Environmental River Engineering

By R. D. HEY, BSc, PhD, MASCE (Member)*

ABSTRACT stable solutions. Although the construction of pools,

riffles, and meanders will be a significant improvement on
In the past, river engineering works have often straight trapezoidal channels, it is necessary to determine
caused channel instability and adversely affected the the correct geometry for these features to ensure that they
river’s conservation and amenity value. Recent are compatible with the local flow and sediment transport
rcgime of the river. Failure to d o so could lead to rapid
guidelines have advocated a more natural approach erosion or deposition and the loss of engineering perform-
to river engineering practice which retains habitat ance and conservation resource.
diversity within the river system. While a more Understanding of natural channel processes and their
natural approach is desirable, geomorphological controls on channel and valley morphology is a prerequi-
guidance is required to ensure that the advocated site for thc design and implementation of stable natural
changes are feasible and sustainable, both in the type channels and for the restoration of natural features in
long and short term. The key requirement for sound canalized rivers. Such knowledge or foresight enables
environmental river engineering is a basic under- informed judgements to be made regarding the response of
a rivcr to any proposed modifications.
standing of the natural processes controlling channel
Fluvial geomorphologists, by virtue of their knowledge
shape and dimensions. Examples are given in the of river mechanics, morphology, erosional and sedimen-
paper to illustrate how such knowledge can be used tation processes, and landform evolution, have expertise
to (a) stabilize rivers, (b) design environmentally- which could make a major contribution to river engineer-
acceptable and stable flood-alleviation schemes, and ing. In the US they have been involved in river manage-
(c) restore previously canalized rivers. The basis of ment for many years’, but it is a recent phenomenon in the
the geomorphological input in the assessment and UK. However, Thames Water staff have successfully
design process is a river survey which determines the integrated a geomorphological input in their holistic
factors controlling channel characteristics and how it interdisciplinary approach to river management which is
will respond to planned changes. unique within the U K water ind~stry’.~~’.“’.
To illustrate the potential role of fuvial geo-
K e y words: River engineering; geomorphological surveys; morphologists in river engineering and catchment manage-
conservation; amenity. ment, it is pertinent to consider how, in association with
engineers and conservationists, thcy can help to (a)
prevent problems occurring, (b) identify the cause of the
INTRODUCTION problem, (c) consider possible solutions and associated
impacts, and (d) develop natural stable design procedures
Man has, for generations, attempted to regulate and which maintain and enhance conservation resources.
engineer rivers for a variety of purposes. Experience has Three types of engineering schemes are reviewed in this
shown that he has not always been successful in imposing context, namely channel stabilization, flood alleviation and
his will on nature. and there are many examples of land drainage, and river restoration.
instability problems resulting from man’s intervention in
river systems’,’. Most modifications to a river system,
either for capital flood alleviatiodland drainage schemes FLUVIAL CEOMORPHOLOGY AND RIVER
or for heavy maintenance purposes, will precipitate a ENGINEERING
response of that river to the imposed change(s). Alte-
rations to the flow regime or the dimensions of the channel RIVERSTABILIZATION
can cause erosion and/or sedimentation, not only within
the modified reach but upstream and downstream from it. Instability occurs when there is an imbalance
Virtually all river engineering works have caused such between the sediment supply and ability of the river
problems, the scale depending on the degree of imposed to transport it. The most unstable natural channels
change and the natural character of the river. are those found in the headwater reaches, with
The adoption of environmentally-sensitive designs for regime conditions prevailing lower downstream
flood alleviation and land-drainage schemes, as advocated (Fig. 1). Stable conditions can occur in the head-
in recent p u h l i ~ a t i o n s ~ . ~does
. ~ , not necessarily provide waters, but these are likely to be of a temporary
This paper was presented lor discussion at a meeting o f the
nature. In contrast, rivers developed in tectonically
Institution’s River Engineering Scction held in London on 20 stable areas which have been unaffected by glacial
January IY89. activity are more likely to exhibit regime-type
*Senior Lecturer. River Engineering and Environmcntal Dcsign
conditions over a considerable length of channel.
Group, School of Environmental Sciences. University of East River stabilization programmes can be divided
Anglia, Norwich. into schemes required to train rivers which are in, or
J . I W E M , 1990. 4, August. 335
HEY ON
b e eroded under flood conditions. l n plan they
llllllill ERODING PHASE
should be constructed either in arcuate form,
-
G DEPOSITING PHASE
~

