or leave? How long should Fads are temporary but highly popular social pat-
everyone wait? As suggestibility increases, new norms terns such as activities, events, hobbies, or types of
may be established. The crowd may determine that it is collectables that make up a current trend but even-
appropriate to wait 10 more minutes and then leave. In tually disappear when interest wanes (e.g., Beanie
this type of ambiguous situation, the crowd also comes Babies, Silly Bandz). Fashion also includes popular
up with justifications for the emergent norms that are social patterns but is longer lived and more likely to
now being established. Some students may say they be closely associated with identity. For example, some
think there is an existing rule that says you have to wait people wear a particular brand of perfume or cologne
for only a maximum of 10 minutes; others may suggest as their personal scent for decades. Drake is so attached
that the instructor wouldn’t want them to waste their to Drakkar Noir by Guy
time standing in the hallway for an entire period. Laroche that he named his
Fads: Temporary but
Justification, which is the end stage of this process, old Twitter account after it highly popular social
involves redefining the situation to resolve the orig- (i.e., @Drakkardnoir) and patterns such as activities,
inal uncertainty (i.e., that no one knows whether the recently had the men’s fra- events, music genres, or
hobbies.
instructor will arrive). The collective behaviour may not grance bottle tattooed on
be uniform—some students may leave early, others may his arm (Khal, 2017). Fashion: Long-lasting
popular social patterns that
choose to wait a little longer, a few may act in some other Fashion typically typically involve clothing
fashion during the established 10-minute wait period (will involves clothing lines that lines and accessories.
check the instructor’s office). Emergent norm theory, then, represent an entire fashion

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 7 1

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

PRIDE PARADES
A dispersed form of collective behaviour can be
John Lehmann/The Globe and Mail/The Canadian Press

found in the actions of tens of thousands of people

who take part in an annual Pride parade held in cities
throughout Canada, usually during the month of June.
Partakers dress in colourful clothes and either walk the
parade route or cheer on the procession from sidelines
waving pride flags. Attendees also take part in a host
of other organized events that celebrate the culture
and pride of the LGBTQ community, such as organized
festivals, exhibits, drag shows, documentary screen-
ings, information sessions, and faith-based gatherings.

Think Outside the Box: Which type or types of

crowds discussed earlier in the chapter do attendees at
Pride Parade attendees supporting the LGBTQ community. a Pride parade best exemplify? Be sure to explain your
answer.

industry of designers and brand labels. Although par- (planking, ALS ice bucket challenge) that are often
ticular hair or clothing styles change over time, the cate- popularized through social media. Fads and fashion are
gory remains part of fashion (e.g., hair styles of the 1960s forms of collective behaviour because they impact a large
versus hair styles of the scattering of people who end up buying similar products,
1990s). In contrast, fads wearing similar styles, and acting in similar ways.
Rumours: generally pertain to partic-
Unsubstantiated stories
about people or events. ular products (Shopkins, Rumours, Gossip, and
Pokémon Go) or activities
Urban Legends
Rumours are unsubstantiated stories about people or
events. In 2010, a rumour circulated that Canadian folk
music artist Gordon Lightfoot had died. The rumour
spread worldwide, beginning with a posting on Twitter
by “someone in Ottawa.” It was eventually proven to be
false (at which point, it stopped being a rumour), but
not before one of Lightfoot’s close friends heard about
it and passed the message on to friends in the music
industry, who sent out various versions of the story via
Dieter Hawlan/Shutterstock

social media (Nurwisah, 2010). Luckily, Lightfoot was

able to reach the media and his five children to quickly
dispel the rumour. He displayed a sense of humour
about the whole episode even after hearing about his
own supposed death on the radio while driving to his
Although the Paleo Diet fad has prompted debates over Toronto office following a dental appointment. He
diets high in animal protein, current research points to noted that although he was “shocked of course,” it
health benefits, including lowered inflammation and fat was also “the best day for airplay that [he’d] had in
mass (e.g., Mellberg et al., 2014; Whalen et al., 2016). weeks” (CTV News, 2010). A recent study by Lee and

2 7 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Oh (2017) on the spreading of rumours via Twitter him out on it in her Lemonade album lyrics, but we can
showed that people are more likely to perceive rumours substantiate that her sister Solange once attacked Jay Z in
to be true and to share them if they have already been an elevator for his flirtatious behaviour involving Rachel
retweeted multiple times. The number of retweets Roy (Roschke, 2016).
serves as a “normative cue” that others are sharing sto- Urban legends are unsubstantiated stories that
ries because they believe in them (Lee & Oh, 2017). persist over time and contain an underlying message
Rumours often accompany ambiguous situations or moral. Jan Harold Brunvand defines urban legends
as people try to make sense of what is going on and as “believed oral narratives” that are passed on from
how they should proceed. Why are all the tenants gath- person to person, somewhat like folklore (Brunvand,
ered outside my apartment building—is there a fire in the 2003). Although urban legends are purportedly about
building? Rumours are common in advance of major specific people and events, references to them tend
events and generally involve categories of people. to be general or abstract (a hitchhiker, a babysitter, a
For example, the mass media may circulate rumours motorist, and a fast-food restaurant), and the details
about hockey teams that may be involved in upcoming change from place to place and over time, much as with
trades. Similarly, the mass media sometimes inform us rumours. Also, urban legends contain a moral, such
that certain groups, such as teachers or nurses, are as “Keep a close watch on your children” or “Do not
soon to go on strike due to failed contract negotia- trust strangers.” Urban legends span a variety of topics,
tions. According to Goode (1992), rumours exist in all from contaminated food, to cruelty toward animals, to
societies and are good examples of collective behaviour natural disasters, and many are about death, murders,
in that they result from social interaction, they “fill in accidents, or ghosts (Brunvand, 2014b). How legends
the gaps” with spontaneous bits of information, and first get picked up is unknown, but they tend to circulate
their content can be unconventional. among “relatively sophisticated, educated, urbanized
The spread of rumours generally follows a predict- modern people” (Brunvand, 2014a). This may be in part
able pattern: information tends to get modified and because the source of an urban legend is believed to be
lost over time and from person to person as the story an actual credible person who is a FOAF, or a “friend of
is retold. Rumours are highly inaccurate—as much as a friend”—an “unnamed, elusive, but somehow readily
70 percent of the original details have been lost by the trusted anonymous individual” (Brunvand, 2003, p. 51).
time a rumour has been retold five or six times (Allport
& Postman, 1947). Allport and Postman (1947) note Widespread Panic and
that information loss and distortion occur largely as a
result of three common practices. First, information Moral Panic
during rumour transmission gets levelled—that is, A shared fear related to a threat such as a terrorist attack
a lot of the original details get omitted or lost. Also, or a pandemic can sometimes produce collective action
information becomes sharpened to the viewpoint of the in the form of a widespread panic during which a large
particular teller—that is, only the most interesting or number of people try to flee an area, believing that they
salient details are most likely to be retained. Finally, have little time left before meeting some horrible fate.
a type of assimilation occurs—the storyteller focuses A famous example of a large-scale panic originated with
on a particular theme or part of the rumour and may a radio broadcast on October 30, 1938. At a time when
even embellish on it by adding details so that the story radio was known for its
better fits the storyteller’s personal viewpoint. factual content, listeners
Gossip: Unsubstantiated
Gossip is unsubstantiated or substantiated stories heard what came across as or substantiated stories
about specific individuals. Although it was dubbed a news reports of a M artian about specific individuals.
rumour by the mass media, the alleged death of Gordon invasion with references
Urban legends:
Lightfoot was more accurately gossip because it per- to actual buildings, streets, Abstract unsubstantiated
tained to a specific person. Celebrity gossip websites and towns. The broadcast stories containing an
such as TMZ attest to the vast popularity of this form of was in fact a theatre adap- underlying message or
moral that persists over
collective behaviour. Gossip is unconventional (i.e., it’s tation of H.G. Wells’s War time.
generally not considered appropriate to tell hurtful, pri- of the Worlds, in which
vate, or personal stories about other people); it is spon- Martians invade New Eng- widespread panic:
A generalized belief
taneous (a celebrity can be engaged in any multitude of land, but many listeners regarding impending
behaviours at the moment when a photographer strikes); tuned in a few minutes danger that can lead a large
and it may or may not be verifiable. We may never find after the broadcast started number of people to flee
an area or engage in other
out whether Jay Z actually cheated on Beyoncé with and missed the opening protective measures.
fashion designer Rachel Roy or whether Beyoncé called disclaimer (Miller, 2000).

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 7 3

NICOTINE AND TIM HORTONS COFFEE:

DEBUNKING URBAN LEGENDS
Did you ever hear a story or receive an email warning drinkers. Are the many people who “roll up the rim
that bears a resemblance to an urban legend? Did to win” with their teeth exposing themselves to
you believe it? Our students often mention an urban even greater doses? For a comprehensive Internet
legend involving the Tim Hortons franchise. The resource dedicated to exposing the truth or, in most
story usually centres on the notion of people get- cases, false facts on trending rumours and urban leg-
ting addicted to Tim Hortons coffee because one of ends, including the untrue story about Tim Hortons
its “secret” ingredients is nicotine. Another varia- described above, we recommend David Mikkelson’s
tion is that the nicotine is in the paper cups; thus, site Snopes.com.
the addiction includes other customers, such as tea

Although the print media later exaggerated the public parties” (Hier, 2002). As another example, ongoing ter-
reaction (widespread stampedes, personal injuries), a rorist attacks by Muslim extremist groups such as ISIL
significant number of listeners did believe the broad- increase public fear and provoke a situation whereby
cast was factual and acted on that belief (by trying to many citizens who also happen to be Muslim end up
contact police, hospitals, family members, and so on) being unfairly viewed and treated as part of the ensuing
(Miller, 2000). Few people today worry about Mar- moral panic.
tian attacks; however, many are concerned about the The second element in the seeding of moral panics
health and safety issues associated with possible influ- is moral entrepreneurs—that is, people who deem it
enza pandemics (and, more recently, Zika virus spread important to bring the morally damaging behaviour
through a mosquito bite). to the attention of others. Moral entrepreneurs might
Stanley Cohen (1972) used the term moral panic be concerned parents, citizens, or others who try to
to describe the irrational but widespread worry that advocate for measures to alleviate what they perceive
certain groups represent a terrible threat to the social as a social problem. Moral entrepreneurs, for example,
order. A moral panic “is a scare about a threat or sup- write letters to politicians or newspaper editors to
posed threat from deviants or ‘folk devils,’ a category detail their views and to elicit support. In the cases
of people who, presumably, engage in evil practices just mentioned, moral entrepreneurs tried to get raves
and are blamed for menacing a society’s culture, way banned from city-owned property (Hier, 2002), and,
of life, and central values” (Goode & Ben-Yehuda, more recently, moral entrepreneurs are vocal in their
2009, p. 2). Three sources contribute to the develop- support for American President Trump’s attempts to
ment of moral panics (Zajdow, 2008). First, there is implement a travel ban on Muslim majority countries
the particular group whose behaviour is causing the (BBC News, 2017).
moral panic (i.e., the folk devils). Cohen (2002) notes The third element is the mass media, which help
that youth are a recurring target of blame for society’s spread the panic by making a particular version of the
moral decay, especially in story widely available. Hier (2002) reported that there
relation to the taking or were 192 stories in Toronto newspapers on raves over
moral panic: Irrational selling of banned drugs. a four-month period. News sites and social media alike
but widespread worry that
certain groups present an For example, shortly after are filled with stories of terrorism that emphasize par-
enormous threat to the three young Canadians ticular themes and interpretations. For example, in
social order of society. died from taking ecstasy, cases of religious extremism directed against the West,
moral entrepreneurs: a moral panic spread in the concept of “jihad” is often associated with violence
A person who brings the Toronto area regarding and depicted as meaning “holy war.” The term actu-
perceived morally
damaging behaviour to the
the risks associated with ally means “striving,” including “personal striving to
attention of others. drug-plagued “rave com- have the ideals of Islam become a way of life,” with
munities” and “rave dance a focus on “improving the religious condition of the

2 7 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

CHIROPRACTIC FOLK DEVILS

Chiropractors are health care professionals who result was a widespread but largely unfounded fear
are musculoskeletal experts who assess and treat relative to statistical realities that damaged the reputa-
disorders of the muscular, skeletal, and nervous sys- tion of the chiropractic profession (Villanueva-Russell,
tems (Canadian Chiropractic Association, 2017). On 2009). Moral panic over chiropractors led to reforms
September 12, 1996, an Ontario woman named Lana in Canadian health insurance systems. After 30 years
Dale Lewis died of a stroke at the age of 45. Her family of coverage, in 2004, Ontario “delisted” chiropractic
and various moral entrepreneurs were convinced that services from its health insurance plan; the other
the cause originated in a chiropractic manipulation she provinces followed suit. This meant that people who
had received for migraines. The ensuing moral panic utilized chiropractic services now had to pay for the
surrounding the use of chiropractic services lasted treatment themselves (Deloitte, 2004). Chiropractic
from 1996 to 2005 and was fuelled by media cov- services are still delisted in most provinces; however,
erage, which occurred daily throughout the 22-month health plans provided by employers and private health
investigation into her death (Villanueva-Russell, 2009). care providers typically cover at least some of the
The inquest into Lewis’s death by a coroner’s jury even- costs associated with chiropractic use in Canada today
tually rendered a verdict of “death by means of an (Healthquotes.ca, 2015).
accident” (Laeeque & Boon, 2004). Nonetheless, the
Think Outside the Box: Can you think of an example
media were successful in creating a moral panic, and
of a fad or event that was highly sensationalized in the
anti-chiropractic messages began appearing in maga-
media at some point in history as a threat to morality?
zines and on websites (e.g., Chirowatch.com). The end

community of believers” (not violence) for the majority the globe have taught us, naturally occurring climate-
of Muslims (Lutz & Lutz, 2013). A final distinguishing based disasters such as earthquakes, floods, tsunamis,
feature of a moral panic is that the “scare” is dispro- cyclones, tornadoes, and heat waves have resulted in
portionate to the actual threat. The assumption that large numbers of deaths and even more cases of injury.
all young people who attend raves are drug prone is In 2016, floods in China left millions of people home-
not supported by verifiable empirical data. Similarly, less (and hundreds dead), earthquakes killed more than
the vast majority of followers of Islam do not support 200 people in Italy and more than 300 in Ecuador, and
the use of violence “either between Sunni and Shia or Hurricane Matthew wreaked havoc in the Caribbean and
against Christians or Jews,” and most Muslim groups, United States (Phillips, 2016). Canada has also seen its
including fundamentalists, “do not subscribe to [holy share of hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, volcanic erup-
war] views of Jihad … and do not participate in the tions, storm surges, landslides, forest fires, and tsunamis
violence” (Lutz & Lutz, 2013, p. 76). See Sociology (Natural Resources Canada, 2009). The worst hurricane
in Practice for an additional example of moral panic in Atlantic history struck the coast of Newfoundland in
involving the chiropractic profession. 1775 and killed more than 4,000 people (Stokes Sullivan,
2010). And, most recently, the damages stemming from
the wildfires that spanned
Disasters more than 500,000 hect- disaster: A relatively
A final situation in which we find dispersed forms of col- ares and destroyed more sudden, unscheduled,
one-time event that causes
lective behaviour is in the wake of disasters. A disaster than 2400 structures in a great deal of property
has been defined as “a relatively sudden, unscheduled, Fort McMurray, Alberta, or ecological damage, or
one-time event that causes a great deal of property or in 2016 are believed to large-scale loss of life, and
substantial disruption or
ecological damage, or large-scale loss of life, and substan- exceed 9 billion (Globe stress among residents in
tial disruption or stress among residents in the stricken Staff and the Canadian the stricken area.
area” (Goode, 1992, p. 219). As recent events around Press, 2017).

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 7 5

LO5 SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Recall at the start of the chapter that we discussed the
importance of collective behaviour and social move-
ments for facilitating social change. Social move-
Fort McMurray wildfire, 2016 ments are “organized efforts by a substantial number

2 7 6 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 7 7

2 7 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

AFP/Getty Images
(STANDD).
Redemptive social movements seek large-scale
change for a specific group in society. Often their goal
is to change the entire way of life for a particular group. Euromaidan began with public protests in Ukraine.
Mothers Against Drunk Drivers Canada (MADD
Canada) seeks to stop impaired driving and to support
victims of impaired driving. The Animal Liberation
Front seeks to accord animals the same treatment as Spring revolutions in the Middle East (2010–2012)
humans (by prohibiting the consumption of animals, demonstrated just how quickly civil movements can
the use of leather or fur for clothing, and the use of organize to achieve their goals, especially when com-
animals in medical experiments). munication is facilitated by social media (Twitter,
Reformative social movements seek to get Facebook, the Internet). The second wave, dubbed
everyone in society to adopt a new viewpoint or a par- the “Arab Winter” (mid-2012–present), has illus-
ticular position on an issue. For example, the Civil trated that not all revolutions are successful and that
Rights Movement in the 1950s and 1960s included civil unrest also opens
a series of reformative movements seeking equality the door to militant ter- Redemptive social
under the law and an end to discrimination based rorist organizations (e.g., movements: Social
al-Qaeda insurgency in movements that seek large-
on race. The second wave of the women’s movement scale change for a specific
(1960–1985) sought to empower women in public and Yemen, ISIS in northern group.
private spheres (e.g., equal education and the right to and western Iraq and
Syria) (Fisk et al., 2016). Reformative social
abortion), whereas the LGBTQ movements today con- movements: Social
tinue to strive for acceptance and social equality. Slow Finally, as in the case of movements that seek
Food in Canada is a newer reformative movement that the Idle No More move- limited societal change for
ment led by Indigenous everyone in society.
encourages people to strike a balance between food
enjoyment and agricultural biodiversity while discour- peoples, discussed in revolutionary social
the Critical Thinking in movements: Social
aging the consumption of fast foods. movements that seek large-
Finally, there are revolutionary social movements, Action box, a revolution scale change that affects
which seek large-scale change that affects everyone in can sometimes even be everyone in society.

society. At the extreme, such a movement might over- peaceful in nature.

throw an existing political system to pave the way for
a new one with a different ideology. The Russian Rev- TIME TO REVIEW
olution of 1917 included various forms of collective
behaviour, such as riots, strikes, mass demonstrations, • How are social movements different from
and open warfare (during the Russian Civil War that other forms of collective behaviour?
immediately followed). Its two pivotal events were the
• What does claims making entail?
February Revolution, which removed Tsar Nicholas II
from power, and the October Revolution, which estab- • What are the four dimensions of change
lished the Soviet Union in place of the temporary gov- that help differentiate among social
ernment. Radical Islamic fundamentalist movements movements?
such as al-Qaeda and the Islamic State group (also • Which type of social movement seeks
known as ISIL and ISIS) are more current illustrations massive change for a narrow segment of
of enduring movements seeking large-scale changes society?
to existing belief systems. The first wave of the Arab

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 7 9

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

IDLE NO MORE: A PEACEFUL REVOLUTION OR

A RESISTANCE MOVEMENT?
activists (Nina Wilson, Sylvia McAdam, Jessica Gordon,
Sheelah McLean) held a “teach-in” in Saskatoon to
make people aware of federal legislation that would
pose risks to environmental waterways and threaten
Indigenous sovereignty. In this context, sovereignty
refers to “the right to self-government … which
Aboriginal people neither surrendered nor lost by way
of conquest” (LaForme, 1991, p. 253). When European
settlers came upon lands in what are now the provinces
and territories of Canada, they made various treaties
with the existing occupants regarding how the nations
would coexist. As explained in Idle No More’s manifesto:
The Canadian Press Images/Graham Hughes

The Treaties are nation to nation agreements

between First Nations and the British Crown
who are sovereign nations. The Treaties are
agreements that cannot be altered or broken
by one side of the two Nations. The spirit and
intent of the Treaty agreements meant that
First Nations peoples would share the land,
but retain their inherent rights to lands and
resources. (Idle No More, n.d.)
In a speech at the ABO Aboriginal Law Program, Jus-
tice Harry LaForme noted that although Indigenous
people in Canada were supposed to be treated “as
Does a revolution have to be synonymous with the use partners, as invested nations,” they have instead been
of force, violence, and war? The contemporary Idle marginalized, managed, and defined as “wards of the
No More movement asks people to join in a “peaceful state” (Taddese, 2013).
revolution” aimed at protecting Indigenous rights and
the environment (lakes, forests, wildlife). That move- Think Outside the Box: Can you provide an example
ment can also be considered a form of “resistance” of a historical event, policy, or act that lends support to
in that many of its efforts are directed at resisting LaForme’s claims?
the government’s attempts at reforms that under- Source: Idle No More. (n.d.). The Manifesto. Found at: http://www.idlenomore.ca/
mine the movement’s aims. Idle No More’s founding manifesto

your Sociological Toolkit arise in response to existing social conditions, espe-

SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY cially those that cause strain. In his value-added theory,
Neil Smelser (1962, pp. 15–18)* discussed six factors
that facilitate social action:
LO7 Value-Added Theory
1. Structural conduciveness—the broad social conditions
In explaining social move- that are necessary for collective behaviour to take
Indigenous ments, it is important to place (e.g., economic pressure, political corruption).
sovereignty: The right consider historical condi-
of Indigenous peoples to
self-government. tions and events because * Neil J. Smelser, Theory of Collective Behaviour, The Free Press, Copyright ©
social movements often 1962 by Neil J. Smelser.

