SOCSCI3-GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY WITH DRUGS & ALCOHOL

Module 1:
The Nature of General Psychology

Duration: (Prelim)

Introduction: This module provide you with scientific knowledge and psychological
skills necessary to determine the nature of general psychology.
You will learn here the behavior as the concern of psychology;
definitions of psychology and meanings of terms; brief history of
science of psychology and relation to other sciences; goals, values and
applications of psychology; and methods of psychological study.

Content Standard: The learners demonstrate an understanding of:

1. Behavior as the Concern of Psychology.
2. Definitions of Psychology and Meanings of Terms.
3. A Brief History of the Science of Psychology and relation to Other
Sciences.
4. Goals, Values and Applications of Psychology.
5. Methods of Psychological Study.

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Express your expectations in this course, General Psychology;
2. Describe how you think and feel about yourself;
3. Experience thinking and feeling that you, as man, are more than
man, open to the dimensions of the infinite-GOD; and
4. Explain the meanings and goals of psychology.
The learner is able to:
Performance Standard:
Make a creative representation of the Self-worth and Spirituality.

Materials/Resources: Computer/Laptop
PPT Handouts
Notebook/Paper/Pen

Assessment Criteria: Pre-test/Post-test

Demonstration/Reporting
Question & Answer

Pre-Test No. 1: Test Yourself:

Matching Type: Match Column A with Column B.
Column A Column B

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1. A study about how and why A. Developmental Psychology

people behave, feel or think
the way they do.
2. A research report. B. Independent Variable
3. Thoughts, feelings, attitudes C. Mean
and values.
4. A branch of psychology that D. Psychology
study the human from birth to
death.
5. A subfield of psychology E. Correlation
that studies and treats
personality disorders.
6. A variable that is antecedent F. Thesis
or cause to another.
7. Any object, event or G. Stimulus
situation that causes an
organism to react.
8. A variable that is the H. Dependent Variable
consequence or the result of
another.
9. A measure of central I. Industrial Psychology
tendency.
10. High score in one is also J. Clinical Psychology
high scores in the other.
K. Behavior

Information Sheet No. 1: A. Behavior as the Concern of Psychology

“Psychology is a study about how and why people behave, feel, or
think the way they do”. A lively discussion of this statement by
Hilgard regarding what psychology is all about includes an
uninhibited sharing of behavior problems from a bright class
freshman students in one college. Below are some behavior problems
of young college. Which of these are your own problems, too?
Some Behavior Problems of Young College Students
1. Problems Regarding Oneself and Family
2. Problems Regarding College Life and Friends
3. Problems Observed IN and Out of One’s Social Environment
4. Problems of Intellectual Curiosity
5. Some Issues and Problems that Concern Psychologists
Definitions of Psychology and Meanings of Terms
Hilgard (1979) defined psychology as the “study of mental activity”
and redefined as the “study of behavior”.
From the 1930’s through the 1960’s, most psychology textbooks used

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this definition.
Morgan (1979) defined psychology as “the science of human and
animal behavior”, science, animal and behavior.
Marx (1976) instead of defining, he described psychology as “the
experience and behavior”.
Silverman (1979) defined psychology as “the study of human beings-
how they behave, feel, think, adjust, get along with one another and
how they become the individuals that they are”.
Munn (1974) considered psychology as a “biosocial science”.
Schelesinger (1976) present the more refined definition of
psychology according to the American Psychological Association
(APA), a professional society to which most American psychologists
belongs: Psychology is a scholarly discipline, a science and a
profession.
Scholarly discipline. Represent a major field of study in academic
settings with emphasis on the communication and explanation of
principles and theories of behavior.
Science. It s a focus of research through which investigators collect,
quantify, analyze and interpret data describing animal and human
behavior, thus shedding light on the causes and dynamics of behavior
patterns.
A Profession.Involves practices, application of knowledge, skills and
techniques for the solution or the prevention of individual or social
problems; this professional role also provides an opportunity for the
psychologist to develop further his understanding of human behavior
and thus contributes to the science of psychology.
A Brief History of the Science of Psychology and Its Relation to
Other Sciences
This brief history of the disciple has been gathered from several
recent books in psychology.
Modern psychology reflects the work of pioneer psychologists as will
be noted in the presentation of methods of studying human behavior
in the past and how these developed into the present science of
psychology.
Psychology as a discipline is said to have a long past but a very short
history. This means that concerns with the thinking about
psychological problems of mental illness and epilepsy. Since the
early 19th century, biologists have studied issues which we would
consider today to be within the domain of psychology. Charles
Darwin, for instance, was concerned with questions about the relation
of behavior to adaptation and survival.
Authors of textbooks in psychology set the year 1879 as the year of