directed upstream, or with two wings also pointing

-%- STABLE STATE
upstream. The weir should be asymmetrical across
the river with the longer wing on the same side as
the downstream eroding bend. A two-cell, surface-
convergent, secondary-flow system will be gener-
ated by the structure, with the larger cell being
located adjacent to the eroding bank. This will
counter the main secondary flow cell generated by
the bend.
Instability on the River Roding at Loughton
DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM
ITIME CONSTANT1
resulted from channel straightening in 1975, when
TIME
the river was diverted to the edge of the flood plain
(SPACE CONSTANTI to allow gravel extraction from the flood plain
Fig. 1. Spatial and temporal instability in river deposits. Weirs, in conjunction with vanes, are
systems (Ref. 11) being used to stabilize the meander bend upstream
from the straightened section and to prevent further
close to, regime, in order to protect property and headward erosion (Fig. 2). Results indicate that
bridges, and those needed to prevent and control shear stresses adjacent to the bank have been
major aggradation and degradation. reduced, promoting sedimentation, and the banks
have been stabilized.
Meander Training
If the river is in regime then average width, depth,
slope and meander geometry of the river are main- 25[ Contours are depths below fixed zero d a i u m
tained, even though it may migrate downstream 20
over its flood plain. Traditionally, these rivers have
been trained by bank revetments or roynes on the m '5
eroding outer bank of the m e a n d e j 2 , and by the 2
c

installation of dykes on the point bar surface on the 10

inner bank.
Bank revetments tend to treat the symptoms, by 5
increasing the erosional resistance of the banks, and
0
experience has shown that they are often out- - 25 - 15 -5 5 15 5
flanked. Equally, they can detract from the visual metres
attraction of the riverscape, even though some Fig. 2. Location of submerged vanes (hydrofoil
designs can have conservation value. shape) during survey of River Roding,
A n alternative solution would be to control Loughton, Essex (9/1/89) (Ref. 14)
secondary circulation in the bend, to reduce the
shear stress adjacent to the outer bank, by installing
submerged vanes on the bed of the river''.'4. This
obviates the need for any form of bank revetment. Channel Incision and Sedimentation
These vanes are located at the edge of the scour This occurs when destabilizing influences, either
pool. The number, position, and orientation of the natural or man-induced, are greater than those
vanes are critical, as they are required to produce discussed in the previous section, o r the bed
sufficient opposing lift to neutralize the cross flow material is finer, allowing a greater response of the
and, thereby, reduce the shear stress in the near system to minor change.
bank region. Meandering, induced by channel A geomorphological approach to stabilizing
straightening, cannot be controlled by vanes alone. incised channels has been developed by Schumm rl
Ileadcut erosion, due t o flow acceleration into the all5 in the US and successfully applied to several
straightened reach, causes bank failure and an rivers in the Mississippi basin, which have been
increase in sinuosity as the river attempts to reduce destabilized by channel straightening. Massive head-
its gradient. To stabilize the river in these circum- cut erosion resulted in major instability throughout
stances it would also be necessary to construct low- the rest of the drainage basin. The basis o f the
head weirs. These serve two purposes: (i) they approach lies in the model of channel evolution that
prevent further headward erosion and the trans- was developed from field observations and measure-
ference to instability problems upstream, and (ii) ments. Using a space for time substitution, they
they enable the original stable gradient of the river constructed a five-stage model which considers
to be maintained. They should be constructed at the channel response from initial incision t o final
riffles, possibly using large cobbles which would not attainment of quasi-equilibrium (Fig. 3).
336 J . I W E M , 1990. 4, August.
 ENVIRONMENTAL RIVER ENGINEERING