2 8 0 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
2. Structural strain—underlying problems that have that only people who are deprived in some way will
resulted from or that have not been adequately participate in them. A value-added approach, then,
addressed by the current system (gender inequality, fails to explain how a movement gathers diverse sup-
racism, pay inequities, environmental degradation, porters who come to collectively believe in a cause
widespread unemployment, etc.). (McAdam, 1982).
3. The growth and spread of a generalized belief—the
widespread awareness that a particular issue is a
social problem and that steps should and can be
Resource Mobilization
taken to change it. The Internet is especially helpful Theory
in spreading claims and outlining the impetus for
Structural strains, including relative deprivation, are
change underlying modern social movements. As a
present in most societies; it follows that resource
function of the high rate of social media diffusion
mobilization is an important factor in the develop-
and the Internet’s capacity to act as an independent
ment of social movements (e.g., McCarthy & Zald,
source of media, Castells (2015) explains how pro-
1977). The assumption underlying resource mobi-
testers in Tunisia were able to keep “up demands for
lization theory is that social movements develop as
full democratization of the country throughout 2011
a function of how resources are brought together
in spite of the persistent police repression and con-
and utilized by leaders. According to Edwards and
tinuing presence of politicians from the old regime
McCarthy (2004), this includes how leaders orga-
in the provincial government and in the high levels
nize moral resources (the legitimacy of the claim),
of administration” (p. 29).
cultural resources (such as strategic know-how),
4. Precipitating factors—events or behaviours that serve
social-organizational resources (the development of
as “triggers” or breaking points. The Arab Spring
networks), human resources (experienced activists
can be traced to a precipitating event wherein a
and people with the skills to further organizational
poor street vendor named Tarek el-Tayeb Mohamed
goals), and various material resources (finances, office
Bouazizi set himself on fire in protest after he was
space). Whether or not social movements develop in
unable to obtain a permit to sell fruits and vegetables
particular places at particular times, then, is largely
to help support his family (Fisk et al., 2016).
a function of how well leaders develop and channel
5. Mobilization of participation for action—the gathering
various resources. Beyond resource mobilization itself,
of potential participants. This often requires inspira-
which Carroll (2016) suggests is more on the “supply
tional leaders who spread the message and encourage
side” of collective action, there must also be an oppor-
others to get directly involved in the solution. In the
tunity to act – on the “demand side.” At various points
case of Bouazizi, initially a teacher noted that “the
in history, there are ways claims can be advanced (e.g.,
unions got involved, teachers, lawyers, doctors, all
via petitions and protests) and structures that may be
sections of civil society, and set up a Popular Resis-
more or less conducive to the enactment of claims
tance Committee to back the people of Sidi Bouzid,
(e.g., political forces can serve as agents of repression
but with no support from the outside” (Fisk et al.,
or facilitation) (Carroll, 2016).
2016). Outside support was soon to follow once the
Social movements are far more organized, insti-
news broke on Facebook and Twitter.
tutionalized, and enduring than other forms of col-
6. The operation of social control—in the absence of
lective behaviour. This is important because it implies
strong forms of direct control by police or the mili-
that members of social movement organizations are
tary, people are no longer restrained from carrying
“rational actors” who come together to further their
out collective efforts (as was the case in Tunisia once
collective interests (Buechler, 2010) rather than
the ousted President Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia).
people who get out of hand when they become part
According to Smelser (1962), each factor, in its of a group (as would be implied by contagion theory,
corresponding order, must be present to promote the for example). Building on the more rational and orga-
next step or stage in the development of collective nized approaches, political process theory emphasizes
behaviour; if one or more of these precipitating factors the importance of cycles of contention (wherein there
is absent, collective action is unlikely to occur. is large-scale unrest) and of political opportunities to
Critiques of value-added theories (e.g., see pave the way for protest movements (see Tarrow, 1998;
McAdam, 1982) point out that they fail to address the Tilly & Tarrow, 2015). In Power in Movement (1998),
broader political context in which many social move- Tarrow explained that political opportunities are situ-
ments arise. “Collective behaviour is more likely to be ational features that enable movement development
perceived as deviant behaviour than political action” through access (e.g., elections), shifting alignments
(Buechler, 2010, p. 51). Also, these theories imply (e.g., changes in what a particular political party

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 8 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
supports or does not support), divided elites, influ- organizations to present their claims and directives
ential allies, and repression or facilitation by the state in a manner that “fits” individuals’ existing ideas and
(pp. 77–80). values (Snow et al., 1986). There are four main pro-
More recent approaches combine the assumptions cesses here: “frame bridging,” which involves linking
of resource mobilization theory and political process ideologically compatible individuals; “frame ampli-
theory into a synthesized model of “political entities fication,” which involves the “idealization, embel-
aiming to create social change” (Staggenborg, 2008, lishment, clarification, or invigoration of existing
p. 18). According to this combined approach (see values or beliefs”; “frame extension,” which moves
Benford & Snow, 2000), a social movement (often with interests beyond the primary focus to other areas of
the aid of leaders and an organization) interprets a par- interest to potential members; and “frame transforma-
ticular issue as a form of social injustice, calls attention tion,” which includes attempts to bring about com-
to that issue in particular ways (known as framing and plete changes in ideology (Benford & Snow, 2000,
discussed later on) to develop a constructed meaning pp. 624–625).
that resonates with the collectivity, and inspires them The Idle No More movement is an exemplary
to mobilize for action (Staggenborg, 2008). model for all of these processes. On its website
you find statements of support from individuals,
groups, and organizations (Canadian artists, the
New Social Movement Canadian Nurses Association, the Green Party of
Theory Canada, the federal NDP, Greenpeace)—this dem-
A final approach, new social movement theory, focuses onstrates bridging. Amplification is evident in the
solely on social movements that have arisen in post- many events that first brought public attention to
industrial or advanced societies, largely since the the cause in 2012 (press releases, protests, and espe-
1960s. According to this theory, post-industrial cially Attawapiskat’s Chief Theresa Spence’s six-week
movements tend to emphasize human rights (wom- hunger strike). It is also evident in the movement’s
en’s rights, LGBTQ rights) and global issues (global ongoing efforts to draw attention to its cause (teach-
warming, poverty, peace) rather than economic issues, ins, healing walks, conference talks). Frame exten-
as was the case with earlier labour and worker move- sion includes calls for action beyond treaty rights
ments. An important contribution of the new social and environmental protection (such as calls to
movement theory has been the notion of a collec- resist the use of violence against women and for an
tive identity. A collective identity is a shared sense inquiry into cases of murdered or missing Indigenous
of belonging or “we-ness” that binds individuals in a women). Frame transformation can be inferred from
social movement; it serves as the “animating spirit” the many resources the movement has provided to
that propels them to take action on behalf of that social educate prospective supporters and to dispel com-
movement (Snow, 2001). monly held myths about treaties, land rights, and
Indigenous sovereignty.
The construction of a social identity is para-
Frames and Frame Alignment mount to both the existence and the endurance of a
Collective identity develops from the meanings people social movement (Gamson, 1991). Hund and Benford
come to share regarding a social movement’s purpose, (2010) summarize the distinction between old and
claims, activities, and leadership. Framing processes new social movements by noting that “class conscious-
help transition individual views into shared ones that ness” has, for all intents and purposes, been replaced
become part of the collective identity (Snow, 2007). by “collective identity” “as the factor that accounts
To explain how objects and events come to have for mobilization and individual attachments to new
meaning for particular individuals, Goffman (1974) social movements” (p. 437). Current research is now
introduced the idea of “frames” as cognitive struc- aimed at developing our understanding of how collec-
tures that allow people tive identities develop, how tensions develop among
to take notice of objects multiple identities, and how collective identities
collective identity: and events in the wider translate into various forms of action (della Porta &
A shared sense of belonging
that binds individuals in world in the context of Diani, 2008). The environmental movement, which
a social movement and their own life experi- is the focus of the next chapter, is both an old and a
propels them to take action
on behalf of that social
ences. “Frame alignment” new social movement, one that currently includes a
movement. processes entail attempts growing collective identity bound in environmental
by social movement awareness and a global call to action.

2 8 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

LO4 Describe fads, rumours, urban LO7 Compare theoretical views on the
legends, moral panic, and disasters development of social movements.
as dispersed forms of collective In identifying factors that promote social action,
behaviour. value-added theory identifies the importance of
structural conduciveness, structural strain, general-
Dispersed crowds engage in similar behaviours while
ized beliefs, precipitating factors, mobilization for
not in the same general proximity. Fads are popular
action, and a lack of social control; resource mobi-
social patterns, rumours are unsubstantiated stories
lization theory emphasizes resources over other
about people and events, gossip pertains to unsub-
structural factors; and new social movement theory
stantiated and substantiated stories about specific
emphasizes the formation of a collective identity.
individuals, and urban legends are unsubstantiated

NEL Chapter 13 Social Change: Collective Behaviour and Social Movements 2 8 3

For Further Reflection

1. List five current fads. How are these fads similar to 3. Note that the Idle No More movement continues to
and different from ones you participated in when host events that raise awareness and build support
you were younger? What are some factors that con- for its cause in various communities in the absence
tribute to the end of a fad’s popularity? of identifiable leadership. In what ways might the
2. Think about the last time you heard a rumour or development of a collective identity eliminate the
participated in spreading one. In what ways might a need for a directive leader?
rumour be considered a functional form of collective
behaviour?

ENDNOTE
1 Retrieved June 15, 2017, from www.quotationspage.com.

2 8 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

“Going Green”: Environmental

Sociology

“ ”
ParabolStudio/Shutterstock

When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it hitched

to everything else in the universe.
(John Muir)1

NEL

LO1 SOCIAL FACTORS

POSING ENVIRONMENTAL
CHALLENGES
Human Overpopulation
Social factors begin with people. Researchers predict
a global population of 9.7 billion by 2050 (Schlosser
et al., 2014). This figure raises a central question that
scientists, theorists, and demographers (people who
study changes that affect human populations) are
now trying to answer: Exactly how many people can
this planet sustain? The
concept of the “ecological
footprint” was developed demography:
The study of human
by Wackernagel and Rees populations.
(1996) as a means to gauge

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 8 7

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

WORLD WILDLIFE FUND CANADA’S

CONSERVATION FIRST PRINCIPLE
World Wildlife Fund Canada (WWF-Canada) is a con- tundra. The basin covers about 1.8 million square kilo-
servationist organization working to protect wildlife metres, comprising 20 percent of Canada’s landmass,
and to promote the sustainable use of resources along and includes nine lakes of over 1,000 square kilome-
with the reduction of waste. A founding Conserva- tres (e.g., Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, and Lake
tion First Principle is that “there should be no new Athabasca) (Mackenzie River Basin Board, 2003).
or expanded large-scale industrial development in
Canada until a network of protected areas is reserved
which adequately represents the natural region(s)
affected by that development” (WWF-Canada,
2017b). In accordance with this principle, WWF-
Canada assisted Indigenous groups with proposals that
eventually led to the suspension of industrial activity in
the Mackenzie River Basin area, enabling local groups
to come up with permanent plans for establishing
protected areas. Now deemed the biggest “conserva-
tion success” in Canada’s history, more than 10 mil-
Gunter Marx/Alamy

lion hectares of wilderness are permanently protected

(WWF-Canada, 2017a). The Mackenzie River Basin
extends all the way from the Mackenzie River and
Rocky Mountains in the west to the Canadian Shield in
the east and includes boreal forest, alpine, and arctic The Mackenzie River Basin area.

2 8 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

The Ecological As global ecological overshoot grows, how will countries continue to
Wealth of Nations meet the needs of their people and their economies? Maintaining natural
wealth and reducing ecological demand will help countries improve
economic resilience and human well-being.

Biocapacity Debtors
Footprint greater than biocapacity
150%
100–150%
50–100%
0–50%

Biocapacity Creditors
Biocapacity greater than footprint
0–50%
50–100%
100–150%
150%

Source: Global Footprint Network, 2017. National Footprint Accounts, 2012 Edition. Found at: http://www.footprintnetwork.org.

Early demographer and political economist Thomas growth would exceed the
carbon footprint: A
Robert Malthus (1766–1834), in An Essay on the Princi- planet’s capacity in terms method for identifying and
ples of Population (1798/1998), wrote about factors that of food supply. Population keeping track of behaviours
limit population overgrowth; these included epidemics checks include factors that negatively impact
the environment through
and famines. Malthus predicted that in the absence of that help limit population greenhouse gas production.
certain “population checks,” exponential population growth, such as events

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

HOW BIG IS YOUR ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT?

The notion of a carbon footprint was developed largely Think Outside the Box: Of the various potential con-
as a method for identifying and keeping track of human tributors to your footprint (e.g., type of foods eaten on
behaviours that negatively impact the environment a weekly basis, mode of transportation), in which areas
through greenhouse gas production. You can calculate are you least environmentally responsible? Are these
your own environmental footprint using one of the calcu- factors or conditions you can readily change? Why or
lators provided at various sites online (e.g., refer to http:// why not?
www.footprintnetwork.org/resources/footprint-calculator).

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 8 9

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
that lead to deaths, including war or disease, and fac- clean water, proper nutrition, and healthcare) as well
tors that prevent births, such as birth control and the as factors that reduce life expectancy (diseases or wide-
postponement of childbearing. spread unrest, as in the case of civil war). The infant
The world’s population did not grow beyond its mortality rate is the best measure of a country’s level
human carrying capacity (the number of people that can of economic and social development in terms of fac-
be supported in a given area indefinitely) in Malthus’s tors such as healthcare, education, and proper sanita-
lifetime or even in more modern times, largely because tion. Countries with high infant mortality rates have
of technological advances in agriculture that increased low economic and social development. Canada’s infant
food production. Global populations increased expo- mortality rate for 2016 was low, at 4.6 per 1,000 live
nentially, but food supplies also increased, at a rate births (Central Intelligence Agency, 2017a), compared
that far exceeded Malthus’s calculations; for example, to many South Asian and African countries where
wheat production in India tripled between 1965 and infant mortality is high (e.g., 112.8 in Afghanistan and
1980 (Robbins Hintz, & Moore, 2010). Nonetheless, 100 in Mali) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2017a).
academics and scientists today continue to be deeply Population growth can also be greatly affected
concerned about sustained population growth and its by migration, that is, by the movement of people
impact on the environment, especially in countries that into or out of a country. Historically, migration was a
have the greatest proportion of the world’s inhabitants useful means to locate and inhabit new environmental
(China, India, the United States) and those with higher resources. There are no remaining habitable new places
growth rates relative to the rest of the world (Lebanon, left on the Earth and few that are potentially habit-
South Sudan, Malawi). able, but immigration policies and practices continue
to affect population growth as people move between
Factors That Contribute existing countries (until recently, one of the world’s
highest concentrations of movement was from Mexico
to Population Growth into the United States). Canada encourages immigra-
Fertility, mortality, and migration are the three main tion to stimulate its economy and offset its low popula-
factors that account for a country’s population growth. tion growth rate.
The total fertility rate is
an estimate of the number
Population checks: of live births a female can Industrialization
Factors that limit
population growth.
be expected to have in Early demographers (Landry, 1934; Notestein, 1945)
her lifetime (Statistics introduced the notion of a demographic transition,
human carrying Canada, 2015). Canada’s which later became known as demographic transition
capacity: The number
of people that can be total fertility rate for 2016 theory. This theory explains changes in populations as
supported in a given area was 1.6 (Central Intel- countries progress from premodern societies with high
indefinitely. ligence Agency, 2017c). birth and death rates to modern ones characterized by
total fertility rate: This is low, and it indi- low birth and death rates (Kirk, 1996), as shown in
The number of live births a cates that women today Figure 14.2.
female can be expected to
have in her lifetime.
are having very few chil- Largely due to the Industrial Revolution (which
dren. In Canada, there are began in Europe in the late 1700s, spread to North
infant mortality rate: also fewer women in their America in the 1800s, and is still advancing throughout
The incidence of deaths
among infants under one
childbearing years rela- the world), countries experienced tremendous economic
year of age per 1,000 live tive to older age groups growth and innovation in many sectors (e.g., textile
births in a given population. (i.e., Canada has an aging manufacturing, iron production, steam power). These
migration: The population). The highest innovations led to other massive societal changes, such
movement of people into birth rate in the world is as the growth of cities, the development of an industrial
or out of a country. in Niger, where the total workforce, the reliance on child labour, and the accumu-
demographic fertility rate is 6.6 and the lation of capital; all of these furthered economic devel-
transition theory: As median age is 18.3 (com- opment cycles (e.g., the introduction of new industries,
a result of modernization,
societies eventually
pared to 42.0 in Canada) such as steel and petroleum) and spawned subsequent
progress from being (Central Intelligence changes in cultural values and practices (e.g., healthcare,
characterized by high fertility Agency, 2017b, 2017c). family planning). Although economic growth and social
and mortality rates to being
characterized by low fertility
Mortality is influ- development vary considerably from country to country,
and mortality rates. enced by factors that pro- fertility and mortality trends are strikingly close to what
mote longevity (access to is predicted by demographic transition theory.

2 9 0 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Preindustrial Early Industrial (transitional) Industrial Postindustrial

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
80 High

Total population
Birth rate and death rate number per 1,000 per year

70
Birth rate
Death rate
60

Relative population size

0 Low
Growth rate: Low Increasing Very high Decreasing Low Zero Negative
Time

In Stage 1 of the demographic transition, we find collapsed altogether before reaching the second
preindustrial societies (those with entirely agriculture- stage after a period of population growth that too
based economies), in which fertility rates are high quickly depleted the natural environment (Diamond,
in order to offset correspondingly high infant mor- 2000)—a small-scale version of the fate described by
tality rates. High birth rates reflect a lack of family Malthus.
planning (e.g., the absence of contraception) in con- Stage 2 societies are characterized by early industri-
junction with a need to supply labour for agricul- alization. In these, the beginnings of industrialization
tural subsistence; a need to repopulate, given low are reflected in improved crop cultivation, education,
life expectancy; and a need to care for the elderly in and healthcare. Population growth continues with the
the absence of social safety nets. Mortality is high introduction of more machinery, innovations such as
for various reasons, such as inadequate healthcare, fertilizers and pesticides, and the widespread extrac-
lack of sanitation, deficient education, and famine, tion of resources, such as fossil fuels. Early industrial-
drought, and disease. Stage 1, then, is characterized ization is marked by population growth as a result of
by high and highly fluctuating birth and death rates, high birth rates alongside corresponding lowered death
resulting in very little overall population growth. All rates. Stage 2 developing countries can be found in East
countries in existence today have progressed past this and Southeast Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Jordan)
stage; however, there are still agriculture-based vil- but especially in Africa, where we find countries with
lages within countries (e.g., Peru, Brazil), and some some of the highest overall growth rates in the world
countries retain many preindustrial qualities such as (Zimbabwe, Malawi, Niger). Other countries (Mexico,
limited education and poor healthcare, especially for Brazil, India, Turkey) have advanced economies with
women (e.g., Afghanistan). In addition, some pre- modest birth rates that straddle the line between Stage
industrial societies (e.g., early Polynesian societies) 2 and Stage 3.

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 9 1

SOCIOLOGY ONLINE

DESMOG CANADA
Desmog Canada is a nonprofit society that provides example, Saskatchewan is the first province to sign
an online news forum on issues dealing with energy an agreement for the development of geothermal
and the environment. Here you can learn more about power. Geothermal power is a renewable and zero-
how major developments in the oil and gas industry emission process whereby water heated by the Earth’s
negatively impact Canada’s environment and can core is used to activate a generator that produces
share your views and opinions. You can also find electricity (SaskPower, 2017). See https://www
out about new directions in the energy sector. For .desmog.ca.

2 9 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

BARRIE
SUTTON
GEORGINA
INNISFIL KESWICK
ALLISTON

NEWMARKET

ORANGEVILLE
BOLTON PORT PERRY
RICHMOND
HILL MARKHAM
BRAMPTON
BOWMANVILLE
GUELPH
OSHAWA
WATERLOO
KITCHENER
TORONTO
MILTON
MISSISSAUGA
CAMBRIDGE
OAKVILLE

BURLINGTON Lake Ontario

DUNDAS
HAMILTON
ANCASTER
BRANTFORD STONEY CREEK
ST. CATHARINES

NIAGARA FALLS
FONTHILL

WELLAND

where inhabitants exhibit excessively high levels of Disposable Societies

consumption, a phenomenon known as overcon- When was the last time you ordered takeout food? Did
sumption. C onsumption refers to the general use of you purchase your last new cellphone because you lost
natural resources as people go about their daily lives; the old one or it no longer worked, or did you simply
overconsumption refers to the use of resources at a decide one day to “upgrade” in order to keep up with
rate that exceeds sustainability (i.e., the use of natural the latest trend? Advanced
resources at a rate on par with natural replenishment). industrial societies are
There are vast differences in the rates of consump- distinguished by an Consumption: The
tion between developed and developing countries. For overabundance of mate- general use of natural
example, the average North American consumes the resources.
rial culture, especially in
equivalent of about 90 kilograms of resources per day the form of technologies overconsumption:
eating, drinking, driving, and in relation to housing rel- (televisions, computers, Use of natural resources at
ative to the average African, who consumes only about a rate on par with natural
cellphones, etc.) that replenishment.
10 kilograms per day (Sustainable Europe Research are used for only a short
Institute, Friends of the Earth Austria, and Friends of the sustainability: Use
time and then thrown of natural resources at a
Earth Europe, 2009). This means that North Americans away; this has contrib- rate on par with natural
contribute considerably more to the emissions that pro- uted to the creation of replenishment.
duce air pollution and global climate change.