environmental acceptability of a range of flood

alleviation and land-drainage schemes. These
P m m 0 I embrace two-stage channels, bypass channels and
*Id -8 0 wid-€ 0 wid-5 0 w i d - 3 014 0 w i d - 4 017 0
diversions, dredging, widening, and straightening,
OVERSTEEPENED
REACH ~ as well as the construction of flood banks. Sites were
PRIMARY
KNICKPOINT chosen in different river environments in order to
1 r
establish the limitations on the application of
SECONDARY
KNICKPOINT PLUNGE particular types of scheme. Distinction needs to be
AGGRADATIO- made between rivers which transport bed material
ZONE
load, high-energy upland rivers which are prone to
lateral and vertical instability, and low-energy low-
Fig. 3. Longitudinal and cross-sectional land rivers which transport minimal bed material
profiles of unstable river reach load and which are relatively stable.
(5-stage evolution: channel width (w) to depth (d) Upland Rivers
ratios given: sizes of arrows indicate relative
importance and direction of dominant processes) In high-energy , generally upland, rivers the most
(Ref 15.) successful schemes are those based on the construc-
tion of flood banks set back several metres from the
At reaches which are in quasi-equilibrium, edge of the river. The natural characteristics of the
relations were obtained between channel top width, river are thereby maintained, and there is no
the five-year discharge, and the associated water disruption to the transport regime of the river.
surface slope. At unstable sections the equation was Allowing flood waters to flow through a restricted
used to calculate the allowable slope for existing top flood plain ensures that in-channel flow is unaffected
width and discharge, or the allowable discharge for by overbank flow as the two are, to a degree,
existing top width and slope. The number, size, and hydraulically independent of each other. Attempts
locations of grade-control or flow-control structures to locate the flood banks adjacent to the edge of the
can therefore be determined by calculating allow- rivers could materially affect channel stability, since
able slope or discharge criteria and by computing increased flow depth would generate larger shear
backwater profiles. Values for (a) soil loss from the stresses. Equally, construction of the flood banks
bed and banks of the channel, and (b) the degree of adjacent to the river will make them vulnerable to
top width expansion, can also be determined. erosion if the river is actively meandering. The
Comparison of the geomorphological approach River Lugg at Byton is an excellent example of a
with traditional engineering ones, modified regime sympathetically-designed scheme using flood banks.
and tractive stress, indicates that the former can Flood bypass/overspill channels offer an accept-
provide considerable cost savings for channel stabil- able alternative, provided that care is taken in the
ization. Whereas engineering approaches tend to choice of route. Knowledge of flood plain sedimen-
produce an essentially constant, low-gradient, slope tation sequences will help to identify routes which
over the entire length of the channel, the geo- will be less prone to scouring. This approach has
morphological approach takes account of the fact been successfully adopted by Thames Water with
that a natural-equilibrium, longitudinal stream pro- regard to the Maidenhead, Windsor, and Eton flood
file is concave upstream. study.
Any attempts to resection the river, by dredging,
widening or straightening, is likely to destabilize the
FLOODAI,I.EVIATION
AND LANDDRAINAGE
channel. The over-deepened and widened sections
Natural channels, by virtue of the processes will rapidly refill with sediment, as for example on
controlling sediment transport, erosion and de- the River Usk at Brecon, where 500CL8000 tonnes of
position, adjust their overall dimensions to a range material have to be removed each year from the
of flows. In spite of this, stable alluvial channels channel. Even partial dredging, where only the
have been shown to have a bankfull capacity which central section of the riffle is removed to reduce
is equalled or exceeded about once every 0.9 years summer low-flow levels, is not a practical engineer-
(partial duration series using bed material transport ing solution: the riffle will reform during the next
threshold as limiting flow). However, there is some flood that transports bed material. Evidence from
scatter about the value, depending upon the nature the River Wharfe at Conistone testifies that this is an
of the flow regime and the sediment transport inappropriate technique in upland rivers. Channel
characteristics of the river". Any attempt, there- straightening is also unlikely t o be successful on
fore, to increase the inbank capacity of the river to upland rivers unless local channel gradients are
accommodate a higher return period event can maintained. Weirs need to be constructed through-
destabilize the river. out the straightened reach to retain the natural slope
Research is currently being carried out at the of the river in the ponded sections, even during
University of East Anglia to evaluate stability and flood events.
/ . I W E M , 1990, 4, August. 337
HEY ON

Two-stage channels are equally inappropriate in spacings appropriate to the natural regime width o f
upland rivers, as they are likely to be rapidly the river. Their size and shape are also important.
modified by over-berm deposition and lateral since riffles are generally diagonal to the flow and
channel migration. pools are rarely the full width of the channel. Lt is
necessary to ensure that patterns of flow conver-
Lowland Rivers gence and divergence are maintained so that the
O n lowland rivers, which do not transport signifi- retained pools are self-cleansing and riffles are
cant amounts of bed material load even under flood preserved.
conditions, more options are available. Schemes Dredging, either locally to create pools or on a
involving the construction of flood banks are pre- reach basis to lower summer water levels and
ferred on both stability and conservation grounds, increase flood capacity, can lead to serious bank-
although it is recognized that space restriction may stability problems which could be identified in
not always allow them to be adopted. Two-stage advance. Surveys to assess natural failure mech-
channels are also appropriate, particularly as anisms and the nature of the bank material need to
instream habitats are not destroyed. However, in be carried out. This will enable assessment of the
rural areas flood capacities can be seriously impaired stability of the bank, consequent upon dredging, to
by uncontrolled vegetation growth o n the berm. be made, which would prevent costly failures.
High groundwater levcls can reduce the bearing Tree preservation is also vital with regard to bank
strength of the berm surface and thereby preclude protection and stabilization, and for shading of the
grazing by animals. Berm maintenance in urban river. Water temperatures are particularly respon-
areas would be easier, particularly if the scheme sive to the degree o f shading, which affects fisheries,
were integrated within a riverside park. while seasonal macrophyte growth can bc: limited by
Resectioning and straightening is a more feasible the provision of shade. Trees and shrubs also
option for lowland rivers from a stability standpoint provide cover for fish, while organic debris in the
provided that weirs are used, where appropriate, to river is vital for invertebrates.
prevent erosion of the bed material. These rivers The practice of limiting machine operations to
principally transport sands, silts, clays, and organic one bank is generally regarded as being important,
material in suspension. In straightened reaches this as it maintains natural vegetative growth on one o f
will probably be transmitted downstream, but in the banks. If the river is prone to bank erosion, this
those which have been widened and dredged deposi- could result in rapid erosion of the cleared bank. It
tion can result. This will cover the natural substrate, is therefore preferable to clear vegetation selectively
rendering it less suitable for colonization by inverte- on both banks, leaving sufficient protection in key
brates, and encourage reed encroachment. If depo- sections to prevent bank erosion. Aesthetically it
sition does occur, a regular heavy maintenance maintains a more pleasing riverscape.
prograninie can sustain its design capacity; but at a Meander cut-offs are also regarded as important
cost. features that require protection, and various
approaches have been advocated3. The key require-
Environmental Implications ment is the preservation of the original channel
Environmentally, such schemes can be tempered slope in the cut-off channel through the construction
as a result of river corridor surveys. These identify of a weir. If this is located at the head of the cut-off
key conservation elements within the river corridor it will create a pool which, via a pipe, can maintain
which require preservation, for example pools, some flow in the former meander bend. The weir
riffles, vertical banks, meander features, trees, and could be constructed in such a way that a pool is
macrophytes. It is then a question of designing a created downstream. The River Witham at West-
scheme which will retain thcse key conservation borough has been modified in this way. and the
features. This may require compromises if the resulting habitat has been successfully colonized by
requirement for flood capacity cannot be reconciled aquatic plants, insects, invertebrates anti fish.
with preservation of conservation features. Audit
surveys, in which engineered reaches are reassessed RIWKRIISIOKAI‘ION
to evaluate the design performance of the scheme, Over the years many rivers have been controlled
are revealing in this context”. In some instances for a variety of reasons. Until the introduction of
pools have been obliterated by silt and organic environmentally-sensitive schemes, trapezoidal
debris and riffles have been eroded or become channels were generally adopted. This removed the
imbricated, :is the gravel framework is infilled with natural morphological variability of the river, and if
silt, meander cut-offs are rapidly lost through reed sediment transport capacity was reduced it could
encroachment, and vertical banks are not main- lead to siltation and loss of natural sorting o f the bed
tained by undercutting. sediment vital for invertebrate communities. Effect-
Clearly. the arbitrary preservation of some key ively it produces a biologically-sterile river which is
conservation features does not necessxrily guarnntee aesthetically unattractive. Many rivers are still in
their survival. Pools and riffles need to be at this state.
338 J . I W E M , 1990, 4, August
 ENVIRONMENTAL RIVER ENGINEERING
BANK FA,. URE
If a natural-type channel is to be totally re-
created, regime type design procedures would be
necessary to determine the required cross-sectional,
longitudinal. and plan geometry of the river. This
requires information on flow, sediment loads,
calibre of the bed and bank material, and valley
slope for the reach in question. Alternatively, the
geometry of an adjacent natural stable reach could
be copied'.
However, if it is a question of re-creating natural
features within a canalized river, it would be
necessary to determine the location, nature, and Id)
extent of any pools and riffles which had developed. a) F u l l - w i d t n weir - perpendtculai
It would also be necessary to consider the location of bl Full-Width w e i r V - l n g downstream
bankside trees, as these will determine where pools C) Wing deflector
d) Submerged vanes Symmetiical V upstream
could be located without danger of excessive bank 0) Submerged vanes - asymmetrical V
8%