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 9 3

These are the “seven sins of greenwashing”:

1. Sin of the Hidden Tradeoff, committed by suggesting
a product is “green” based on an unreasonably
narrow set of attributes, without attention to other
Landfill sites are heavily relied on for waste disposal. important environmental issues. For example, paper
from a sustainably harvested forest is not necessarily
disposable societies. From electronics to food con- more environmentally friendly. Other environmental
tainers, plastic packaging, bags, and storage wrap, from issues in the paper-making process, including energy,
household cleaning and dusting products to hygiene greenhouse gas emissions, and water and air pollu-
products, razor blades, and baby products (diapers, tion, may be equally or more significant.
bottle liners, food, and wipes), Canadians purchase 2. Sin of No Proof, committed by an environmental
items they use for only a short time and then throw claim that cannot be substantiated by easily acces-
away. Residential solid waste makes up about one-third sible supporting information or by a reliable third-
of the total waste disposal in Canada, and the rest comes party certification. Common examples are facial or
from non-residential (non-hazardous) waste from toilet tissue products that claim various percentages
industrial, commercial, and institutional sectors (Sta- of post-consumer recycled content without pro-
tistics Canada, 2012). Canada’s residential solid waste viding any evidence.
added up to 25,871,310 tonnes or 777 kilograms per 3. Sin of Vagueness, committed by every claim that is
person in 2008, most of which was picked up by col- so poorly defined or broad that its real meaning is
lection services and sent on to landfill sites (Statistics likely to be misunderstood by the consumer. “All-
Canada, 2012). During the same year, industries’ con- natural” is an example. Arsenic, uranium, mercury,
tribution to solid waste was considerable. For example, and formaldehyde are all naturally occurring, and
the oil sands industry alone generated 645 million poisonous. “All natural” isn’t necessarily “green.”
tonnes from surface mining and another 547 million 4. Sin of Irrelevance, committed by making an
tonnes through sand tailing (Statistics Canada, 2012). environmental claim that may be truthful but is
unimportant or unhelpful for consumers seeking
Greenwashing environmentally preferable products. “CFC-free” is a
common example, since it is a frequent claim despite
Marketers have tried to address society’s growing
the fact that CFCs are banned by law.
awareness of the need to reduce consumption by
claiming that their products are environmentally friendly TerraChoice, The Sins of Greenwashing
and Family Edition 2010: A Report on
or organic. This is meant to entice you to keep con- Environmental Claims Made In the North
suming at your usual rate, American Consumer Market. © [2014]
UL LLC. Reprinted with permission.
guilt-free, by purchasing
disposable societies:
Societies characterized by “green” brands. “Envi-
an excess of manufactured ronmentally friendly” is
products that are used for generally taken to mean
only a short period of time
and then disposed of. that a product or service
was developed with min-
Greenwashing: imal harm to the environ-
Misleading consumers
regarding the ment; “organic” usually
environmental practices means that the item was
of a company or the produced without chemi-
environmental benefits of a
product or service. cals such as pesticides or
hormones. In 2007, an

2 9 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

TABLE 14.1
A Sample of Eco-Label Names
GENERAL INFORMATION PROCESS CERTIFICATION OR LABELLING
Transparent
Eco-Label Third- Publicly
Year Product Life Cycle- Standard
Name and Party Available
Founded Categories Based* Development
Website Certified Standard
Process
Single issue
EcoCert www
2000 Organic ingredients (organic √ √ √
.ecocert.com
certification)
Health and beauty
products, cleaning
products, home
EcoLogo www.
1988 products, office √ √ √ √
ecologo.org
products, electronics,
building/construction
products
Home products,
Energy Star Single issue
building and
www.energystar. 1992 (energy √ √
construction products,
gov efficiency)
electronics
EPEAT www.
2005 Electronics √ √ √
epeat.net
Cleaning products,
Green Seal
office products,
www. 1989 √ √ √ √
building/construction
greenseal.org
products
WaterSense Home products,
Single issue
www.epa.gov/ 2006 building/construction √ √ √
(saving water)
WaterSense products
*Life cycle-based eco-labels consider the environmental impacts from all phases of a product’s life including the raw materials, the manufacturing process, the
product itself, its distribution and use, and its ultimate disposal (or recycling/reuse).
Source: TerraChoice, The Sins of Greenwashing and Family Edition 2010: A Report on Environmental Claims Made In the North American Consumer Market.
© [2014] UL LLC. Reprinted with permission.

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 9 5

sprays, cleaning products) but are also part of blowing

agents for plastic foam packaging and are most often
used as cooling agents in refrigerators and air condi-
tioners. Consider how many refrigerators there are just
in Canada! When CFCs are released into the air, as
happens when products containing them are disposed
Hundreds of species of boreal birds can be found in the
boreal forest of northern Canada. The Rusty Blackbird breeds
of, they can persist long enough to be broken down in
in the boreal forest, but due to deforestation and habitat a chemical reaction that contributes to ozone depletion
loss, it has declined by about 90 percent since 1970 and (Draper, 1998).
is now considered a species at risk (Wildlife Conservation Many of the early efforts to manage environ-
Society Canada, 2017). mental issues (especially air pollution) were “band-aid

2 9 6 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

increase in the temperature

Since the 1990s, of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Image of the ozone hole in the Antarctic. more and more people are

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 9 7

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change “climate-driven redistribution of species” wherein var-
(IPCC), established by the United Nations Environment ious marine, terrestrial, and freshwater species are relo-
Programme and the World Meteorological Organiza- cating to environments that most closely approximate
tion, is a collective and consensus-reaching scientific the ones they have lost to climate changes (e.g., those
body for assessing research on climate change. IPCC’s preferring cooler temperatures are moving to higher ele-
major function is to “provide policymakers with regular vations on land or deeper depths to reach colder waters
assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, below sea). These shifts have positive and negative
its impacts and future risks, and options for adapta- implications for all species (including humans) as new
tion and mitigation” (IPCC, 2017). The IPCC notes interactions in ecosystem feedbacks develop, whereas
that global warming is most apparent over the past other necessary interactions are interrupted (Pecl et al.,
50 years, has negatively impacted ecological systems, 2017). Humans are likely to be especially impacted by
and, in the absence of mitigating factors, will continue shifts that affect food supplies (e.g., fish, crops) and
to do so. Some of the especially salient negative impli- increase the propensity for diseases (e.g., mosquitoes
cations include an increased risk of extinction among carrying malaria and dengue) (Pecl et al., 2017).
certain plant and animal species and an increased vul-
nerability of many regions to extreme weather condi- Think Outside the Box: In what ways does industry
tions such as heat waves and floods. contribute to climate change? How do industry prac-
A recent review of the evidence on climate change tices pose challenges for individuals who are trying to
indicates that we are now undergoing a large-scale live “greener” lives?

realizing that environmental problems such as water

pollution, deforestation, overcultivation, soil degrada-
tion, and loss of habitat are threatening the survival of
life on the Earth. For example, although this planet has
substantial water reserves, most of that water is ocean
salt water; less than 3 percent by volume is fresh water
(Wali et al., 2010). Moreover, much of the fresh water
is hidden away in frozen glaciers, leaving more than
1.1 billion people worldwide without access to fresh
water and twice that many facing insecurity intermit-
tently (World Wildlife Fund, 2017). Agriculture also
faces a severe shortage of fresh water, and access to safe
drinking water will be an even greater issue for at least
© Mike Baldwin, mban983, Cartoonstock.com

two-thirds of the world’s population by 2025 if the cur-

rent trends in population growth, urbanization, and
consumption continue (United Nations, 2009).
In addition to all of this, the endless search for
energy sources and minerals has led to competition
and even war within and between countries for non-
renewable resources. This has implications in terms
of depletion and degradation; furthermore, resource
extraction processes are highly polluting in themselves
(atmospheric pollution, toxic waste) (Wali et al., 2010).

2 9 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN THEORY

Environmental Sociology
Environmental sociology as a subdiscipline of soci-
ology tends to be more empirical than theory driven.
This is in part because environmental sociology origi-
nated as an approach to the study of environmental
© Harris, S, shr0002, Cartoonstock

issues rather than of the relationships between society

and the natural environment (Dunlap & Catton,
1979). Classical sociology began as a study of such
things as population growth, urbanization, and capi-
talist expansion. For example, Karl Marx emphasized
economics and productivity; Herbert Spencer spoke
of consumption in terms of survival of the fittest;

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 2 9 9

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

BE THE CHANGE FILM SERIES

Once a month, the Blue Mountain Watershed Trust • Occupy Love (2014) explores activist move-
Foundation and Elephant Thoughts host Be The ments against corporate greed and discusses
Change Film Series in Collingwood, Ontario, where evolving social change based on more sustainable
community members can view documentaries and alternative economic systems. Visit http://
learn more about environmental and social justice occupylove.org.
issues such as overfishing, sustainability, and overreli-
ance on oil. Recent films shown that serve as excellent • Misconception (2014) is a portrait of three
resources include the following: lives deeply affected by their countries’
family planning policies. Visit https://www
• Koneline (2016) is an art film about the beauty of .participantmedia.com.
British Columbia set in the Tahltan First Nation of
northern British Columbia. Visit https://www
.canadawildproductions.com. Think Outside the Box: Are there any public aware-
ness campaigns or events in your community that help
• After the Last River (2015) traces the struggles of people learn about environmental or social justice
the poverty-stricken community of Attawapiskat issues? If so, describe them. If not, can you describe
in the wake of a resource-rich mine on its terri- a movie you have seen that helped you learn more
tory. Visit http://www.afterthelastrivermovie.com. about an environmental issue?

3 0 0 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
LO4 Functionalist 2. High accumulation of waste. Modern factories utilize
“energy/chemical intensive technologies to trans-
Perspectives: Ecological form raw materials into finished products” en masse,
Modernization which has contributed to the creation of more and
more pollution and waste (Schnaiberg, Pellow, &
Functionalist approaches to the study of the environ- Weinberg, 2002, p. 2).
ment emerged in the 1980s. They were based on an
assumption that humans, industry, and the environ-
Besides all of this, Gould, Pellow, and Schnaiberg
ment can coexist provided that everyone (politicians,
(2008) identify five shared pillars of modern industry:
industry management, environmentalists) works
economic expansion; increased consumption; a propen-
together to protect the environment for the collective
sity to solve social and ecological problems by speeding
good of society. This movement, collectively known
up the treadmill; economic expansion via large firms; and
as ecological modernization, encompasses many global
alliances among capital, labour, and governments. These
efforts to promote greening practices, including
pillars help us better understand the changing relations
energy reforms, energy-efficiency regulations, sustain-
among capitalists, workers, and the state; in part, they
ability efforts, the phasing out of hazardous chemicals,
also explain how practices that damage the environment
improved methods for dealing with waste, and new
come to be constructed as “proeconomic” measures that
forms of environmental governance. For example,
are readily condoned by capitalists, individuals, and the
functionalists advocate for alternative and more effi-
state. For example, setting aside the profits incurred
cient fuel sources, such as solar and wind energy in
by capitalists, workers perceive that economic expan-
developed countries and bioenergy (burning plants
sion will benefit them through enhanced employment
and agricultural waste) in developing countries, to
opportunities that could help reduce poverty, and gov-
help reduce oil and coal consumption.
ernments perceive that they will gain tax revenues that
can be redistributed into education or housing.
Foster, Clark, and York (2010) point out how
Critical Perspectives: “ironically, most analyses of the environmental problem
The Treadmill of Production today are concerned less with saving the planet or life
Whereas functionalists focus on the interconnect- or humanity than saving capitalism” (p. 7). Thus, con-
edness of people and the environment and the need flict theories now emphasize a treadmill of accumula-
for everyone to work toward energy-efficient alter- tion over one of production and equate “sustainable
natives, critical theorists point to important ways in capitalism” with “ecological denial.” This is because
which societal and environmental dynamics differ. capitalism requires greater and greater economic
Thus, American sociologist Schnaiberg (1980) notes expansion, which corresponds to ever-heightening
that “whereas the ecosystem reaches a steady-state worker exploitation and environmental degradation,
by permitting the growth of just enough species and irrespective of efforts to manage these. Given the
populations to offset the surplus [energy], societies speed at which irreversible climate change is occurring,
tend to use the surplus to accumulate still more sur- modern conflict theorists suggest that the only solution
plus in future periods” (p. 19, emphasis in original). is an ecological revolution that will replace capitalism
Schnaiberg describes the incessant need to increase with socialism (Foster, 2009; Foster et al., 2010).
production and profit as a treadmill of production. In It is becoming overwhelmingly apparent that those
accordance with a Marxist paradigm, the treadmill of who have the fewest resources (the poor, minority groups)
production places the economy at the heart of deci- are likely to suffer the greatest negative environmental
sion making. Schnaiberg’s model also identifies two impacts (exposure to environmental hazards, and so
environmental concerns that became apparent in the on). Ecofeminism is a social movement that links women
second half of the 20th century with the growth of with nature (oppression against women with the domi-
modern factories: nation of nature). From
this perspective, patriar-
1. High extraction of natural resources. Modern chal society rests on four treadmill of
production: A
factories required substantial capital, which was pillars of injustice: racism, theoretical model that
invested in machinery, which largely replaced sexism, class exploita- explains environmental
workers and necessitated the use of greater and tion, and environmental issues as resulting from an
incessant need to increase
greater amounts of raw materials, such as land destruction (Davies, 1988; production and profit.
(resource depletion). Harris, 2017; Plant, 1989).

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 3 0 1

TIPPING POINT: THE AGE OF THE OIL SANDS

Tipping Point: The Age of the Oil Sands (2011), oil sands do not contribute to pollution. The “tipping
directed by Tom Radford and Niobe Thompson of point” is a culmination of media attention involving
Clearwater Media in association with CBC TV, aired James Cameron, who, after visiting the oil sands and
on CBC News Network in January 2011. The film meeting with the premier of Alberta, expressed his
describes the early health and environmental concerns concerns alongside Indigenous peoples, and the new
of residents of Fort Chipewyan, Alberta, regarding research confirming the presence of toxic pollution.
high rates of rare forms of cancer and suspected The sponsor-paid congratulatory message to James
pollution in the Athabasca River. The documentary Cameron shown in the ad on the next page was used
highlights the struggle for environmental justice as to further awareness of the environmental issues
government and industry officials maintain that the posed by the oil sands.

Environmental justice is a movement aimed at environ- In Canada, environmental justice spans a range of
mental security and the equitable treatment of all people current issues involving land claims, health risks, and
in relation to environmental impacts. This is primarily an environmental politics (see, Agyeman et al., 2009). A
effort to expose environmental issues as abuses dispro- study by University of Alberta biologists and ecologists
portionately incurred by the disadvantaged and to advo- concluded that “contrary to claims made by industry
cate for environmental policies and regulations crafted and government in the popular press,” the oil sands
with the input of those most affected. project is responsible for 13 toxic elements currently
polluting the Athabasca River, all of which are “pri-
ority pollutants” that warrant federal government
follow-up (Dearing, 2010). The Athabasca River is
a primary food source for many Indigenous peoples
(e.g., those living in Fort McKay and Fort Chipewyan).
The Indigenous Environmental Network’s Canadian
Indigenous Tar Sands Campaign seeks to halt fur-
ther oil sands expansion (Indigenous Environmental
Network, 2017).

TIME TO REVIEW
• Why were environmental concerns
largely ignored by early sociologists?
• How does the new ecological paradigm
differ from the Human Exemptionalism
Paradigm?
• Why might a functionalist perspective
believe that sustainable development
is a foreseeable possibility in advanced
Corporate Ethics International

societies?
• What two postindustrial changes are
emphasized by the treadmill of produc-
tion model?
• What does environmental justice refer to?

3 0 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

once other conditions are in place in the economy,

in society, and in the environment. Some examples: A
healthy economy has multiple buyers and sellers and
the absence of corruption. A healthy society has a base
level of subsistence, pro-
tection, and participation sustainable
alongside strong educa- development:
Development that meets
tional and healthcare sys- the needs of the present
tems, as well as a large without compromising the
ability of future generations
middle class (little disparity to meet their own needs.
between those with and

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 3 0 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
those without resources). A healthy environment has a Finally, sustainable development encompasses
generous supply of contained fossil fuels, minerals, and more than a consideration of what is important now
other resources (not ones that are extracted and used to along with a consideration of how green practices can
deplete the Earth in greater and greater concentrations) be implemented in the future (recycling, the use of
(Hitchcock & Willard, 2009). biodegradable products). It also entails looking at how
Assuming that the necessary factors are in place practices can be modified to correct for problems that
to begin with or could feasibly be put in place, society have already occurred (waste cleanup), and it neces-
as a whole needs to adopt sustainable practices sitates a look toward the future. Increasingly, govern-
everywhere—in homes, in schools, in government, and ments are developing regulatory controls for dealing
in business. In The Business Guide to Sustainability,* with yesterday’s waste and managing today’s emissions.
Hitchcock and Willard (2009, pp. 21–22) show us However, corporate and government initiatives that
what a sustainable pizza operation might entail: deal with the future tend to be lacking (Hart, 1999). An
example of this is Canada’s federal lighting efficiency
• Materials: All your produce, pizza boxes,
standard requiring Canadians to purchase energy-effi-
cleaning products, and so on, come from sus-
cient bulbs (replacing banned incandescent energy-
tainable/green/socially responsible sources. (You
wasteful ones). The standard came into effect in 2014
could buy organic tomatoes from farmers who
without an accompanying plan for the safe disposal
provide good working conditions and wages for
of these new, highly toxic (mercury-containing) bulbs,
their migrant workers. Your pizza boxes could be
which should not be thrown into the trash (Govern-
made from 100 percent recycled paper or pulp
ment of Canada, 2014), even though half of Canadians
from certified forests. Cleaning products would
improperly dispose of the bulbs by doing so (Dewis,
be environmentally benign.)
2014). Because of these issues with florescent bulbs,
• Energy: All your energy for cooking, transporta-
more people are now switching to non-toxic, energy-
tion, and space heat came from renewable resources.
saving LED bulbs. These bulbs also provide a light
(You could buy “green power”’ from your utility and
quality more similar to incandescent bulbs.
your delivery vehicles could run on biodiesel.)
• Process: Your cooking and other processes are as
efficient as possible. (You could even use non-
A Global Call to Action:
disposable tableware and capture the waste heat Bringing Everyone on Board
from your ovens.)
At the United Nations Sustainable Development
• Product design: Your main product is biodegrad-
Summit held on September 25, 2015, more than
able, even edible, so it is quite benign. (Do the
150 world leaders agreed to adopt an agenda for sus-
ingredients come from local and sustainable or
tainable development to be achieved by 2030 (United
organic sources? You could vary the menu to take
Nations Development Programme, 2017b). The 193
advantage of seasonal availability. What about the
sovereign states that make up the United Nations (and
packaging? Could you invent a reusable pizza box?)
are equally represented in the United Nations General
• Waste: All your waste products can either be
Assembly, including Canada) agreed to adopt the 2030
reused, recycled, or composted. (You could
Agenda for Sustainable Development, including 17 inter-
choose biodegradable serving items, eliminating
connected goals that focus on collective efforts to pro-
plastic drink covers or polystyrene cups.)
tect the environment, end poverty, and ensure peace
• Industry influence: You apply your leadership
and prosperity for all of the Earth’s inhabitants. The
and buying power to drive the rest of the industry
17 Sustainable Development Goals include no poverty;
towards sustainability. (To have an adequate and
zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality edu-
affordable supply of organic produce, you might
cation; gender equality; clean water and sanitation;
help set up a cooperative.)
affordable and clean energy; decent work and eco-
• Community contribution: You have a program to
nomic growth; industry, innovation, and infrastructure;
help solve a pressing social problem that relates
reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communi-
in some way to your business. You might work
ties; responsible consumption and production; climate
on migrant labour issues and/or hunger, for
action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice,
example. If you serve beer, then drunk driving
and strong institutions; and partnerships for the goals
might [be] an issue to address.
(United Nations Development Programme, 2017a).
*Source: The Business Guide to Sustainability: Practical Strategies and Tools for
Refer to Figure 14.4 to learn more about the Sus-
Organizations, Hitchcock & Willard, Copyright (c) 2009 AXIS Performance Advi- tainable Development Goals and how they align with
sors, Inc., p. 21–22. Reproduced by permission of Taylor & Francis Books UK. some of the targets for 2030.

3 0 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

• Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions
according to national deﬁnitions
Goal 1: No • Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including ﬂoors, and achieve substantial
poverty coverage of the poor and vulnerable

• End hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants,
to safe, nutritious, and sufﬁcient food all year round
• End all forms of malnutrition, including achieving, by 2025, the internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in
Goal 2: Zero
children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women, and
hunger
older persons

• Reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births
• End preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all countries aiming to reduce neonatal
Goal 3: Good mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 per 1,000 live births
health and • End the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne
well-being diseases, and other communicable diseases

• Ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable, and quality primary and secondary education eading to relevant
and Goal-4 effective learning outcomes
Goal 4:
• Ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care, and preprimary education so that
Quality
they are ready for primary education
education

• End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
• Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafﬁcking and
Goal 5:
sexual and other types of exploitation
Gender
• Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early, and forced marriage and female genital mutilation
equality

• Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
Goal 6: Clean • Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and
water and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater, and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally
sanitation

• Ensure universal access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy services

Goal 7: • Increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix
Affordable • Double the global rate of improvement in energy efﬁciency
and clean
energy

• Sustain per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in particular, at least 7 percent
Goal 8: Decent gross domestic product growth per annum in the least developed countries
work and • Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversiﬁcation, technological upgrading, and innovation,
economic including through a focus on high-value-added and labour-intensive sectors
growth

• Develop quality, reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure, including regional and transborder infrastructure, to
Goal 9: support economic development and human well-being, with a focus on affordable and equitable access for all
Industry, • Promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and signiﬁcantly raise industry’s share of employment and gross
innovation, and domestic product, in line with national circumstances, and double its share in least developed countries
infrastructure

(Continues )

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 3 0 5

• Progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom 40 percent of the population at a rate higher than the
national average
Goal 10:
• Empower and promote the social, economic, and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity,
Reduced
origin, religion, or economic or other status
inequalities

• Ensure access for all to adequate, safe, and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums
Goal 11: • Provide access to safe, affordable, accessible, and sustainable transport systems for all, improving road safety, notably by
Sustainable expanding public transport, with special attention to the needs of those in vulnerable situations, women, children, persons
cities and with disabilities, and older persons
communities

• Implement the 10-year framework of programs on sustainable consumption and production, all countries taking action,
Goal 12:
with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries
Responsible
• Achieve the sustainable management and efﬁcient use of natural resources
consumption
and production

• Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
• Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies, and planning
Goal 13: • Improve education, awareness raising, and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation,
Climate action impact reduction, and early warning

• Prevent and signiﬁcantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine
debris and nutrient pollution
Goal 14: Life • Sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid signiﬁcant adverse impacts, including by
below water strengthening their resilience, and take action for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans

• Ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services,
in particular forests, wetlands, mountains, and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements
Goal 15: Life • Promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded
on land forests, and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally

Goal 16: Peace, • Signiﬁcantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
justice, and • End abuse, exploitation, trafﬁcking, and all forms of violence against and torture of children
strong
institutions

• Strengthen domestic resource mobilization, including through international support to developing countries, to improve
domestic capacity for tax and other revenue collection
Goal 17:
• Promote the development, transfer, dissemination, and diffusion of environmentally sound technologies to developing
Partnerships
countries on favourable terms, including on concessional and preferential terms, as mutually agreed
for the goals

Source: United Nations (UN), Sustainable Development Goals, 2017. Found at http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html

3 0 6 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Chapter Summary
LO1 Explain how social factors pose that humans are unique and hold a place above
other forms of life. In contrast, the new ecological
environmental challenges. paradigm helps us realize the interdependence
Human overpopulation, industrialization, urban between humans and the natural environment.
sprawl, and overconsumption all result in practices
(extraction of minerals, agricultural production, pol- LO4 Compare the assumptions under-
lution, etc.) that deplete and degrade the natural
environment (soil, air, water, wildlife, and fossil fuels).
lying functionalist and critical
approaches to the environment.
LO2 Provide an overview of the growing Functionalist approaches assume that pro-
awareness of environmental issues. environmental changes will result from similar views
regarding the need to make the world a better place,
Since the early 1960s, scientists, naturalists, and soci- whereas critical approaches maintain that divergent
ologists have helped us better understand the inter- societal and environmental interests in the capitalist
connectedness of human actions and environmental pursuit of profit will continue to pose ever-greater
concerns. The first wave of environmentalism high- environmental threats.
lighted the negative implications of industrialization
(e.g., forms of pollution and the use of pesticides),
whereas the second wave taught us more about
LO5 Demonstrate an understanding of
ozone depletion, acid rain, and climate change. With strategies for making better envi-
increased competition and the extraction of scarce ronmental choices.
resources, we can continue to expect environmental Strategies for making better environmental choices
degradation and the threat of even greater dangers at the level of individuals include practices that
associated with hazardous waste and accidents such reflect greener living (e.g., conservation of energy
as oil spills. and water), whereas strategies at a more macro level
include efforts to achieve sustainable development
LO3 Explain how the human exemption- and meet global challenges (to mitigate climate
alism and new ecological paradigms change, reduce waste, and preserve natural habitats
further our understanding of envi- and wildlife, etc.).
ronmental issues.
The human exemptionalism paradigm identifies the
anthropocentrism of early sociology with its view

NEL Chapter 14 “Going Green”: Environmental Sociology 3 0 7

For Further Reflection

1. Which is more important: protecting the 3. Is sustainable development achievable in postindus-
environment or feeding everyone who currently trial societies? Why or why not?
exists on the Earth? Defend your answer.
2. Are environmental problems mainly the end result
of population overgrowth or structural inequality?
Explain your answer.

ENDNOTE
1 Opening quotation retrieved March 27, 2017, from
www.brainyquote.com.

3 0 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Globalization:
The Interconnected World

“ ”
Toria/Shutterstock

The speed of light does not merely transform the world.

It becomes the world. Globalization is the speed of light.
(French writer Paul Virilio)1

NEL

LO1 Define “globalization” and

differentiate it from “globality.” LO1 DEFINING GLOBALIZATION
Globalization has been defined in various ways.
LO2 Describe historical precursors to
Formal definitions typically resemble the following:
globalization. it is “a set of [uneven] social processes that appear to
transform our present social condition of conventional
LO3 Explain how changes after the nationality into one of globality” (Steger, 2017, p. 12).
Second World War precipitated In contrast, globality is “a social condition characterized
modern globalization. by tight global economic, political, cultural and envi-
ronmental interconnections and flows that make most
LO4 Describe the technological, of the current borders and
economic, political, cultural, boundaries irrelevant”
(Steger, 2017, p. 10). That Globalization: A set of
and social characteristics of (uneven) social processes
is, globalization is a pro-
globalization. that appear to transform
cess, whereas globality is our present social condition
a condition. of conventional nationality
LO5 Outline the vision of globalization, A better under- into one of globality.
including its proposed world standing of what glo- globality: A social
benefits. balization entails comes condition characterized
by tight global economic,
from an exploration of political, cultural,
LO6 Describe the dark side of its origins, its essen- and environmental
globalization highlighted by tial characteristics, its interconnections and flows
that make most current
various social organizations. achievements, and its borders and boundaries
shortcomings. All of these irrelevant.
issues will be addressed
LO7 Describe global justice movements,
including their affiliated activities.

LO8 Explain how different theories

contribute to our understanding of
global inequality.

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 1 1

Figure 15.1
Early Trade Routes

Wine
Woven Goods Horses
Metalwork Lapdogs Almonds
Constantinople Lapus lazuli
Samarkand Dunhuang Silk
Lop Nor
Kashgar Textiles
Camels
Antioch Merv
Wool rugs Jade Xian
Rayy Crystal Silk
Textiles
Metalwork Taxila Hemp
Dates
Tea Lhasa Cotton
Textiles Gold
Glassware Brassware Mint Silver Hangzhou
Woven Goods Patalene Wool
Metalwork Saffron Mathura
Salt
Ceramics Jasmine
Sandalwood Pataliputra Amber Guangzhou Ceramics
Oil Peacock feathers Tea
Chillies Sugar

Source: Courtesy of the Penn Museum.

3 1 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Figure 15.2
The International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization

In the 21st century, the most significant transnational eco- with the United States having the most influence. The
nomic institutions are the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank has two components. The International Bank
World Bank, and the World Trade Organization. for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) offers loans
of 15 to 20 years to creditworthy developing nations.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) Its second component, the International Development
The IMF provides short-term lending to governments and Association (IDA), provides interest-free loans of 35 to
collects data on the world economy. It has 186 member- 40 years to the poorest countries. In fiscal year 2016, the
states and a 24-member board of executive directors. IBRD granted $29.7 billion and the IDA $16.1 billion in
Voting power is based on the size of each member-state’s loans for 275 projects or operations in various countries in
economy. The United States, with the world’s largest Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean, and the
economy, has the most voting power on the board—in Middle East (World Bank, 2016).
fact, it has veto power. The IMF provides three categories
of loans. Standby loans are for short-term financial crises, World Trade Organization (WTO)
extended loans are for longer-term financial problems, and The World Trade Organization, which has 164 member-
concessional loans are part of a poverty reduction strategy states, “ensure(s) that trade flows as smoothly, predict-
available to the poorest countries of the world. Being ably and freely as possible” (World Trade Organization,
granted a loan from the IMF is a necessary precursor to 2017). In part, its member-states agree to extend their best
being considered for a loan from the World Bank (Interna- tariff rates to other member states, to treat foreign goods
tional Monetary Fund, 2017). equally with domestic goods, and to engage in trade fairly.
Negotiations take place through rounds of talks involving
World Bank the member-states as a whole. In order to give smaller, less
The World Bank is an international bank that provides powerful nations equal participation, decisions are made
low-interest or interest-free loans, as well as technical assis- through consensus rather than a majority vote. Because of
tance for development projects (infrastructure, agriculture, the consensus model, negotiations often extend for years,
private enterprise development, and social programs) in as seen in the softwood lumber disputes between Canada
low- and middle-income countries. As with the IMF, voting and the United States that have been ongoing (off and on)
power is based on the size of a member-state’s economy, since 1982.

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 1 3

rise of increasingly important non-state, transnational

actors” (Hebron & Stack, 2016, p. 2). Globalization
has a range of technological, economic, political, and
cultural dimensions.

The destruction of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked both the

collapse of the Soviet Union and maturation of the concept Technological Dimension
of globalization. Technology facilitates all other dimensions of global-
ization. This includes traditional technologies, such as
container ships, and newer technologies, such as com-
will prevail. The “fittest” will rise to the top, and munications satellites and the Internet. The economic,
the weakest—those of least use to society—will sink political, and cultural dimensions of globalization are
to the bottom. People become poor and marginal- enabled by technology, such as by transporting goods
ized because they are weak (Steger, 2017). Taken to across the globe and communicating with people on
its extreme, in the words of Scrooge, “If they would the other side of the world in real time; those same
die … they had better do it and decrease the surplus dimensions influence technological development.
population.” Each of these dimensions has various positive and
Decolonization and the founding of transnational negative impacts, which will be addressed at a later
institutions marked the beginning of modern glo- point in this chapter.
balization. But globalization came fully into its own
with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, which
erased one the world’s last important b oundaries— Economic Dimension
the one between East and West, between capitalism Informed by neoliberalism, the economic dimension of
and communism. It suddenly became much easier to globalization is reflected in the transnational financial
imagine a world without borders, with free-flowing institutions already described and in expanded mar-
goods, information, and people, a world charac- kets, flexible production and assembly, and the con-
terized by globality (Eitzen & Zinn, 2012; Steger, centration of economic power (Eitzen & Zinn, 2012;
2017). Steger, 2017). In Canadian history, we saw the early
expansion of markets in the transition to industrial-
ization. At that time, Canadians who were involved in
TIME TO REVIEW farming and lumber were encouraged to expand their
economic activities. First, they started to produce more
• What is globalization, and how is it agricultural products and lumber than they needed
related to globality? for their own survival, in order to supply the growing
• What are the historical foundations of urban populations of Canada, the United States, and
globalization? Western Europe. In the 21st century, with globaliza-
tion, markets have continued to expand more than
• Why did globalization expand during and anyone would have ever imagined a century ago.
after World War II? As markets expand globally, so does production.
• What are the IMF, the World Bank, and Flexible production makes use of various nations’
the WTO? physical and human resources. Assembly lines for
• Why did the collapse of the Soviet Union products are no longer local but global, with manu-
cause globalization to enter its mature facturers creating products using the resources of a
form? variety of nations. Consider the global assembly line
involved in manufacturing the iPhone: “The blueprint,

3 1 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Figure 15.3
Apple’s Market Value Compared to Select Countries’ Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) (2015)

$800

$700 US Dollars (in billions)

$600

$500

$400

$300

$200

$100

$0
Apple Austria United South Malaysia Hong Columbia Pakistan Chile Finland
Arab Africa Kong
Emirates

Source: Adapted from Steger, M. B. (2017). Globalization: A very short introduction (4th ed.). (Figure E: Transnational corporations versus countries: A comparison,
p. 55.) Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 1 5

MONEY, POWER, AND WALL STREET

In a four-hour special investigation on the PBS news leaders often have to make difficult decisions—such
series Frontline, “Money, Power, and Wall Street” as offering banks financial bailouts in the aftermath
explores the uneasy relationship between the U.S. of the global economic crisis in 2008. But what are
government administration and the global banking the human consequences? For more information,
industry headquartered on Wall Street. Preventing including an interactive website, see http://www
and resolving financial crisis mean that government .pbs.org/frontline.

New York, Tokyo, London, and Toronto have a strong Cultural Dimension
influence on world affairs and house many of the head
offices of transnational corporations. Cities from around The cultural dimension of globalization involves areas
the world also join together in networks with similar as diverse as tourism, the media, communications,
interests and problems. For example, ICLEI (Local Gov- global consumption culture, transnational migration,
ernments for Sustainability; formerly the International and identities. People may migrate to other nations
Council for Local Environmental Initiatives) is a coalition either temporarily, as students or foreign workers,
of more than 1,500 local and regional governments with or permanently, as residents. As discussed in the
a shared interest in becoming “sustainable, low-carbon, chapter on race and ethnicity, when people immi-
resilient, ecomobile, biodiverse, resource-efficient and grate to another country, they adopt some aspects of
productive, healthy and happy, with a green economy that country’s culture while also contributing aspects
and smart infrastructure” (ICLEI, n.d.). It includes 31 of their cultures of origin. But cultural products and
local governments in Canada—not just cities that you ideas can be conveyed transnationally even without
might expect (e.g., Toronto, Vancouver) but also smaller physical migration, through the Internet, electronic
cities (e.g., Red Deer) and municipal districts (e.g., Town communications, and the marketing of consumer
of the Blue Mountains). The power of nation-states is products. Whether you live in Canada or in count-
also being transferred downward to global civil society less other countries in the world, on any given day
(Steger, 2017). Citizens who participate in groups such as you may be able to eat poutine, chicken vindaloo, or
Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch monitor sushi. You can purchase blue jeans, a sari, or even an
and report on the actions of governments, thereby serving Edmonton Oilers jersey. You can watch the news on
as indirect regulators of nation-states. CBC, CNN, BBC, or Al Jazeera. For entertainment,
you can watch a Beyoncé music video, a Bollywood
movie, or an episode of The Voice franchise (which
has national versions in more than 50 countries). For
a vacation, Vancouver’s great restaurants, the pyra-
mids of Egypt, or an ecotour in Costa Rica are all just
a plane ride away. After forming a friendship with
someone you met on a holiday, you can quickly and
easily keep in touch by sending an email, having a
video chat on FaceTime, or posting a message on your
Syda Productions/Shutterstock

friend’s Facebook page. And when an important event

happens in the world, you can learn about it almost
instantaneously through media and communications
technologies.
The technological, economic, political, and cultural
dimensions of globalization have irrevocably changed
When you travel to other countries, you take Canadian how the world’s people live their daily lives. Whether
culture with you and bring home bits of the cultures you those changes are for the better or the worse is a matter
have experienced in your travels. of discussion and debate (see Sociology in My Life).

3 1 6 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN MY LIFE

WHAT ROLE DO YOU PLAY IN GLOBALIZATION?

Consider how various dimensions of globalization have ownership structure of the companies, who is involved
permeated the products and activities that make up your in the production of those goods, and under what type
day. Think about the food you buy in the grocery store of conditions. In all likelihood, a consideration of your
(e.g., bananas) or the restaurants you frequent (e.g., daily life will reflect the global assembly line, expanding
McDonald’s, Indian, and/or Japanese). Where do you markets, the concentration of economic power in trans-
shop (e.g., Canadian Tire or Walmart)? Look at the tags national corporations, and the centrality of technology.
on your clothing or the boxes your television, laptop, and
mobile device came in to see where they were manufac- Think Outside the Box: Who do you think benefits
tured. Make note of the websites you visit or the movies, from the way that globalization permeates your life,
TV shows, and YouTube videos you watch. How do and how do they benefit? Who might be harmed? You
you learn about world events? You can even go online may find that your answers are reinforced as you prog-
and try to trace the goods you consume, such as the ress through the next part of the chapter.

Communication technologies, such as the Internet,

TIME TO REVIEW
increase people’s knowledge of the world and of their
• What is the role of technology in own society. People become aware of the different pos-
globalization? sible ways of living and being in the world and they
hold their politicians to greater accountability. Pro-
• What is the nature of expanding markets, ponents of globalization point to the central role that
the global assembly line, and the concen- communication technologies played during the Arab
tration of corporate power? Spring (beginning in 2011), Euromaidan (in 2014),
• How does globalization transfer power and the Dakota Access Pipeline protests (in 2016).
away from nation-states? Cellphones, Facebook, and the Internet were used to
• What are some examples of the cultural instantaneously coordinate protesters’ activities and
dimension of globalization? allowed them to send photos, videos, and information
to one another and to the rest of the world (Hebron &
Stack, 2016). Their photos, videos, and audio served
two functions. First, the rest of the world was made
aware of the activities of the protesters and the
THE VISION OF responses of the government in real time, as they were
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS happening. Various organizations and governments
were then able to respond. When protesters in Libya
REALITY: THE GOOD, THE sent out images of government forces shooting peaceful
protesters, the UN held an emergency meeting of its
BAD, AND THE UGLY members that led to an arms embargo, a travel ban for
the Libyan leader and his relatives, and the freezing of
LO5 The Good his family’s international bank accounts. The images
The vision of the neoliberal forces underlying global- and audio served a second function as well. As the
ization is that it will improve the lives of the world’s government of Tunisia fell, and then Egypt’s, and then
people (Hebron & Stack, 2016). Better living condi- those of other nations, these forms of communica-
tions will emerge through the globalization of production demonstrated to citizens in surrounding nations
tion; the global assembly line that brings employment that change is possible—that the demands of ordinary
to the developing world will help develop those people can change the country they live in. Finally,
nations’ economies. the greater level of knowledge that develops through

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 1 7

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may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
globalization increases understanding of other people, many people in the world, we are wealthy. In 2013,
cultures, and important social issues. With knowledge 767 million people in the world lived below the inter-
and understanding, conflicts between groups should national “extreme” poverty line of US$1.90 per day,
decline, and informed citizens are in a better position which means they can only purchase the same goods
to resolve social problems. (e.g., food, shelter, clothing) that someone living in the
Many people acknowledge that transnational United States would be able to buy with $1.90 (United
institutions such as the IMF have helped maintain Nations, 2017). Most of these are working poor—that
financial stability and supported development (Steger, is, they are employed, but their wages are less than that
2017). Legrain (2002) draws attention to the suc- amount. Every year, 7 million children die before their
cesses of globalization during the latter half of the first birthday because of a lack of healthcare, nutrition,
20th century. Between 1950 and 2000, per capita sanitation, and access to basic childhood vaccinations.
income quadrupled. In the 1970s and 1980s, those Almost 900 million people don’t have enough food to
developing nations that had opened themselves up eat, 780 million lack access to safe drinking water,
to international trade saw their economies expand and, lacking electricity, 2.6 billion are forced to burn
by 4.5 percent per year. In contrast, the economies wood, coal, or dung in their homes (leading to 1.5 mil-
of those developing countries that did not open up to lion deaths per year) (United Nations, 2013). Almost
trade grew by less than 1 percent per year. Finally, each three-quarters of the world’s population controls only
percentage point increase in a nation’s GDP is associ- 3 percent of global wealth, whereas the wealthiest
ated with a similar increase in the standard of living: 0.7 percent of the population controls 45 percent of
“The process of economic cooperation and integration global wealth (Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2015).
has helped a number of countries benefit from high
rates of economic growth and employment creation, to
absorb many of the rural poor into the modern urban Economic Consequences
economy, to advance their developmental goals, and EXPLOITATION AND WORKING CONDITIONS
to foster innovation in product development and the
circulation of ideas” (International Labour Organiza- IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD
tion, 2008, p. 5). Globalization’s economic dimensions have had nega-
But the experiences of globalization are diverse. tive consequences for many people in the world. Critics
Some people benefit, whereas others are harmed, and suggest that globalization is fundamentally based on
measures are necessary to ensure that the benefits of wealthy corporations and nations exploiting the people
globalization are shared by all. The most important of the developing world. Flexible production exports
question to ask is who benefits from globalization and jobs to countries where the wages are lower and where
who does not (Eitzen & Zinn, 2012). there are fewer regulations governing working condi-
tions. Corporations are able to pay employees low
wages and make them work long hours in poor condi-
LO6 The Bad and The Ugly tions; this enhances corporate profits and lowers prices
Globalization, as defined by rich people like for consumers living in the developed world.
us, is a very nice thing…. You are talking The exploitation of workers in developing nations
about the Internet, you are talking about cell- is illustrated by the state of child labour. The Interna-
phones, you are talking about computers. tional Labour Organization (2017a) reports that there
This doesn’t affect two-thirds of the world’s are an estimated 165 million child labourers in the
people…. If you’re totally illiterate and living world, with the vast majority in Asia and sub-Saharan
on one dollar a day, the benefits of globaliza- Africa. Of those 165 million children, 85 million are
tion never come to you. involved in hazardous work where their health, and
even their lives, are in danger. They are found in vir-
(Jimmy Carter, former American president tually every industry, ranging from agriculture (e.g.,
and recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize)2 harvesting cut flowers in Colombia and bananas in
Ecuador), to manufacturing (e.g., surgical instru-
ments in Pakistan and footwear in the Philippines),
Social Inequality to resource extraction (e.g., diamond mines in Côte
As Jimmy Carter points out, those who live in extreme d’Ivoire), to hotels, restaurants, and domestic ser-
poverty do not benefit from globalization in the same vices. An estimated 5 million are involved in forced or
way as those who live in wealth. We may not view bonded labour, such as slavery and the international
ourselves as “rich people like us,” but compared to sex trade. Trade policies, the race to the bottom, and

3 1 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

means that corporations’ threats to move their opera-

tions to other countries wield considerable influ-
ence. This creates job insecurity for workers who are
employed with a specific company or in a particular
industry, who must live in constant fear of losing their
jobs (see Sociology in Practice).
In the world market, corporations can shop for
the best deal. Different nations compete to become the
location for a company’s operations, undercutting one
another in terms of employee wages and benefits, tax
There are 165 million child labourers in the world, including breaks, and social and environmental regulations. After
this child, who works in a brick factory. NAFTA was implemented in 1994, companies began
exporting jobs from Canada and the United States to
Mexico, with weak labour laws and few environmental
structural adjustment programs are obstacles to efforts restrictions. Critics suggest that only the wealthy in
to end child labour. Mexico benefited. In the 10 years following NAFTA,
It is not just in the developing world that global- real manufacturing wages in Mexico declined because
ization is negatively affecting wages and working con- of corporate pressure to restrict increases in the min-
ditions. A race to the bottom results in lower wages, imum wage. Countries such as Canada and the United
declining working conditions, and job insecurity in States lost manufacturing jobs when cheaper produc-
the developing and developed worlds (Eitzen & Zinn, tion environments became available; since 2004, coun-
2012; Hebron & Stack, 2016). tries such as Mexico are experiencing the same thing.

your Sociological Toolkit

SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE

THE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR

ORGANIZATION’S (ILO) FLAGSHIP PROGRAMMES
The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a tripar- Floors (SPFs) for All works to extend basic social pro-
tite agency of the UN that gives equal voice to workers, tections in areas such as health, food, income secu-
employers, and governments in shaping policies and rity, and vocational training. IPEC+ is a program that
programs related to labour standards. The ILO’s “vision coordinates laws, national action plans, and policies
is based on the premise that lasting peace can only be to reduce forced labour and child labour. The Global
established if it is based on social justice” (http://www Action for Prevention Occupational Safety and Health
.ilo.org). Its objectives are to (1) promote rights at works with small and medium enterprises to help build
work, (2) enhance social protection, (3) encourage a culture of occupational safety. Finally, their Jobs for
decent employment opportunities, and (4) strengthen Peace and Resilience helps generate employment,
dialogue on work-related issues. especially for youth, who are living in conflict-ridden or
The ILO is built around five flagship programmes disaster-prone countries.
(International Labour Organization, 2017b). The Better
Work program focuses on improving the working Think Outside the Box: Which of these flagship
conditions in the global footwear and garment indus- programmes do you think might have the biggest
tries, which often have a high proportion of female impact on the largest number of people in the long
and child labourers. Their program Social Protection term?