1ng u p s t r e a m
erosion. Given this information, pools could be 1) wing Yane
established at appropriate spacings in harmony with
the meander geometry of the river. In straight Fig. 4. River restoration using structural
channels, pools and bars need to be located on measures
alternate sides of the river. flow pattern. The advantage with the structural
Restoration will generally be restricted to lowland approach is that the river is encouraged to be self-
rivers, as in upland areas the channel will be self- cleansing, whereas with dredging there is a strong
adjusting. It can be achieved either by structural or possibility that the pool will refill. This type of
non-structural means. Non-structural approaches approach has been adopted on a reach of the River
refer to dredging and gravel dumping to re-create Wensum at Fakenham in Norfolk, where it was
the desired bed topography. This is only appropriate necessary to desilt a pool adjacent to a group of
if the natural range of flows does not destroy the willow trees as a part of a trout management
imposed condition. Alternatively, structures can be programme. T h e structure causes slight ponding
installed in the river to promote local scour and fill. upstream at low flow and creates a disturbed water
Structures are introduced to generate secondary surface across and downstream from the vanes,
circulation in the flow. Flow convergence, either in which provides cover for the trout.
total or of surface flows, will result in scour, with
deposition in areas of flow expansion or surface flow RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGLCAL SURVEYS
divergence. Wing structures, placed on alternate
banks, need to be of the correct dimensions and This brief review illustrates how geomorphological
shape to produce the required constriction in flow principles can be applied to various aspects of river
for pool generation. Weirs, sometimes with notches, management. Different perspectives can assist in
have also been used to create ponding upstream or identifying problems, devising potential solutions,
scour downstream. These can be perpendicular to assessing likely impacts and developing natural,
the tlow or 'v'-ing downstream. The latter tends to stable-channel, design procedures. Baseline geo-
produce scour holes adjacent to both banks and a morphological surveys are an essential prerequisite,
central gravel bar. Over a period of time the and these can be made in parallel with standard
structure could be underpinned if bank collapse engineering and river corridor surveys.
occurs. The type of survey carried out depends on the
An alternative approach is to install submerged nature of the management problem. As consider-
vanes 'v'-ing upstream, with gaps in the centre ation needs to be given to a range of possible
between the vanes and the banks to allow for the solutions, from doing nothing to treating the cause
passage of bed material load (Fig. 4). Provided that of the problem rather than the symptoms, the survey
the angle of attack of the vanes is of the correct has to be tailored accordingly. Surveys could include
magnitude (approximately thirty degrees to the one or more of the following:
Row), a scour hole is produced downstream from the
vanes. The vanes are generally located in a reiatively (i) Establish the morphology of the reach (cross
uniform reach of channel and are constructed so that section, profile and plan shape) and identify natural
they are completely submerged during the lowest control features, such as rock ledgeslbars as well as
artificial structures such as weirs. It is important that
flow. Scour occurs because the structure creates two cross sections are taken at pools and riffles so that
spiral secondary flows with surface-flow conver- the natural variability of the reach is determined;
gence. Slower, near-bed flow is directed outwards ( i i ) Establish nature of the bed and hank sediment,
towards the banks, while faster-flowing surface flow textural characteristics of the bank material and its
spills over the angled vanes to produce a convergent stratigraphy t o a depth below the level of the

J.1Wk-M. 1990. 4, August 339

ENVIRONMENTAL RIVER ENGINEERING

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bcd material;
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