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 1 9

organizations themselves.

INSTITUTIONAL CONCERNS
The IMF and the World Bank both have a mandate
to facilitate development and ease financial crisis.
Critics, though, argue that in practice, developing

3 2 0 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another criticism of the IMF and World Bank has cultural dimension of globalization has had even more
to do with the structural adjustment programs they of an impact than the economic dimension.
implemented in the 1980s. These programs were col-
lectively known as the Washington Consensus because
they were supported by the IMF, the World Bank, and Cultural Consequences
the U.S. Treasury Department, all of which are located The cultural dimensions of globalization are diverse,
in Washington, DC. Structural adjustment programs and so are the consequences. Small, local enterprises
were developed as a result of the worsening debt crisis that reflect aspects of culture—food, clothing, folk
of the 1980s. Loans would be granted to developing art—are unable to compete with multinational corpo-
nations only if they reduced government spending and rations and go out of business. Meanwhile, more and
liberalized their trade policies. Government expendi- more people buy blue jeans at Walmart and eat lunch
tures were to be controlled by reducing spending on at McDonald’s. The homogenization of culture is also
social programs. That is, in nations that often had lim- reflected in the loss of languages. In the 1500s, more
ited social programs in the first place, governments than 14,000 distinct languages were spoken in the
were supposed to spend even less on health, educa- world; in the late 20th century, fewer than 7,000. It is
tion, and housing (Hebron & Stack, 2016; Shah, 2013; estimated that by the end of the 21st century, between
Steger, 2017). It is the most vulnerable groups that 50 and 90 percent of the languages that currently exist
have been the most negatively affected by structural will be extinct (Steger, 2017). English has become
adjustment programs. “Feeding programs and medical more dominant in the world. It is the first language for
clinics closed, food subsidies and housing assistance 350 million people and a second language for another
ended, and the cost of living climbed precipitously. 400 million. More than 80 percent of content on the
Many developing nations perceived a new colonialism, Internet is English (Steger, 2017).
with poor nations suffering for the sake of profits Concerns about cultural homogenization abound.
and bank balance sheets in rich nations” (Lee, 2007, But some people argue that it isn’t just homogeniza-
para. 12). tion that is occurring; it is Americanization. The United
Developing nations that receive funding are not States exerts considerable control over the global
allowed to subsidize agriculture (either with the economy; it is also central to global culture. The
funding or with any other monies the government United States is home to most of the top 100 brand
may have). However, countries such as Canada and names in the world. And although Bollywood releases
the United States continue to offer extensive subsidies more movies each year, Hollywood movies are the only
to their farmers. Developed nations spend, in total, ones to have penetrated every market in the world. The
hundreds of billions of dollars each year in agricul- biggest-grossing films and the top-rated TV shows in
tural subsidies. Because of these subsidies, agricultural every country are American (Hebron & Stack, 2016).
commodities from these nations can be sold at lower Others contend that global culture does not nec-
prices. This drives down agricultural prices worldwide. essarily mean the destruction of local culture or cul-
The unsubsidized farmers in developing nations aren’t tural diversity (Hebron & Stack, 2016). They draw
able to compete, and as a result, the livelihoods of the attention to the blending of the global and the local—
two-thirds of the world’s people who depend on agri- glocalization. A popular restaurant cuisine is “fusion”
culture are threatened or destroyed (Hebron & Stack, cuisine, combining the tastes of two cultures—
2016; Steger, 2017). One consequence is that people Cuban–Chinese, Asian–Italian, and so on. When
are forced to migrate to urban areas to find work, often Walt Disney expanded outside the United States, the
in other countries. Women from developing nations company first went to France and established Euro-
leave their own children in the care of others while Disney. It was almost a
they migrate to Canada, the United States, France, and colossal failure, in part
the United Kingdom to work as nannies and house- because Disney did not Washington
Consensus: The
keepers for others. Also, corporations recruit women take the local culture structural adjustment
and men as temporary foreign workers in a variety of into consideration. For programs supported by
industries, from food services to the oil and construc- example, its alcohol-free the IMF, the World Bank,
and the U.S. Treasury
tion industries (Wang & Zong, 2014). policy was problematic Department.
For some people, globalization has had negative for people living in a cul-
ture where the moderate glocalization: The
economic consequences, which are transformed into blending of the global and
social consequences such as unemployment and sepa- consumption of wine the local.
rated families. But for people in many countries, the is integrated into daily

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 2 1

of SARS began. Hospitals were closed to visitors,

schools were closed, and thousands of people were
quarantined. Before the pandemic ended, more than
8,000 cases of SARS had been confirmed, with more
than 700 deaths worldwide (including 43 in Canada)
(World Health Organization, 2017). The responses of
McDonald’s is McDonald’s? At this McDonald’s in Japan, governments and health organizations were evaluated
menu items include Juicy Chicken Akatougarashi, Teriyaki after the pandemic, and policies and practices were
Mac Burger, and Shrimp Filet-O. reformed and changed. These changes facilitated a

3 2 2 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

SOCIOLOGY IN MY COMMUNITY

GLOBAL CITIZENSHP
Global Citizen is a grassroots “network of Global Argentinean President Mauricio Macri, and Norway’s
Citizens speaking out and taking action to solve the Prime Minister Erna Solberg joined musical artists from
world’s biggest challenges.” Although it partners around the world, including Demi Lovato, Pharrell
with several non-governmental organizations and Williams, Andreas Bourani, Shakira, and Sido. In Justin
corporate affiliates (e.g., UNICEF, MSNBC, Bill & Trudeau’s speech, he called upon the leaders of (and
Melinda Gates Foundation), it relies on the advocacy citizens in) other G20 countries to increase their efforts
of individual people around the world. Using social on environmental issues, and in Prime Minister Erna
media outreach, it calls upon members of the public Solberg’s speech, she announced an $85 million pro-
to email, post, and tweet world leaders about global gram for women’s rights and girls’ education. Since
policy issues. On their website, you can find informa- the organization went digital in 2012, almost one mil-
tion, stories of the organization’s successes, and cur- lion “actions” by members (i.e., emails, tweets, posts)
rent campaigns related to their core areas: girls and have helped achieve $700 million dollars in commit-
women; health; education; finance and innovation; ments from governments and private organizations to
food and hunger; water and sanitation; environment; help solve global problems. To obtain more informa-
and citizenship. tion or sign up to become a Global Citizen yourself,
On the eve of each G20 summit, Global Citizen you can go to their website (https://www.globalcitizen
hosts a festival attended by members, celebrities, .org) or find them on Facebook or Twitter.
leaders, activists, and musical artists and calls upon its
members to message world leaders, asking them to Think Outside the Box: What role do you think
attend as well. At the 2017 Global Citizen Festival (in recruiting celebrities and musical artists plays in global
Hamburg, Germany), Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, justice movements?

more effective response to the world’s next pandemic, on Seattle, and as skirmishes between activists and the
the H1N1 virus in 2009, and to the Ebola outbreak in police gained in magnitude, the event came to be known
2017. as the Battle of Seattle. Groups such as these were ini-
Globalization has benefited the world’s people tially labelled the “anti-globalization movement.” How-
in many ways. But its impacts are not uniform. Var- ever, they are not opposed to globalization in its entirety
ious aspects of globalization have had negative con- but only to certain aspects of it. Furthermore, they actu-
sequences for large numbers of people. In response, ally participate in globalization as well. They organize
global justice movements have emerged. transnational networks, and they use the communication
technologies of globalization to organize activities that
occur simultaneously in countries around the world. So,
LO7 GLOBAL JUSTICE they are now more accurately described as “global justice
movements” rather than “anti-globalization movements”
MOVEMENTS (see Sociology in My Community).
Global justice movements share a resistance to neolib- Global justice movements participate in various
eralism and its effects. Beyond that, however, they differ activities: they organize protests at meetings of the World
greatly. They include labour groups, leftist activists, agri- Bank, IMF, and WTO; they operate their own summits to
cultural workers, religious groups, feminist groups, envi- counter the meetings of transnational institutions; they
ronmental organizations, anarchist groups, and more. develop campaigns related to specific issues, such as the
Although global justice movements have existed for Alberta oil sands, debt relief for developing nations, and
several decades, they came to widespread public aware- working conditions; and they create infrastructures such
ness during the WTO summit in Seattle in 1999 (Steger, as the World Social Forum and the Independent Media
2017). Between 40,000 and 50,000 activists descended Center (Indymedia). The World Social Forum is an

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 2 3

3 2 4 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
modernization quickly emerged, pointing out that reforming the existing ones (Jacobs & Van Rossem,
underdevelopment is actually created by developed 2016; Ritzer & Stepnisky, 2017).
nations (Frank, 1966). This critique was embedded
in dependency theory and more recently in world
systems theory, both of which draw upon conflict Post-Colonial Theories
theory—especially Marxism. Post-colonial theories focus on the impact of coloni-
zation and decolonization on the economic, cultural,
political, and linguistic spheres. They suggest that cur-
Dependency Theory rent global social inequalities are not limited to this
Dependency theory posits that the nations that were historical period but rather are extensions of Western
first to industrialize exploited other countries for their thought that portray West and East (or global North
natural resources, such as oil, gold, and coffee. Rela- and global South) as opposites. These portrayals can be
tionships of exploitation turned these latter countries, found in art, literature, film, government publications,
however rich they were, into the mines or planta- and academic texts—with the West (or global North)
tions of the developed world. Whichever resource was depicted as advanced and the East (or global South) as
the most valued by colonizers and by the industrial- backwards (Routledge, 2011). Post-colonial theorists
ized world as a whole was increasingly emphasized argue that transnational corporations and the global
in the nation’s economic production. As a result of businesses that comprise the global assembly line are
domination and exploitation, these nations did not responsible for new forms of colonialism; by bringing
have the opportunity to develop their own indepen- business and employment to areas of the developing
dent economies (Frank, 1966; Furtado, 1984). After world, they have the power to shape local practices
decolonization, countries may have gained political (Munck, 2016; Parekh & Wilcox, 2014; Ritzer &
independence, but because of the pattern of economic Stepnisky, 2017).
exploitation, they have remained economically depen-
dent on the developed world (Eitzen & Zinn, 2012;
Kalaska & Wites, 2015). Feminist Theories
Feminist theories about globalization are diverse,
but with several commonalities (Parekh & Wilcox,
World Systems Theory 2014). First, feminist theories draw attention to the
World systems theory (Wallerstein, 2000) also gender inequalities associated with globalization (e.g.,
describes hierarchical relationships between nations. the gendered nature of work in electronics factories).
Core nations are those that first industrialized; in many Second, they emphasize the importance of resisting the
cases, they are also the countries that headed colo- subordination of women within the global economy.
nial empires. Core nations are wealthy and powerful Third, they argue for the value of feminist methodolo-
within the world system. Semi-peripheral nations are gies: (a) recognizing that the experiences of women
those that became economically dependent on the vary based on ethnicity, socioeconomic status, industry
core nations because of trade relationships. Next of employment, age, ability or disability, marital status,
are the peripheral Eastern European nations, whose parenthood, and more; (b) focusing on the local con-
economies are even less developed. Finally, there is ditions that affect the experiences of women in those
the external area, which historically has had limited locales; and (c) developing self-reflective critiques that
or non-existent economic relationships with the core will allow women to speak out.
nations; however, this has changed with globalization, A range of feminist theories have emerged from
and these are the countries that are most vulnerable to these commonalities. For example, post-colonial and
exploitation. For both dependency theory and world Third World feminisms claim that we can only under-
systems theory, globalization is a problem. But there stand local practices that affect women in the larger
are varying points of view on what the solution is. context of histories of colonialism. Ethics of care
Some adherents of these views suggest that countries feminism focuses on the “care work” that women do
within the semi-periphery, periphery, and external within the global economy (e.g., as nannies) and on
areas would benefit from separating from the global their daughters, who are left behind and must assume
economy and developing their own cooperative eco- household duties. Transnational feminism acknowl-
nomic relationships with one another. Other adherents edges the inequalities many women face that are asso-
of these views argue that the solution to exploitative ciated with globalization but also emphasizes a positive
relations and global inequality lies in creating new outcome of globalization—it has given women, world-
transnational financial and political institutions or wide, “feminist solidarity across national borders” and

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 2 5

your Sociological Toolkit

CRITICAL THINKING IN ACTION

THE 2030 AGENDA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In 2000, the member-states of the UN adopted a set and well-being; quality education; gender equality;
of millennium development goals (MDGs) to reduce clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean
global inequalities and enhance development by 2015. energy; decent work and economic growth; industry,
Some of the targets were reached ahead of schedule; innovation, and infrastructure; reduced inequalities;
for example, the number of people living in extreme sustainable cities and countries; responsible consump-
poverty was halved by 2010. Significant progress was tion and production; climate action; life below water;
made on other goals (e.g., by 2011, child mortality life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions;
for those under the age of 5 was reduced by 17,000 and partnerships for the goals. You can learn more
children per day). Little progress was made on other about the SDGs and associated targets and find
targets (e.g., G20 nations reducing their national trade updates on progress toward those targets at https://
restrictions). In 2012, the UN appointed a 27-member sustainabledevelopment.un.org.
panel to develop recommendations for post-2015, to
build on the successes of the MDGs and also ame- Think Outside the Box: What kind of world do you
liorate the barriers to continued progress (e.g., social want, and how do we create it? Given what you have
inequality within developing nations). After consulting learned about social inequality throughout this book,
with 5,000 civil society organizations, 50 CEOs of which of these universal goals do you think should
major corporations, and thousands of ordinary global be prioritized, and why? What are some of the bar-
citizens (see http://www.theworldwewant.org), the riers that might be faced? What changes are needed
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was economically, politically, and culturally? What are some
ratified in 2015. It lists 17 “sustainable development of the steps that can be taken to achieve those goals?
goals” (SDGs) and 165 specific targets associated with What specific steps can you take to contribute to prog-
those goals: no poverty; zero hunger; good health ress on these goals?

3 2 6 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

LO3 Explain how changes after the LO7 Describe global justice movements,
Second World War precipitated including their affiliated activities.
modern globalization. Global justice movements have a unifying interest
in resisting neoliberalism and its effects. They are
Several changes following the Second World War
opposed to certain aspects of globalization, yet
heralded modern globalization: the dissolution of
they also participate in it. They organize protests
colonial empires; the formation of transnational
at meetings of transnational financial institutions;
political and financial institutions such as the UN,
host counter-summits; develop campaigns around
the IMF, the World Bank, and the WTO; and the col-
specific issues, such as child labour; and develop
lapse of the Soviet Union.
infrastructures such as the World Social Forum and
LO4 Describe the technological, eco- Indymedia.

nomic, political, cultural, and social LO8 Explain how different theories con-
characteristics of globalization. tribute to our understanding of
Technology facilitates all other dimensions of global- global inequality.
ization. Information storage and retrieval, transpor-
tation, communication, and production have been Modernization theory attributes underdevelopment
transformed. The economic dimension includes to characteristics of the underdeveloped nations
expanding markets, flexible production, the global themselves. Dependency theory suggests that the
assembly line, and corporate restructuring that has countries first to industrialize exploited the resources
resulted in a concentration of economic power. of other nations, turning them into their own per-
The political dimension of globalization involves the sonal mines or plantations. World systems theory
declining power of nation-states, shifting their power describes a hierarchical relationship between core,
“upward” to transnational bodies and “downward” semi-peripheral, peripheral, and external countries,
where the latter three are all economically depen-
to regional trade bodies, global cities, and civil society.
dent on the core. Post-colonial theories focus on the
LO5 Outline the vision of globaliza- effects of colonization and decolonization on people
and communities. Feminist theories draw attention
tion, including its proposed world to gender equalities in the global economy, work to
benefits. end the subordination of women in that economy,
Proponents of globalization suggest that its techno- and emphasize the importance of using feminist
logical, economic, political, and cultural dimensions methodologies.

NEL Chapter 15 Globalization: The Interconnected World 3 2 7

For Further Reflection

1. In your opinion, in what ways has Canadian culture 2. What image of global justice movements is portrayed
been “Americanized,” and in what ways is it charac- in the media? What impact might these portrayals
terized by glocalization? have on the efforts of global justice groups?

ENDNOTES
1 Retrieved June 14, 2017, from thinkexist.com.
2 Retrieved February 17, 2011, from brainyquote.com.

3 2 8 Part 4 Our Changing World NEL

A authoritarian personality A personality type that

values authority and obedience, is low in tolerance, and is
abolitionism A movement calling for the dismantling of high in steretypical thinking. p. 172
the criminal justice system. p. 231
auxiliary traits Characteristics presumed to accompany
achieved status A social position obtained through a specific master status. p. 68
personal actions. p. 81

acid rain The dilute sulphuric and nitric acids created

when fossil fuels are burned. p. 297 B
acting crowd A group of people gathered at the same baby boom The period from 1946 to 1965 during which
place at the same time who engage in overt collective several demographic forces coalesced, resulting in a larger
behaviour in pursuit of a common goal. p. 269 number of births than would normally be the case. p. 185

agency People’s capacity to make choices, which then behaviourism A school of thought that denies free will,
have an impact on other people and on the society in emphasizes observable phenomena, and claims that all
which they live. p. 4 behaviour is learned from the environment. p. 69

agents of socialization The groups, social institutions, belief Something one accepts as true, regardless of
and/or social settings that have the greatest amount of whether it is true or not. p. 199
influence on the developing self. p. 75
belief system A set of interconnected beliefs that are
alienation The detachment that exists between the shared among groups of people. p. 199
worker and his or her labour as perpetuated under
bicultural Participating in two distinct cultures
capitalism. p. 105
simultaneously. p. 163
alternative social movements Social movements that
bilineal Lineage is traced through both parents’ sides of
seek limited societal change for a specific group or narrow
the family. p. 189
segment of society. p. 278
bio-ecological theory of human development A
androcentric Male-centred, failing to account for
theory that views human development as a dynamic
women’s experiences. p. 14
process of reciprocal interaction in which individuals play
androcentric bias A tendency to favour males. p. 209 an important role in shaping the environment in which
they develop. p. 69
anomie A feeling of normlessness. p. 10
biological determinism The belief that human
anthropocentrism A worldview that considers humans
behaviour is controlled by genetics. p. 68
to be the most important form of life. p. 299
bisexuality Sexual attraction to both males and
anticipatory socialization The process by which
females. p. 140
individuals learn about the roles associated with a
particular status before taking on that status. p. 80 bitcoins A form of digital currency mined on the Internet
and later exchanged for goods and services. p. 114
anti-miscegenation laws Laws that prohibit interracial
marriages. p. 169 bonding capital Resources in the form of community
ties and identity. p. 202
ascribed status A social position conferred at birth. p. 81
bourgeoisie In Marxist conflict theory, the owners of the
augmented reality (AR) An enhanced version of
means of production. p. 11
reality created by the use of technology to overlay digital
information on an image of something being viewed bridging capital Resources accumulated within groups
through a device (such as a smartphone camera). p. 116 that can be used outside those groups. p. 202

330 NEL

NEL Glossary 3 3 1

disposable societies Societies characterized by an

D excess of manufactured products that are used for only a
data analysis Compilation of observations into a format short period of time and then disposed of. p. 294
that helps us learn more about the research problem. p. 28
dominant groups Groups that have institutionalized
debriefing The later disclosure of all relevant details in power and privilege in society. p. 165
cases where research participants cannot be told all of the
dualism A contrast between two opposing
information ahead of time. p. 31
categories. p. 135
decolonization The process whereby colonial empires
dysfunctional One of society’s structures no longer
are dismantled and former colonies are granted political
fulfills its function effectively. p. 10
and economic independence. p. 310

deductive reasoning A theory-driven approach that

typically concludes with generalizations based on research
E
findings. p. 24 ecological footprint An estimate for gauging the total
area of land and water ecosystems a human population
demographic transition theory As a result of
needs in order to produce the resources it consumes and
modernization, societies eventually progress from being
to assimilate its wastes. p. 288
characterized by high fertility and mortality rates to being
characterized by low fertility and mortality rates. p. 290 ecological overshoot Growth beyond the Earth’s
carrying capacity. p. 288
demography The study of human populations. p. 287
economic immigrants Immigrants selected on the
dependent variable The outcome or variable that is
basis of some combination of educational attainment,
measured in an experiment. p. 34
occupational skills, entrepreneurship, business investment,
descriptive research Describes features and and ability to contribute to the Canadian economy. p. 161
characteristics of a group, event, activity, or situation. p. 26
education A formal institution that systematically instills
deviant A person, behaviour, or characteristic perceived much of the knowledge that is needed to function as
as unacceptable. p. 221 productive adults in society. p. 211

3 3 2 Glossary NEL

ethnic pattern Identifying primarily with one’s heritage folkways Informal norms based on accepted
culture. p. 175 traditions. p. 52

ethnicity Cultural characteristics such as language,

religion, taste in food, shared descent, cultural traditions, G
and shared geographic locations. p. 157
gender The behavioural, cultural, or psychological traits
ethnocentrism The tendency to believe that one’s cultural associated with a particular sex, within a certain culture, at
beliefs and practices are superior and should be used as the a given point in history. p. 136
standard to which other cultures are compared. p. 58
gender non-conforming Individuals whose gender
ethnocide The eradication of a culture. p. 166 identity or expression falls outside elite, dualistic
ethnography Fieldwork designed to describe everyday discourses. May also be referred to as gender variant,
behaviour in natural settings. p. 39 gender creative, gender non-binary, or gender fluid. p. 138

evaluation research Assesses the need for or general in the particular The broader social patterns
effectiveness of a social program. p. 26 that are reflected in the actions of individuals. p. 4

experiment A deductive research method for testing generalized other An overall sense of people’s
a hypothesis through the use of a carefully controlled expectations. p. 12
environment and random assignment to conditions. p. 34 glass ceiling Intangible barriers that prevent women
explanatory research Clarifies aspects of a particular from attaining positions of authority or leadership. p. 147
social phenomenon. p. 26 glass escalator Intangible factors that enable men to
exploratory research Explores an area of interest that attain positions of authority or leadership. p. 147
very little is known about. p. 25 global warming An increase in the temperature of the
expressive crowd A gathering of people who share a Earth’s atmosphere. p. 297
common interest and are gathered at the same event at the
globality A social condition characterized by tight
same time with an explicit participatory purpose. p. 269
global economic, political, cultural, and environmental
extended A family structure that includes parents, their interconnections and flows that make most current
children, and additional relatives. p. 188 borders and boundaries irrelevant. p. 309

NEL Glossary 3 3 3

glocalization The blending of the global and the Human Exemptionalism Paradigm (HEP) The view
local. p. 319 of humans as unique from other organisms in the natural
world because of their capacity to reason and develop
gossip Unsubstantiated or substantiated stories about
culture. p. 299
specific individuals. p. 273
hypermasculinity Traditional masculinity in an extreme
greenwashing Misleading consumers regarding
and exaggerated form. p. 139
the environmental practices of a company or the
environmental benefits of a product or service. p. 294 hypothesis A testable research statement that includes
at least two variables. p. 28
gross domestic product (GDP) An overall indicator
of a country’s economic productivity based on goods
and services as measured by household consumption,
government spending, and investments. p. 103 I
grounded theory A systematic strategy for moving ideal culture Cultural values a majority of people
from specific observations to general conclusions about identify with in a given society. p. 57
discourses, actions, interactions, and practices. p. 32 ideal type An analytical construct that clearly depicts
groupthink A process in which members of a group all of the main features of some social phenomenon
favour consensus over rational decision making, producing but is not an entity that can be found in reality.
poor and even disastrous outcomes. p. 83 p. 84

ideology A set of ideas that support the needs and views

of a particular group. p. 61
H
independent variable The presumed cause or variable
hate crimes Criminal offences motivated by hate toward
that is manipulated in an experiment. p. 34
an identifiable group. p. 171
indictable conviction offences More serious criminal
health A state of complete physical, mental, and social
offences than summary offences with penalties that vary
well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
but could result in life imprisonment. p. 225
infirmity. p. 241
inductive reasoning A data-driven approach
healthy immigrant effect Recent immigrants tend to have
that begins with observations and ends in theory
better health than people who are Canadian-born. p. 254
construction. p. 25
heteronormative The view that heterosexuality is the
infant mortality rate The incidence of deaths among
expected or preferred sexual orientation. p. 141
infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a
heterosexuality Sexual attraction to members of the given population. p. 290
“opposite sex.” p. 136
institutionalized goals The goals that we are supposed
hidden curriculum The process by which a subtle to aspire to in contemporary society. p. 233
agenda of norms, values, and expectations that fall
integration pattern Identifying with both one’s heritage
outside the formal curriculum is learned inadvertently
culture and one’s new, national culture. p. 163
through participation in the school system. p. 213
intergenerational mobility Changes in the social class
high culture Activities shared by the social elite. p. 60
of children relative to their parents. p. 92
historical analysis The examination and interpretation
interpersonal trust A perception that another
of historical forms of data. p. 39
person can be relied upon and has your best interests at
homelessness A state in which a person is unable to heart. p. 76
secure a permanent residence. p. 106
interpretive An approach to theorizing that focuses on
homosexuality Sexual attraction to members of the the ways people come to understand themselves, others,
“same sex.” p. 136 and the world around them. p. 9

3 3 4 Glossary NEL

intersexed A person whose physical sex characteristics matriarchal Power is vested in the female head of
fall outside the boundaries of the male/female dualism. household and women in society more generally. p. 189
p. 136
matrilineal Lineage is traced through the mother’s side
interview A verbal question-and-answer technique of the family, especially its female members. p. 189
used for obtaining information on a topic of interest.
p. 36 matrix of domination Intersecting systems of
oppression in society, such as those based on sex, gender,
intragenerational mobility Changes in social class that race, or social class. p. 153
occur within a person’s lifetime. p. 92
media Communications that target large audiences in print
or in electronic format using audio and/or images. p. 79

L media literacy The ability to recognize, critically

assess, and make informed choices about the messages
language A shared system of communication that contained in mass media forms. p. 128
includes spoken, written, and signed forms of speech
as well as nonverbal gestures used to convey meaning. meritocracy A condition of advancement based on
p. 49 worth. p. 105

latent function An unintended function of one of micro level The level of individual experiences and
society’s structures. p. 10 choices. p. 4

legitimate means The socially accepted ways of migration The movement of people into or out of a
attaining wealth, power, and prestige. p. 233 country. p. 290

les femmes du pays The Indigenous “country wives” minority groups Definable groups that are socially
of European traders. p. 165 disadvantaged and face unequal treatment. p. 165

life chances The opportunities an individual has in monogamous A marriage that includes two spouses.
life based on various factors, including stratification, p. 188
inequality, race, ethnicity, and gender. p. 5
monopoly A company that has exclusive control over a
looking-glass self The sense of ourselves that we particular product or service. p. 119
develop based on our perceptions of how others view us.
moral entrepreneur A person who brings perceived
p. 73
morally damaging behaviour to the attention of others.
low-income cutoff An annual family income value in p. 274
dollars below which a family is worse off than average
due to the high proportion of income allocated to food, moral panic Irrational but widespread worry that certain
clothing, and shelter. p. 97 groups present an enormous threat to the social order of
society. p. 274

morbidity The prevalence and patterns of disease in a

M population. p. 242

macro level The level of broader social forces. p. 4 mores Institutionalized norms embedded in laws used to
help maintain social control. p. 53
manifest function An intended function of one of
society’s structures. p. 10 mortality The incidence and patterns of death in a
population. p. 242
masculinity The behavioural, cultural, or psychological
traits associated with being male, within a certain culture, mother tongue The first language learned at home in
at a given point in history. p. 136 childhood that is still understood by an individual. p. 50

master status The most influential status in an motives The reasons for engaging in either deviant or
individual’s status set. p. 81 conforming behaviour. p. 234

NEL Glossary 3 3 5

3 3 6 Glossary NEL

NEL Glossary 3 3 7

secular The state of not being governed by religion. p. 201 social institutions Relatively permanent societal
structures that govern the behaviour of groups and
segregation Minority groups are separated from the promote social order. p. 83
dominant group. p. 169
social loafing The tendency to put in minimal effort on
self-concept An individual’s sense of who he or she is simple group tasks when individual performance cannot
based on perceived similarities to and differences from be evaluated. p. 82
others. p. 68
social mobility Movement that occurs within and
self-esteem An evaluation of one’s own self-worth. p. 75 between social classes in a stratification system. p. 91
self-fulfilling prophecy An originally false belief that
social movement organization (SMO) A complex
becomes true simply because it is perceived as such. p. 217
or formal organization that identifies its goals with the
self-surveillance Monitoring our own behaviours in preferences of a social movement or a countermovement
order to prevent being considered deviant. p. 237 and attempts to implement those goals. p. 278

sex Biological characteristics that include sex social movements Organized efforts by a substantial
chromosomes, primary sex characteristics, and secondary number of people to change or to resist change in some
sex characteristics. p. 135 major aspect or aspects of society. p. 276

3 3 8 Glossary NEL

social safety net Services and programs designed to subculture A group that can be differentiated from
lessen financial burdens experienced by low-income mainstream culture by its divergent traits involving
groups. p. 104 language, norms, beliefs, and/or values. p. 58

social selection hypothesis The suggestion that subjective ethnicity How you personally identify your
people with mental disorders may drift into lower levels of ethnicity. Also known as ethnic identity. p. 158
socioeconomic status or be prevented from rising out of summary conviction offences Less serious criminal
lower levels of status. p. 252 offences that are punishable by a maximum of six months
social stratification Socially sanctioned patterns (or in prison and/or a fine of not more than $5,000. p. 225
classes) of social inequality that exist in society and that survey A method of gathering opinions using a
are based on distinguishable attributes such as race, age, questionnaire. p. 35
gender, income, or occupation. p. 89
sustainability Use of natural resources at a rate on par
social structure The framework of cultural elements with natural replenishment. p. 293
and social patterns in which social interactions take place.
sustainable development Development that meets the
p. 80
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
socialization The lifelong process through which people future generations to meet their own needs. p. 303
learn about themselves and their various roles in society
symbol An object, image, or event used to represent a
and in relation to one another. p. 68
particular concept. p. 59
sociobiology The belief that social behaviour evolved systematic observation A naturalistic but
from the need to reproduce and survive. p. 68 nonparticipatory method for collecting data on a social
socioeconomic status Social standing based on a group or process. p. 40
combined measure of education, income, and occupation.
p. 92 T
sociological imagination The ability to perceive the taboos Mores that are considered wrong in and of
interconnections between individual experiences and themselves. p. 53
larger sociocultural forces. p. 6
tariffs Fees imposed by a government on imported
sociology The systematic study of society using the goods. p. 311
sociological imagination. p. 6
techniques The skills needed to engage in either deviant
status A recognized social position that exists or conforming behaviour. p. 234
independently of any given individual who may occupy it.
techniques of neutralization Rationalizations
p. 80
that allow us to justify our behaviour to others and to
status set The sum total of all of the statuses held by a ourselves. p. 234
person at a given time. p. 81
theory A set of propositions intended to explain a fact or
status symbols Material indicators of wealth and a phenomenon. p. 9
prestige. p. 60 total fertility rate The number of live births a female can
stereotype An overgeneralization about a group, often be expected to have in her lifetime. p. 290
based on faulty assumptions. p. 123 total institution An isolated social system in which
stigmatization The process by which individuals are certain individuals are housed, looked after, and socialized
excluded because of particular behaviours/characteristics. apart from the wider society. p. 85
p. 236 transgender Individuals whose gender identity or
strange in the familiar Instead of assuming that expression corresponds to that of another sex. p. 138
people’s actions are determined solely by personal choice, treadmill of production A theoretical model that
looking for the ways that society shapes those choices. explains environmental issues as resulting from an
p. 4 incessant need to increase production and profit. p. 301

NEL Glossary 3 3 9

U visible minorities Persons, other than Aboriginal [i.e.,

Indigenous] persons, who are non-Caucasian in race or
urban legends Abstract unsubstantiated stories
non-white in colour. Also known as racialized groups.
containing an underlying message or moral that persists
p. 158
over time. p. 273

urban sprawl A process by which rapid urban growth

necessitates the conversion of natural land for human-
made uses. p. 292
W
Washington Consensus The structural adjustment
programs supported by the IMF, the World Bank, and the
V United States Treasury Department. p. 319
validity A measure is a good indicator of the intended
white-collar crime Criminal offences involving the
concept. p. 28
misappropriation of financial resources. p. 228
values Collectively shared criteria by which we determine
widespread panic A generalized belief regarding
whether something is right or wrong. p. 10
impending danger that can lead a large number of people
variable A categorical concept for properties of people or to flee an area or engage in other protective measures.
entities that can differ and change. p. 24 p. 273

3 4 0 Glossary NEL

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3 6 6 References NEL

Note: Entries and page numbers in bold type refer to key terms and the pages in the text on which they are defined. Page numbers followed by f refer to figures; page numbers
followed by i refer to illustrations or photographs; page numbers followed by t refer to tables.

Anomie, 10, 16, 233 Biological determinism, 68–69

A Anonymity, 31, 270 Biological influences on self, 68–69
ABC, 119
Anthropocentrism, 299 Bisexuality, 140
ABC Daytime Press, 120
Anticipatory socialization, 80 Bitcoins, 114–115, 114i
ABC Television Network, 119
Anti-miscegenation laws, 169 Blackish, 179
Abolitionism, 231
APA Task Force on Violent Media, 127, 128 Blackstock, Cindy, 190
Aboriginal peoples, 160. See also Indigenous peoples
Apple (company), 116 Bloomberg, 114
Aboriginal Peoples Television Network
iPod, 115 Blue collar jobs, 95
(APTN), 119
Applications (apps), 116–117 Blue Mountain Watershed Trust
Aboriginal Skills and Employment Training
Arab Winter, 279 Foundation, 300
Strategy, 26
Archival data. See Secondary analysis of Blumer, Herbert, 12, 16f, 73, 268, 270
Academic bloomers, 217
existing data Bonding capital, 202
Academic sociology, 17
Asch, Solomon, 83, 83f Bourdieu, Pierre, 214
Acadians, 169
Ascribed statuses, 81 Bourgeoisie, 11
Accenture, 113
Assassin’s Creed, 124 Bowie, David, 113
Digital Consumer Survey, 113f
Assimilation Boys Don’t Cry, 140
Accommodation, 54
and colonization, 165–168 Bramadat, P. A., 203
Achieved statuses, 81
and immigration, 165 Brandt, Anthony, 178
Acid rain, 297
race and ethnicity, 165–168 Bridging capital, 202
Ackerman, Nance, 103
Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner), 50 British Columbia, 104, 166
Acting crowds, 269
Atwood, Margaret, 112 Brittain, Melisa, 190
Action Group on Violence on Television
Audit trials, 33 Broadcasting Act of 1991, 120
(AGVOT), 127
Augmented reality (AR), 116 Bronfenbrenner, U., 70
Action research, 26–27. See also Participatory
Authoritarian personality, 172 Brunvand, Jan Harold, 273
action research (PAR)
Autonomy, 30 Bullying, 78–79, 79f
Addams, Jane, 13
Auxiliary traits, 68 Bureaucracy, 83–84
Adolescence, 76
Avatar, 112 Burger King, 85
Adornment, 164
Avinun, R., 207 Bushell, John, 112
Adorno, Theodor W., 61
Bush, George H. W., 134, 135
Advertising
codes of gender in, 152 B
media, 24 Baby boom, 185, 256 C
Affirmative postmodernism, 15 Bachelor, The, 119 Calculability, 84
After-tax LICO, 97–98 Baldwin, James, 90 Call of Duty, 124
After the Last River (documentary), 300 Bales, R.F., 11 Cameron, James, 112, 302
Agency, 5, 69–70, 122 Bandura, Albert, 69, 124–125 Canada
Agenda for Sustainable Development, 304, Banks, Curtis, 30 age pyramid of, 256, 256f
305–306t, 326 Bateman, Robert, 47 Bill 62, 56
Agenda setting, media, 120–121 “Because I am a Girl,” 142 broadcasting policy, 120
Agents of socialization, 75–80 Beccaria, Cesare, 230 children’s rights, 77
children, 77 Behaviour analysis. See Radical behaviourism child welfare, 77
family, 75–76 Behaviourism, 69 Citizens’ Forum on Canada’s Future, 54
media, 79 Belief, 199 crime rates, 226–227f
peer group, 77–79 Belief system, 199–200, 200f criminal justice system, 229–230
Age pyramid, Canada, 256, 256f Bell, Derrick, 174 culture, 46–64
Ahonen, Tomi T., 115–116 Benford, R. D., 282 diversity, 56
Alberta Historical Resources Foundation, 172 Bentham, Jeremy, 230 education, 211
Alcohol, 245f, 246–248 Berger, P., 3, 4, 6, 18, 203 health care system, 254–258
Alienation, 105 Berliner, Emile, 112 income, 94–95, 96f
Allport, G. W., 273 Berlin Wall, 314i language, 49–52
Alternative social movements, 278–279 Bernard, Jessie, 195 media, 110–131
Alvarez, Kyle Patrick, 30 Beyoncé, 273 mortality patterns, 243–245
Amazon, 114 Bibby, Reginald, 202 multiculturalism in, 168
Ambert, Anne-Marie, 194 Bicultural, 163, 163t poverty, 97–100, 99f, 100f
American Eagle, 60 Bieber, Justin, 47 religion, 201–202, 201f
American Horror Story: Freak Show, 140 Big Five Networks, 119 richest families by net worth, 98t
Americanization, 321 Big Three, 119 streaming, 214
American Revolution, 90 Bilineal, 189 symbols, abundance of, 59–60
America’s Got Talent, 122 Bill 62, 56 Canada Education Savings Program, 75
Amnesty International, 316 Bill C-16, 152 Canada Medical Act, 255
Androcentric, 14, 52 Bill C-545, 107 Canada Pension Plan, 26, 104
Androcentric bias, 209 Billions, 140 Canadian Association of Family Resource Programs
Annual per capita healthcare, 257f Bio-ecological theory of human development, 69 (FRP Canada), 75

NEL 3 6 7

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, 100 Codes of gender, 152 Cost of living, 95
Canadian Community Health Survey, 38 Coding, 28 Countdown to Liquor Day, 112i
Canadian Council for Refugees, 161 Cohabitational relationships, 183–184 Counterculture, 58–59
Canadian Human Rights Act, 152 Cohen, Bernard, 120 Cowell, Simon, 122
Canadian Indigenous Tar Sands Campaign, 302 Cohen, Leonard, 47, 113 Credentialism, 216–217
Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), 30 Cohen, Stanley, 274 Credibility, of research findings, 33
Canadianisms, 52 Cold War, 315 Crime, 223–232
Canadian Journal of Sociology, 29 Collective behaviour, 267–277 classifications and statistics, 225–229
Canadian Living, 112 crowds, 268–271 control measures, 229–232
Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 54–56, 168 defined, 267 defined, 223
Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), 172 dispersed forms of, 271–276 deviance, 223
Canadian Radiotelevision and Telecommunications historical events originating in, 268f rates, in Canada, 226f
Commission (CRTC), 117–118 social movements compared to, 277t scholarly study of, 223
Canadian Rockies, 59 theories of, 270–271 See also Deviance
Canadian Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey Collective conscience, 56, 204 Crime rate, 226, 226f
(CTADS), 244 Collective effervescence, 204 Crime severity index (CSI), 226, 227f
Capitalism, 62, 301 Collective excitement, 270 Criminal justice system, 229–231
laissez-faire, 105 Collective identity, 282 Criminologists, 223
social stratification as by-product of, 105–107 Colonization Criminology, 223
Capitalist class, 94, 106–107 assimilation and, 165–168 Critical approaches, 9
Capitalist society, 105 of Indigenous peoples, 253–254 deviance and social control, 236–238
Carbon footprint, 289 Comcast, 119, 120 education, 213–217
Carding, 172 Commodities, 185–186 environment, 301–302
Carr, Emily, 47 Common law, 224 Critical race theory (CRT), 174–175
Carter, Jimmy, 318 Common-law unions, 183–184 Critical thinking
Caste system, 91 Common sense, 23 beginner’s guide to, 17f
Castro, Fidel, 83 Communication characteristics, 15–17
Casual crowds, 268 nonverbal, 53–54 media literacy, 128–129
Categorization, as media strategy, 122 technologies, 317, 323 Critical Thinking Community, 18
Catholicism, 201, 205 Communism, 106 Critical Thinking in Action
Catton, William R., 299–300 Communism, norm of, 206 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 326
Cause marketing, 259 Comparison level, 192 blaming the poor for their plight, 93
CBS, 119 Comparison level for alternatives, 192 climate change, 298
Cellphones, 317 Compassion, 54 decolonization and indigenous research, 33
Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Comte, Auguste, 8, 13 deviance and social control on campus, 237
Development, 75 Concept, 24 diversity, 56
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 198 Concern for welfare, 31 ethnicity, framing, 173
CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Concerted cultivation, 214 health, 258
Changing families, 182–188 Confessions of a Womanizer, 140 Idle No More, 280, 282
Chatelaine, 112 Confidentiality, 31 paradigm shifts, 207
Chez Soi, 119 Conflict perspectives, 11–12, 16f, 56–59 parental leave benefits, 151
Children Conflict theories, 174 patriarchy and patrilineality, 189
abuse, 76 deviance and social control, 235–236 self-tracking and virtual self, 74
as agent of socialization, 77 education, 216–217 social movements, 280
exposure to violence, monitoring, 127 family, 194 Critical views of popular culture, 61–62
fewer, 185–186, 186f feminism, 151 Crowds, 268–271
neglect, 76 health and illness, 259–260 Crudup, Billy, 30
rights, 77 law, 224 Crying Game, The, 140
welfare, 77 media, 118–121 CTV, 119
Child-savers movement, 203 religion, 205 Cultivation theory, 126–127
Chinese Canadian National Council, 172 Conformity, 83, 83f, 233 Cult of domesticity, 138
Chiropractors, 275 Conglomerate, 119–120 Cultural capital, 214
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 296 Conrad, P., 259 Cultural feminism, 153
Chomsky, Noam, 120 Constitution Act, 161, 211 Cultural mosaic, 58
Christianity, 201 Consultation, 54 Cultural omnivores, 62
Ciaccia, John, 269 Consumerism, 123 Cultural relativism, 57–58
Cisgender, 137 Consumption, 293 Cultural universals, 47
Citizens’ Forum on Canada’s Future, 54 media, 111–112, 111i Culture
City, 119 Contagion theory, 270 Canadian, 46–64
Civil Rights Movement, 169, 174 Content analysis, 38–39 counterculture, 58–59
Claims, 277–278 Control, 85 defined, 47–48
Clark, B., 301 Control group, 34 functionalist and conflict perspectives, 56–59
Clarke, Annette, 103 Control of destiny, 251, 253 globalization, 317, 321–323
Classical school of criminology, 230 Conventional crowds, 268 ideal, 57
Classic strain theory, 233 Convention for the Protection of the Ozone, 297 language, 49–52
Class structure Convergence theory, 270–271 material, 48
income-based, 94–95, 96f Convergent design, 42 nonmaterial, 48
net worth and, 95–97, 97t, 98t Conversational analysis, 39 nonverbal communication, 53–54
poverty and, 97–100, 99f, 100f Cooley, Charles Horton, 73 norms, 52–54
Class system, 91–93 Coontz, S., 187 popular, 60–62
defined, 91 Cooper, Anna Julia, 13 real, 57
social mobility, 91–93 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 199, 207 shock, 48
Climate change, 297–298 Core nations, 325 subculture, 58
Clin d’oeil, 119 Corporate crime, 228 traditional beliefs vs. modern practices, 57–58
Closed systems of stratification, 89–91 Corporate elite, 106, 107 types of, 47–49
Coca-Cola Company, 52 Corrections and Conditional Release Act, 230 values, 54–56

3 6 8 Index NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Curriculum, hidden, 143 Dual/split labour market theory, 174 historical immigration patterns and policies,
Cybercrime, 228 Du Bois, W.E.B., 174 161–162
Dunlap, Riley, 299–300 objective, 158
Durkheim, Émile, 8, 10, 16, 16i, 56, 193–194, 200, subjective, 158
D 204, 212, 233–234 See also Race and ethnicity
Dalits. See Untouchables (Dalits) Dysfunctional, 10 Ethnic origin. See Objective ethnicity
Dancing with the Stars, 119 Ethnic pattern, 164
Danish Girl, The, 140 Ethnocentrism, 58
Darwin, Charles, 313 E Ethnocide, 166
Data analysis, 28 Earnings. See Income Ethnography, 39–40
Data Liberation Initiative (DLI), 38 Earth Day, 296 Euromaidan, 279i
David Suzuki Foundation, 307 Ecofeminism, 301 Evaluation research, 26
Davin Report, 166 Eco-labels, 294–295, 295t Evolution, 210
Davis, K., 105 Ecological footprint, 288 Experiments, 34
Death. See Mortality Ecological modernization, 301 field, 35
Debriefing, 31 Ecological overshoot, 288 strengths and limitations of, 35
Decolonization, 33, 312 Ecological wealth of nations, 289f Experts, 15
Deductive reasoning, 24–25, 24f Economic immigrants, 161, 164 Explanatory research, 26
Degenerative disease, 242 Economics, and globalization, 314–315 Explicit stereotypes, 144
Delayed onset of marriage, 183 Economy Exploratory research, 25–26
Deloitte, 275 ethnic identification, 164–165 Expressive crowds, 269
De Maio, F., 258 gendered experiences, 147 Extended families, 188
Demographers, 287 Edison, Thomas, 112 External area, 325
Demographic transition theory, 290, 291f Edmonton Institution, 85 Extra!, 121
Demography, 287 Education, 101, 211–218
Denial, 234 Canada, 211
Department of Indian Affairs, 166 defined, 211 F
Department of Justice, 229 gendered experiences, 142–145, 144f, 144i Facebook, 26, 111, 122, 277, 317
Department of the Environment, 296 manifest and latent functions, 212–213 Fads, 271
Dependency theory, 12, 325 religion and science, 210–211 Fairness, 54
Dependent variable, 34 social control, 212, 213 Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, Inc. (FAIR), 121
Depp, Johnny, 173 theories of, 212–218 Families, 178–197, 180i
Descriptive research, 26, 26 truth, 199 as agent of socialization, 75–76
Desensitization theory, 125–126, 126i Edwards, R., 218 bilineal, 189
Desmond, Viola, 169, 169i Efficiency, 84 changing, 182–188
Deterrence theory, 229–230 eHarmony, 24 declining, 186–188, 191
Deviance, 221, 222–223, 232–238. See also Crime Elephant Thoughts, 300 defined, 181–182
Dialogue, 54 Elite class, 106 difficulties faced by, 188–191
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 296 Elite discourses, 135–136 educational involvement, 214
Diefenbaker, John, 46 Emancipation, 9 ethnic identification, 162–164, 163f
Diet, 248–249, 251–252, 254 Emblems, 54 extended, 188
Differences in sexual development (DSD), Emergent norm theory, 271 gendered experiences, 147–150, 149t
136–137 Empirical, 9 indigenous, 188–190
Differential association theory, 234 Empowerment research, 26–27 intact, 181
Diffuse pattern, 164 Engels, Friedrich, 88, 194, 259 interdependence, 162–163
Dillon, Kate, 140 Enlightenment, 208 intergenerational relationships, 163–164
Dill-Shackleford, Karen, 121 Entman, R., 122 matriarchal, 189
Dion, Celine, 47 Environmental justice, 302 matrilineal, 189
Disasters, 275–276 Environmental refugee, 299 newcomer strengthening, 193
Discourses, 15, 39. See also Elite discourses Environmental sociology, 287–307 nuclear, 188
Discrimination, 170 awareness of issues, 296–299 patriarchal, 189
individual, 171 environmental strategies, 303–307 patrilineal, 189
institutional, 171–172 social factors, 287–295 pluralism perspective, 187
and prejudice, relationship between, 171t theories of, 299–302 stepfamilies, 182
systemic, 171–172 Environment Canada, 102, 297 structure, 162
Disease. See Health and illness Epidemics, 242 theories of, 191–196
Disinterestedness, norm of, 206 Epidemiological transition, 242, 242f violence, 190–191
Disney, 118 Epigenetics, 69 Families of choice, 182
Disney Channels Worldwide, 119 Equality, 10, 54, 152 Families of the heart, 182
Disney Fantasy, 120 Equity, 192 Family-class immigrants, 161
Disney Games, 120 Erikson, Erik, 209 Family life course development theory, 192–193
Disneyland Park, 120 Erikson, Kai, 276 “Family Tree for Humanity, A,” 159
Disney Mobile, 120 ESPN Inc., 119 Famine, 242
Disney Online, 120 Ethical conduct for research, 31 Fashion, 271–272
Disorders of sexual development. Ethics and morality Father Knows Best, 139
See Differences in sexual development (DSD) belief systems, 200 Fear of cancer recurrence (FCR), 25
Disposable societies, 293–294 gendered theories, 209 Femininity, 136
Dissemination of findings, 29 in research, importance of, 29–31 Feminism, 13
Diversity, 54, 56 Ethics of care, 325 cultural, 153
Division of labour, 84 Ethnic identification, consequences of deviance and social control, 237–238
Divorce, 184, 184f economic experiences, 164–165 environmental issues, 302
Dominant groups, 165 family experiences, 162–164, 163f first-wave of, 154
Don’t Legalize It, 112i Ethnicity, 157–158 globalization, 325–326
Downsizing, 95 contemporary patterns of, 160–162 health and illness, 260
Drake, 47 defined, 157 indigenous, 153–154
Dualism, 135, 140 framing, 173 Marxist, 153

NEL Index 3 6 9

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Feminism (continued) displays, 152 Greenwashing, 294–295
media, 123 dualism, 141–142 Grimm, N. B., 292
postcolonial, 153 economic experiences, 147 Gross domestic product (GDP), 103
religion, 205 educational experiences, 142–145, 144f, 144i Grossman, Dave, 125
science, 209 elite discourses, 136 Grounded theory, 32
second-wave of, 155 family experiences, 147–150, 149t Group influences, positive and negative, 82–83
Feminist perspectives, 13–14, 16f nonconforming, 138 Groupthink, 83
Feminist sociology nonconformity, 152
early years, 13 non elite discourses, 136–142
first wave of, 13 norms, 150 H
today, 13–14 occupational experiences, 145–147, 146f Hacksaw Ridge, 124
Feminist standpoint theory, 209 stereotyping, 24 Hall, Stuart, 122
Feminist theories, 152–154, 194–195 theories of, 151–154 Halo, 124
Feminization of poverty, 100 See also Women Hammond Museum of Radio, 113
Feral child, 70 Gendered language, 52 Haney, Craig, 30
Ferguson, I., 59 Gender-neutral pronoun, 52–53 Haraway, D., 209
Ferguson, W., 59 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Harding, S., 209
Festinger, L., 270 (GATT), 313 Hardships, 101–103
Fewer children, 185–186, 186f General in the particular, 4 Harper, S., 207
Fictive kin, 182 Generalization, as media strategy, 122 Harry Potter, 112
Field experiments, 35 Generalized other, 12, 71–72, 235 Hate crimes, 171
strengths and limitations of, 40–41 General Social Survey, 38, 191, 227 HBO, 119, 123
Financial wealth, 93–103, 94t General theory of crime, 235 Health, 101–103, 241
defined, 93 Generation One: Living in Two Worlds, 163 Health and illness, 241–262
global, 318 Generosity, 54 actual vs. fundamental causes, 245–254
income-based class structure, 94–95 Genetic influences on socialization, 69 alcohol use and misuse, 246–248, 247f
rich-poor gap, 318, 319i Geneva Convention, 161 chronic health conditions, 257
First-wave of feminism, 154 Geographical Names Board of Canada, 172 diet, 248–249
FishVille, 123 Gerbner, George, 126 ethnic inequality, 253–254
Fiske, John, 61, 62 Gestures, 53–54 globalization, 322–323
Fletcher, R., 7 Ghost in the Shell, 174 health care, 254–257
Fluid sexuality, 140 Gilbert, D., 94 immigration, 254
Focus groups, 37 Gilligan, Carol, 209 lifestyle factors, 245–250
Folkways, 52–53 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 13 mental illness, 236
Fonsi, Luis, 115i Glass ceiling, 147 patterns, 242–245
Food availability, 251–252 Glass escalator, 147 physical inactivity, 248–249
Food insecurity, 252, 254 Global cities, 315 social inequality, 251–254
Formal organization, 83 Global Information System on Alcohol and Health socioeconomic status, 251–252
Fort McMurray wildfire, 276i (GISAH), 246 sociology of, 241–242
Foster, J. B., 301 Globality, 311 theories of, 258–261
Fosters, The, 140 Globalization, 311–327 tobacco use, 245–247
Foucault, Michel, 15, 16f, 135, 208, 237, 260 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 304, Health Canada, 102
Four Feet Up, 103 305–306t Health care, 254–257
Fox, N. J., 260 characteristics, 314–317 Healthy immigrant effect, 254
Frame Analysis, 122 cultural dimension, 316, 321–323 Hedwig and the Angry Inch, 140
Framing, 282 defined, 311 Herman, E. S., 120
Frankfurt Institute for Social Research (Frankfurt economic dimension, 314–315, 318–321 Heteronormative, 141
School), 61 emergence of, 312–314 Heterosexuality, 136
Freedom, 55 foundations, 312 Hidden curriculum, 143, 213–214
French Revolution, 8, 14 global justice movements, 323–324 Hierarchy of authority, 84
Fresh Off the Boat, 179 health and illness, 322–323 Hier, S. P., 274
Fromm, Erich, 61 millennium development goals, 326 High class, 94
Functionalism, 10 negative aspects, 318–323 Higher order thinking, 16
deviance, 233–234 political dimension, 315–316 Hinduism, 201
education, 212–213, 216 positive aspects, 317–318 Hippies, 234i
environment, 301 second world war, after, 312–314 Hirschi, T. C., 235
health and illness, 258–259 technological dimension, 314 Historical analysis, 39
religion, 204 theories of, 324–326 Hitchcock, D., 304
Functionalist framework, 118 Global justice movements, 323–324 Hollywood Records, 120
Functionalist perspectives, 10–11, 16f, 56–59 Global Slavery Index 2016, 90–91 Home Fire (documentary), 232
Functionalist theories Global Television Network, 119 Homelessness, 101–103
family, 193–194 Global warming, 297–299 Homosexuality, 136
feminism, 151 Glocalization, 321 Horkheimer, Max, 61
Goffman, Erving, 85, 122, 152, 236, 282 Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act, 255
Golden Horseshoe, 292, 293f House of Cards, 114, 140
G Goldthorpe, J. H., 61 Housing, 253–254
Galileo Galilei, 199, 207, 208 Good, M., 202 How to Be a Canadian, 59
Gallup World Poll, 28 Good Wife’s Guide, The, 139f How to Get Away with Murder, 119, 140
Galvanic skin response (GSR), 170 Gordon, Jessica, 280 Hughes, Everett Cherrington, 81
Gans, Herbert J., 105 Gossip, 273 Human carrying capacity, 290
Gegeo, D. W., 33 Gould, K., 301 Human development, 69–70
Gender Grand Theft Auto, 124 Human Exemptionalism Paradigm (HEP), 299
codes, 152 Great Dying, 322 Human Genome Project, 207
consequences of, 141–150 Greenpeace, 296 Human overpopulation, 287–290
defined, 136 Green, R., 215 Human Rights Watch, 102, 316

3 7 0 Index NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Humans Interactionist framework Kohlberg, L., 209
ethical conduct for research involving, 30–31 deviance and social control, 235–236 Koneline (documentary), 300
as self-interpreting animals, 9 education, 217 Kuhn, Thomas, 206–207
Human trafficking, 90–91, 90f family, 195–197
Humphreys, Laud, 30–31 feminism, 152
Hund, S. A., 282 health and illness, 259 L
Hurston, Zora Neale, 22 media, 121–123 Labelling theory, 235
Hybrid offences, 225 race and discrimination, 173 LaForme, Harry, 280
Hypermasculinity, 139, 139 religion, 205 Laissez-faire capitalism, 105
Hypothesis, 28 Interagency Advisory Panel on Research Ethics, 31 Landfills, 294i
Sapir–Whorf, 50–52 Interdisciplinarity, 8 Language, 69
Intergenerational mobility, 92 Canada, 49–50
Intergenerational relationships, 163–164 culture, 49–52
I Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defined, 49
“I,” 71, 72f (IPCC), 298 gendered, 52
I Am Not Your Negro, 90 International Bank for Reconstruction and Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 50–52
ICLEI, 316 Development, 313f Lareau, A., 214
Ideal culture, 57 International Classification of Diseases (ICD), 244 Latent function, 10, 212–213
Ideal type, of bureaucracy, 84–85 International Court of Justice, 312 Law
Identification, as media strategy, 122 International Day for the Elimination of Racial nature of, 223
Identity Discrimination, 174 types, 224–225, 225f
collective, 282 International Development Association (IDA), Learning theories, 234
personal, 68 313f, 315 Le Bon, Gustave, 270
social, 68 Internationalization of norms, 57 Legitimate means, 233
Ideology, 61 International Labour Organization (ILO), 318, 319 Legrain, P., 318
Idle No More, 280, 282 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 313, 313f, Le Journal de Montréal, 118
IKEA, 85 320–321, 323 Le Journal de Québec, 118
Illness. See Health and illness Internet, 114–115, 317 Lemert, Edwin, 235
Illustrations of Political Economy, 13 Interpersonal trust, 76 Lenski, Gerhard, 107, 108
Immigration Interpretive approaches, 9 Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer
assimilation and, 165 Interpretive theories, 235–236 (LGBTQ), 278
health and illness, 254 Intersectionality, 153 Les femmes du pays, 165
patterns and policies, 161–162 Intersexed, 136 Lewis, Lana Dale, 275
Impersonality, 84 Intersex Society of North America, 137 Liberal feminist theories, 153
Implicit Association Test (IAT), 144 Interviews, 36–38 Library and Archives Canada, 112
Implicit stereotypes, 144 focus groups, use of, 37 LICO. See Low-income cutoff (LICO)
Incarcerating US, 230 standardized, 36–37 Life chances, 5
Income strengths and limitations of, 37–38 Life expectancy, 242, 243
high class, 94 unstandardized, 37 Lifestyle, causes of illness in, 245–250
low class, 95 Intragenerational mobility, 92 Lightfoot, Gordon, 272–273
middle classes, 94–95 iPhone, 314, 315f Linguistic determination, 51
regional income distribution, 95, 96f Irving, James K., 119 Linguistic relativism, 51
Independent Media Center, 323 ISIS/ISIL, 322 Linnaeus, Carolus, 158
Independent variable, 34 Islam, 201 Literacy, media, 128–129
Indexing (research), 28 “It Gets Better,” 141 Living green, 303
Indictable conviction offences, 225 iTunes, 62, 114 Lone parents, 184–185
Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 102 Lone Ranger, The, 173
Indigenous communities, 102 Looking-glass self, 72–75, 73f, 235
Indigenous families, 188–190 J Looking-glass self-orientation (LGSO), 73–74
Indigenous feminism, 153–154 Jackson, Philip W., 213 Love parents, 184–185, 185f
Indigenous peoples Jacobson, L., 217 Low class, 95
colonization of, 253–254 Janis, Irving, 83 Lower order thinking, 16
defined, 160 Jay Z, 273 Low-income cutoff (LICO), 97–99, 99f,
restorative justice, 232 Jeffersons, The, 140 100f, 108
social movements, 280 Jeffreys, Sheila, 152–153 Low-Income Measure (LIM), 98–99
Indigenous research, 33 Johansson, Scarlett, 174 Lululemon, 60
Indigenous sovereignty, 280 Justice
Individual discrimination, 171 environmental, 302
Inductive reasoning, 24f, 25 global, 323 M
Industrialization, 290–292 research ethics and, 31 Mackenzie River Basin area, 288, 288i
Inequality, social, 88–109 restorative, 232 Macro level, 4
Infant mortality rate, 290 social, 319 “Make it Safe: Canada’s Obligation to End the First
Infectious disease, 242–243 Nations Water Crisis,” 102
Innovation, 233 Making Women Count, 100
Innu, 253 K Malthus, Thomas Robert, 289
Inside Russia’s Creepy, Innovative Internet, 114 Katz, Jackson, 139 Manifest function, 10, 212–213
Instagram, 111 Khaldun, Ibn, 8 Manifesto of the Communist Party, 105
Institutional discrimination, 171–172 Killian, L. M., 271 Mantle, Kelly, 140
Institutionalization, 168 “Killing Screens: Media & the Culture of Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the
Institutionalized goals, 233 Violence,” 126 Mass Media, 120
Instructional assistants, 85 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 277 Maple Leaf, 47, 59
Instrumental tasks, 151 King, William Lyon Mackenzie, 255 Marconi, Guglielmo, 113
Intact families, 181 Kinky Boots, 140 Market Basket Measure (MBM), 98–99
Integration pattern, 164 Kinsey, Alfred, 140 Marriage rates, declining, 183, 183f
Intelligent design, 210 Knafo-Noam, A., 207 Martel, Yann, 112

NEL Index 3 7 1

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Martineau, Harriet, 13, 16f Minority groups, 165 Nielsen Company, The, 114
Marvel Comics, 120 Minority, visible, 158 Nonmaterial culture, 48
Marvel Studios, 119 Misconception (documentary), 300 Nonparticipation observation. See Systemic
Marxist feminism, 153 Mixed methods, 42 observation
Marx, Karl, 11, 16f, 88, 105, 106i, 205 Mixer on Xbox One, 115 Non-prejudiced discriminators, 171
views on capitalism, 105–106 Mobile devices. See Cellphones; Smartphones Nonprejudiced non-discriminators, 171
Masculinity, 136, 139 Mobility Nonverbal communication, 53–54
Mass culture vs. popular culture, 61 intergenerational, 92 Nonviolence, 55
Mass media. See Media intragenerational, 92 Normative, 4
Master status, 67, 81, 148 social, 91–93 Norm of communism, 206
Material culture, 48 Moderator, 37 Norm of disinterestedness, 206
Matriarchal, 189 Modern Family, 78, 179 Norm of organized skepticism, 206
Matrilineal, 189 Modernization theory, 324–325 Norm of universalism, 206
Matrix of domination, 153 Modern practices vs. traditional beliefs, 57–58 Norms, 4
Matza, D., 234 Mohawk peoples, 269 gender, 150
McAdam, Sylvia, 280 Molson Coors, 60 internationalization of, 57
McDonaldization of society, 85 Monogamous, 188 prescriptive, 53
McDonald’s, 60, 84–85, 322i Monopoly, 119 proscriptive, 53
McLean, Sheelah, 280 Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the as regulators of shared behaviours, 52–54
McLuhan, Marshall, 110, 117 Ozone Layer, 297 in relation to values, 55–56
“Me,” 71, 72f Moore, James, 105 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),
Mead, George Herbert, 12, 16f, 71 Moore, Thomas, 167i 315, 319
Mean world syndrome, 127 Moral boundary work, 260 Nova Scotia Magazine and Comprehensive Review of
Media, 79, 110–131 Moral entrepreneurs, 274 Literature, Politics, and News, The, 112
agenda setting, 120–121 Morality. See Ethics and morality Nuclear families, 188
as agent of socialization, 79 Moral panic, 274–275 Nuremberg Code, 29
apps, 116–117 Morbidity, 242 Nutrition. See Diet
conflict framework, 118–121 Mores, 53 Nutrition North Canada (NNC) Program, 252
consumerism, 123 Mortality, 242, 243–245, 290 NVivo, 28
consumption, 111–112, 111i Mosca, Gaetano, 106
dualisms in, deconstructing, 140 Mother tongue, 50
feminist framework, 123 Motion Picture Association of America, 112 O
functionalist framework, 118 Motives, 234 Objective ethnicity, 158
interactionist framework, 121–123 Muir, John, 287, 296 Observational research, 40
Internet, 114–115 Müller, W., 215 Occupation, gendered experiences, 145–147, 146f
moral panics, 274 Multiculturalism, in Canada, 168 Occupy Love (documentary), 300, 300
new media, 115–118 Multiple methods, 42 Office of the Correctional Investigator (OCI), 231
ownership, 118–120 Murdock, George, 47 Oil Sands, 302
and perceptions, 121–129 Music, violence in, 126 Oka Crisis, 269
postmodern framework, 128 MyFitnessPal, 74 Okimaw Ohci Healing Lodge, 232i
prevalence and forms of, 111–121 Old Age Security, 94
privacy and regulation, 117–118 Olive Garden, 85
smartphones, 115–116, 116i N Ombudsperson, 231
as social institution, 119 Narrative analysis, 39 Ontario Medical Act, 255
stereotype, 123–124, 124i National Amusements, 119 Open systems of stratification, 91–93
traditional forms of, 112–113, 113f National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation, 166 Operationalization, 27–28
violence, 124, 127–128 National Geographic, 112 Oral narratives, 39
YouTube, 115 National pattern, 164 Orange Is the New Black, 114, 140
Media advertising, 24 Natuashish, 253 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Media discourse analysis, 39 Natural growth, 214 Development (OECD), 104, 147, 214, 255, 256
Media literacy, 128–129 Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council Organized crime, 228, 322
defined, 128 of Canada (NSERC), 30 Organized skepticism, norm of, 206
demonstrating, 129 Natural selection, 313 Organized crime, 40
Median, 93 Navarro, B., 259 Outsourcing, 95
Medical Care Act, 255 NBC, 119 Overconsumption, 293
Medicalization, 260 Needs assessment, 26 Ozone hole, 297i
Men. See Masculinity Negative bonding capital, 203
Mengele, Josef, 29 Negative group influences, 82–83
Mental illness Nelson Education, 112 P
socioeconomic status, 252 Neoliberalism, 313, 314, 323 Paleo diet, 272i
stigma of, 236 Netflix, 111, 112i, 114 Pandemics, 243
Meritocracy, 105 Net neutrality, 117–118 Panic, 273–275
Merton, Robert, 206, 233, 234 Net worth Pansexuality, 140
Métis Nation, 166 and class structure, 95–97, 97t, 98t Paradigms, 207
Michels, Robert, 106 defined, 95 Paradigm shifts, 207
Micro level, 4 Neutralization theory, 234 Parasitic disease, 242
Middle class, 94–95 Newcomb, T., 270 Parental leave benefits, 151
Migration, 290 Newcomer families, strengthening, 193 Parent–child interaction, 76
Mikkelson, David, 274 New Ecological Paradigm (NEP), 300 Parent–child relationships, 192
Milgram, Stanley, 29–30 Newman, G., 220 Parenting, 214–215
Millennium development goals (MDGs), 326 New media, 115–118 Parenting After Separation (PAS), 195
Miller, Ezra, 30 News Corp, 119 Parents, 75
Millhaven, 85f New social movement theory, 282 Pareto, Vilfredo, 106
Milling, 270 Newsweek, 122 Park, Robert E., 267
Mills, C. Wright, 6, 106 Nicholas II, Tsar, 279 Parnaby, P. R., 234
Minnesota Twin Study, 69 Niczowski, Susan, 94 Parsons, Talcott, 11, 57, 151, 193, 212, 258

3 7 2 Index NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Participant observation, 40 Power elite, 106 Reasoning
Participatory action research (PAR), 27 Praxis, 12 deductive, 24–25, 24f
Part-time jobs, 95 Predatory lending, 101 inductive, 24f, 25
Passeron, J-C., 214 Predictability, 84 scientific, 24
Patriarchal, 189 Preindustrial societies, 291 Rebellion, 233
Patriarchy, 13 Prejudice, 170 Recession, 103
Patrilineal, 189 affective component of, 170 Recidivism, 74
Pay Per View, 119 behavioral component of, 170–172 Red Cross, 16
Peace, 55 cognitive component of, 170 Redemptive social movements, 279
Peacemaking criminology, 232 and discrimination, relationship between, 171t Red Lobster, 85
Pearson, Charles Henry, 186–187 Prejudiced discriminators, 171 Reformative social movements, 279
Peck, Raoul, 90 Preparatory stage, 71 Refugee Convention, 161
Peer groups, 77–79 Prescriptive norms, 53 Refugees, 161
Pee-Wee Herman (character), 67 Pretty Little Liars, 140 Regional income distribution, 95, 96f
Pellow, D. N., 301 Primary deviance, 235 Registered Education Saving Plan (RESP), 4
People, 112 Primary labour market, 174 Regulations. See Rules and regulations
Pepitone, A., 270 Primary socialization, 74–75 Rehabilitation, 230, 231
Peripheral nations, 325 Prince, 113 Relationships between groups, 165–169
Perry, B. L., 258 Prison studies, 69 Relativism
Personal choice, 4, 5f Privacy, 117–118 cultural, 57–58
Personal identity, 68 Private law, 224 linguistic, 51
Personality, authoritarian, 172 Private schools, 216 Reliability, 28
Personal–social identity continuum, 67 Private sociology, 17–18 Religion, 200–205
Peterson, Richard, 62 Profit, 192 Canada, 201–202, 201f
PetSmart, 85 Proletariat, 11 defined, 200
PFLAG Canada, 141 Propaganda model, 120 education and, 210–211
Physical inactivity, 248–251 Property crime, 226, 226 implications, 202–204
Physical traces, 38 Proscriptive norms, 53 patterns, 201
Pink Floyd, 214 Prostitution, 227–228, 228i science and, 210–211
(Dis)Placed: Indigenous Youth and the Child Welfare Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, The, 106 theories of, 204–205
System, 190 Protestantism, 201, 205 truth, 199
Plan International, 142 Pryma, J., 260 Religiosity, 201
Play stage, 71 PSPP, 28 Religious affiliation, 201, 201f
Pluralism, 168 Psychological adaptation, 165 Religious attendance, 201
Pokémon Go, 116 Public law, 224 Representative sample, 36
PokerStars, 94 Public schools, 216 Research
Policy sociology, 17 Public sociology, 17 action, 26–27
Politics, and globalization, 315–316 Punishment, 229–230 descriptive, 26
Polo, Marco, 312 empowerment, 26–27
Polygamous, 188 evaluation, 26
Popular culture, 60–61 Q explanatory, 26
critical views of, 61–62 Qualifications, 84 exploratory, 25–26
distinguished from mass culture, 61 Qualitative methods, 31–33, 32 indigenous, 33
Population Quality Daily Physical Education (QDPE) observational, 40
aging, 256–257 program, 249 See also Research methods
over-, 287–290 Quantitative methods, 31–33, 32 Research design, 28
Population checks, 289 Quebecor Media, 118 Research methods, 22–44
Population pyramid, 256 Questionnaire, 35 Residential schools, 166–168
Population transfer, 169 Resocialization, 85–86
Porter, John, 106 Resource mobilization theory, 281–282
Positive bonding capital, 203 R Resources, overconsumption of, 292–295
Positive group influences, 82–83 Race, 158 Respect for persons, 30–31
Positivism, 24 Race and ethnicity Respondents, 35
Positivist approaches, 9 assimilation, 165–168 Restorative justice, 232
Post-colonial feminism, 153, 325 concepts of, 157–158 Retreatism, 233
Post-colonial theories, 325 consequences of ethnic identification, 162–164 Retribution, 229
Postdisciplinarity, 8 contemporary patterns, 160–162 Reubens, Paul, 66
Postindustrial economy, 292 economic experiences, 164 Revenue Canada, 93
Postman, L., 273 family experiences, 162–164 Reverse culture shock, 48
Postmodern framework, 14–15, 16f framing, 173 Revolutionary social movements, 279
deviance and social control, 237 health and illness, 253–254 Ricks, D. A., 53
education, 217–218 pluralism, 168 Rigour, 33
feminism, 155 prejudice and discrimination, 170–172 Risk society, 6
health and illness, 260–261 Race to the bottom, 319–320 Ritualism, 233
media, 128 Racialization, 158 Ritzer, G., 84–85
religion, 205 Racialized group, 158 Role, 80
science, 208–209 Racism, 170 conflict, 81–82
skeptical vs. affirmative, 15 Radford, Tom, 302 strain, 82
Poverty Radical behaviourism, 69 Rosenthal, R., 217
Canada, 97–104 Ramage-Morin, P. L., 257 Rowling, J.K., 112
and class structure, 97–100 Rana Plaza, Bangladesh, 260i Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), 59, 59i,
feminization of, 100 Random assignment, 36, 36f 90, 147
global, 318 Ransomware, 228i Royal Commission on Health Services, 255
measurement, 97–99, 99f, 100f Reader’s Digest, 112 Roy, Rachel, 273
reduction, 104 Real culture, 57 Rules and regulations, 84, 117–118
Power, 9, 106 Realistic conflict theory, 173 Ruling class, 106

NEL Index 3 7 3

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Rumours, 272–273 Single parents. See Lone parents surplus value and, 107–108
Russian Revolution, 279 Sizing, 122 Weber’s views on, 106
Rusty blackbird, 296i Skeptical postmodernism, 15 Social structure
Skinner, B. F., 69 basic structure of, 80–83
Slavery, 90–91 defined, 80
S Smartphones, 115–116, 116i Societal influences on self, 69
Sacco, V. F., 234 Smelser, Neil, 280–281 Society
Sadker, David, 141, 143 Smith, Dorothy, 14 education, 211–218
Sadker, Myra, 141, 143 Smoking, 245 religion, 203–204
Same-sex couples, 185 Snopes.com, 274 SocINDEX, 27
Samsung, 116 Snowden, Edward, 123 Sociobiology, 68, 69
Sapir, Edward, 50–51 Social bonds, 235 Sociocultural adaptation, 165
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 50–52, 51 Social capital, 202 Socioeconomic status, 92
Saw, 126 Social causation hypothesis, 252 health and illness, 251–252
Scapegoat, 173 Social change, 278 mental health, 252
Scheinberg, Mark, 94 Social class, 24, 91, 213–217. See also Class system Sociological Abstracts, 27
Schitt’s Creek, 140 Social comparison, 78 Sociological reasoning, 24
Schnaiberg, A., 301 Social construction, of science, 206–208 Sociological research, 41t
Schneider, J., 259 Social contagion, 270 ethics, importance of, 29–31
Science, 206–211 Social control ethnography, 39–40
defined, 206 defined, 221 experiments, 34–35
education and, 210–211 education, 212, 213 field approaches, 40–41
religion and, 210–211 examples of, 222 goals of, 25–27
social construction of, 206–208 punishment, 229–230 importance of, 23–27
theories of, 208–210 theories of, 232–238 methods, applying, 22–44
truth, 199, 206–208 Social control theories, 234–235 multiple and mixed methods, 42
Scientific reasoning, 23 Social exchange theory, 192 process, steps for conducting, 27–29, 29f
Scientism, 206 Social facilitation, 82 secondary data analysis, 38–39
Scream, 126 Social facts, 56 surveys, 35–36
Secondary analysis of existing data, 38–39 Social forces, 4, 5f Sociological theorizing, 9
Secondary deviance, 235 Social Gospel, 203, 267 Sociological toolkit
Secondary labour market, 174 Social group, 82 critical thinking, 15–17, 17f
Second-wave of feminism, 155 Social identity, 68 empirical methods, 9
Secular, 201 Social imagination, 6, 9 theories, 9–15
Sega Corporation, 52 Social inequality, 88–109 using, 17–18
Segregation, 169 conflict theories, 11 Sociologists, 8
Self defined, 89 Sociology, 6
biological influences on, 68–69 global, 318 academic, 17
development of, 71–75, 72f, 73f health and illness, 251–254 compared with other sociology, 7–8
looking-glass, 72–75, 73f negative sequences of, 101–103 defined, 6–7
societal influences on, 69 Social institutions, 83–86 feminism and, 13
subjective and social nature of, 68 Socialization, 66–87 feminist, 13–14
virtual, 74 agents of, 75–80 policy, 17
Self-concept, 68 anticipatory, 80 private, 17–18
Self-control theory, 234–235 defined, 68 public, 17
Self-esteem, 75–76 genetic influences on, 69 as scientific method, 23–24
Self-fulfilling prophecy, 217 primary, 74–75 time to commit, 7
Self-identification, 67–68 resocialization, 85–86 Sociology in Music
Self-interpreting animals, humans as, 9 school, 211 education control, 214
Self-perception, 72–75 Social justice, 319 violence in music, 126
Self-surveillance, 237 Social learning theory, 124–125, 125i, 234 Sociology in My Community, 17
Self-tracking, 74 Social loafing, 82 “Because I am a Girl,” 142
Semiperipheral nations, 325 Social marketing, 259 Be The Change Film Series, 300
Sense8, 140 Social mobility, 91–93 Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, Inc., 121
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 322 Social movement organization (SMO), 278 gender-neutral pronoun, 53
Sex Social movements, 276–282 global citizenship, 323
defined, 135 claims and claims making, 277–278 International Day for the Elimination of Racial
elite discourses, 134–135 collective behaviour compared to, 277t Discrimination, 174
Sex Professionals of Canada, 228 defined, 276–277 mental illness, 236
Sexuality theories of, 280–282 newcomer families, strengthening, 193
bisexuality, 140 types, 278–279, 278f parents, 75
dualism, 135, 140 Social network, 82 people for education, 216
fluid, 140 Social psychological theories, 172–173 poverty reduction strategies, 104
heterosexuality, 136 Social reproduction, 213–217 pride parades, 272
homosexuality, 136 Social research, interviews, 36–38 religion, 202
pansexuality, 140 Social safety net, 104 Thumbs Up! Thumbs Down! Project, 246
Shanghai Disney Resort, 120 Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of tobacco use, 246
Shavit, Y., 215 Canada (SSHRC), 30 Sociology in My Life, 18
Sheridan, Tye, 30 Social selection hypothesis, 252 alcohol, 247–248
Shields, M., 257 Social stratification environmental footprint, 289
Siddharta, Guatama, 240 as by-product of capitalism, 105–107 environmental issues, 296–297
Sierra Club, 296 closed systems of, 89–91 ethnicity, 159
Significant others, 12, 235 defined, 89 families, 180, 183
Silence, 124 Marx’s views on, 105–106 fan behaviour, 269
Single-case design, 42 open systems of, 91–93 gender, 137, 141, 150

3 7 4 Index NEL

Copyright 2019 Nelson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content
may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Nelson Education reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
globalization, 317 Statistics Canada, 26, 93, 226 conflict perspectives, 11–12, 16f, 56–59
life chances, 5 language, 50 contagion theory, 270
low-income cutoff, 99 low-income cutoff, 97–99 convergence theory, 270–271
media literacy, demonstrating, 129 poverty reduction, 104 critical race, 174–175
popular culture, 62 secondary analysis of existing data, 38 dependency theory, 325
racism, 172 Status, 80–81 deviance and social control, 232–238
religion, 200 achieved, 81 education, 212–218
social control, 222 ascribed, 81 emergent norm theory, 271
status set, 81 master, 67, 81 environment, 299–302
Sociology in Practice, 17 set, 81 families, 191–196
Canadian broadcasting policy, 120 Status symbols, 60 family life course development, 192–193
Canadian Multiculturalism Act, 55 STEM programs, 143, 144 feminism, 13–14, 16f, 152–154, 194–195,
children’s exposure to violence, monitoring, 127 Stepfamilies, 181, 184 325–326
chiropractors, 275 Stereotypes functionalism, 10–11, 16f, 56–59, 151, 193–194
Conservation First Principle, 288 defined, 123 gender, 151–154
education, 211 explicit, 144 gendered language, 52
gender nonconformity, supporting, 152 gender, 24 globalization, 324–326
globalization, 319 gender/math, 143–144 health and illness, 258–261
human rights, 107 implicit, 144 interactionist, 152, 173, 195–196
indigenous science, 208 media, 123–124, 124i interpretive theories, 235–236
International Labour Organization, 319 Stigmatization, 236 learning theories, 234
Ombudsperson for Federal Inmates, 231 Storey, John, 61 modernization theory, 324–325
organized crime, 40 Strain theory, 233 new social movement theory, 282
Parenting After Separation, 195 Strange in the familiar, 4 post-colonial theories, 325
poverty reduction, national strategy for, 107 Stranger Things, 114 postmodernism, 14–15, 16f, 155
tobacco and the environment, 249–250 Stratification. See Social stratification religion, 204–205
World Wildlife Fund Canada, 288 Streaming (education), 214–215 resource mobilization theory, 281–282
Sociology in the News Stress, 251 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 50–52
feral child, 70 Structural functionalism. See Functionalism science, 208–210
Innu, 253 Subculture, 58 social control theories, 234–235
water insecurity and indigenous Subjective ethnicity, 158 social exchange, 192
communities, 102 Suggestibility, 270 social movements, 280–282
Sociology in Theory. See Theory Summary conviction offences, 225 social psychological, 172–173
Sociology in Words Summer Fresh Salads, 94 symbolic interactionist perspective, 12–13,
aboriginal and indigenous peoples, 160 Supermarkets, 251 14, 16f
inclusive curriculum, 215 Supreme Court of Canada, 228 value-added theory, 280–281
residential school students, 167 Surplus value, 107–108 world systems theory, 325
Sociology of science, 206 Survey research, 35–36 Thinktv, 113
Sociology Online strengths and limitations of, 35–36 Third World feminism, 325
“A Family Tree for Humanity,” 159 Sustainability, 293 Thompson, Niobe, 302
criminal justice system, 229 Sustainable development, 303–304 Thumbs Up! Thumbs Down! Project, 246
Dsmog Canada, 292 Sutherland, Edwin, 234 Tierney, J., 231
Making Women Count, 100 Suzuki, David, 307 Tilly, Charles, 277
urban legends, 274 SwearNet, 112i Time Warner, 119
Sociology on Screen Sykes, G., 234 Tim Hortons, 26, 53, 60, 85
Atanarjuat (The Fast Runner), 50 Symbaluk, D., 26, 32–34, 42 Tinder, 24
dualisms in the media, deconstructing, 140 Symbolic interactionist perspective, 12–13, 14, 16f Tipping Point (documentary), 302
Four Feet Up, 103 Symbols Titanic, 112, 113
Generation One: Living in Two Worlds, 163 Canadian, abundance of, 59–60 Tobacco use, 245–246
Home Fire, 232 defined, 59 Tolerance, 54
I Am Not Your Negro, 90 status, 60 Total fertility rate, 290
Incarcerating US, 230 Systematic procedures, 24 Total institution, 85
Inside Russia’s Creepy, 114 Systemic discrimination, 171–172 Toyota Motor Corporation, 307
modern family, 78 Systemic observation, 40 Tracking (education), 214
Money, Power, and Wall Street, 316 Trade routes, 312f, 322
perfect family dinner, 187 Tradtional beliefs versus modern practices, 57–58
(Dis)Placed: Indigenous Youth and the Child Welfare T Trailer Park Boys: The Big Dirty, 112i
System, 190 Taboos, 53 Transamerica, 140
Spillover, 243 TalkTalk TV, 114 Transcribed conversations, 39
Stanford Prison Experiment, The, 30 Tangerine, 140 Transcription, 28
State of Surveillance, 123 Tariffs, 313 Transgender, 138, 152
Tipping Point, 302 Teachers, feedback to student’s work, 143 Transgressions, 233, 235, 238i
Sony BMG, 119 Techniques, 234 Transparent, 140
Sony, PlayStation VR, 115 Techniques of neutralization, 234 Travelers, 114
SparkPeople Mobile, 74 Technologies, of belief systems, 200 Treadmill of production model, 301
Spence, Theresa, 282 Technology, and globalization, 314, 316, 321–322 Triangulation, 33
Spillover (documentary), 243 Teenage Ninja Mutant Turtles, 124 Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for
SportsNet, 122 Telegraph-Journal, 119 Research Involving Humans (TCPS), 30
SPSS, 28 Terrorism, 322 Trudeau, Justin, 7
Standardized interviews, 36–37 Text messaging, 25–26 Trump, Donald, 207, 208
Standpoint theory, 209 Thatcher, Margaret, 135 Trust, interpersonal, 76
Stanford Prison Experiment, The, 30 The Good Wife’s Guide, 139 Truth
Starbucks, 60 Theory, 9–15 education and, 199
State of Homelessness in Canada, The, 101–102 collective behaviour, 270–271 religion and, 199
State of Surveillance, 123 conflict, 151, 174 science and, 199, 206–208

NEL Index 3 7 5

3 7 6 Index NEL

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