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its birth. It was during this year that Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
established the first psychological laboratory for research at the
University of Leipzig in Germany.
The Schools of Psychology
Structuralism. Wilhelm Wundt and his student, Edward B. Titchener,
developed the “school of psychology” known as Structuralism in
1879. However, it was got the school name structuralism in 1898.
The main concern of the structuralism was the study of what made up
consciousness “mental built up”. Introspective analysis (examination
of one’s own thoughts, sensation, etc.) was thought to be the
necessary tool. There are 3 basic elements of consciousness from
introspective observations: sensations, images and feelings. Ideas
consisted of images, perceptions and sensations. Images differed
from sensations in that they were less vivid, less intense and
sometimes less prolonged.
Functionalism. It began at the University of Chicago with John
Dewey and James Angell (1894).William James, Harvey Carr and
Robert S. Woodworth were responsible for the maturation and further
elaboration of the school, which has never been a highly
differentiated systematic position. Woodworth “a psychology
attempts to give an accurate and systematic answer to the question
“What do men do? And Why do they do it?” is called a functional
psychology, person who study functionalists and their school,
functionalism.William James, “a psychology with emphasis on
pragmatism, which calls for the validation of knowledge in terms of
its consequences, values or utility. John Dewey made an influential
contribution to psychology in a written work, The Reflex Arc Concept
in Psychology,which became a classic and was considered as the
most significant landmark in the beginning of the functionalist
movement. He was also responsible for the application of
pragmatism to education-the belief that education is life, learning is
doing, and teaching should be student-centered rather than subject-
centered. The functionalists who focused their study on the adaptive
value of behavior (in this they were profoundly influenced by Charles
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution), did not reject the emphasis which
structuralists had placed on consciousness nor their method of
introspection. Instead they proposed there exist obvious connections
between the mind and behavior and that the adaptive values of the
mind (its functions)should be studied. William James is one of the
biological functionalists who proposed the “Theory of Emotions”
which concerns on how nervous system controls the activity of other
body organs and behaviors.
Psychoanalysis. It was developed by Sigmund Freud (1858-1939) in
Vienna, Austria. Psychoanalysis is a method of personality analysis
and treatment. Also dealt with the interpretation of the unconscious.
Unconscious is the conception that the unacceptable (forbidden,

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punished) wishes of childhood get driven out of awareness. They

become part of active unconscious where, while out of awareness,
they remain influential. It presses to find the expression in dreams,
slips of speech, unconscious mannerisms, as well as such socially
approved behavior as artistic, literary, or scientific activity. The
method of psychoanalysis-free association under the guidance of the
analyst-a way of helping and finding verbal expression for
unconscious wishes. Psychoanalysis as a discipline began with the
study of neurosis through the techniques of hypnosis, dream analysis
and free association and is more an art, a philosophy and a practice
than a science.
Behaviorism. John B. Watson (1878-1958) developed the
behaviorism. It was due primarily to one man with “private mental
life”. The only things which could be objectively analyzed and
quantitatively measured in human beings according to the
behaviorists, are the emitted overt responses. Stimulus and Response
are the leading exponent of behaviorism “the prediction and control
of behavior”. Watson’s real contribution was the consistency and
extremity of his basic viewpoint: he simplified and made objective
the study of psychology by denying the scientific usefulness of mind
and consciousness. He espoused a metaphysics to go with
methodology and felt it necessary to deny the existence as well as the
utility of consciousness, or to regard it as a phenomenon with causal
effects on behavior. His methodology still widely accepted either
wittingly or unwittingly, by all experimental psychologists. Most
other psychologists are also methodological behaviorists and the
indication at present is that unanimity is increasing rather than
decreasing. Behaviorism had three other important characteristics:
emphasis on conditioned reflexes as the building blocks of behavior,
emphasis on learned behavior, and emphasis on animal behavior.
Behaviorism denied the existence of instincts or of inborn tendencies.
Gestalt. It was developed by Max Wertheimer’s (1880-1943) with
paper on apparent movement (phi phenomenon) which was a report
of work along with Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1942); and Kurt Lewin
(1886-1941), the co-founders of the school. Gestalt psychology, a
school and a system of psychology originating in Germany,
emphasizes the organization, the quality of wholesomeness, that
inheres in both behavior and experience. Gestalt psychology taught as
about much about the organized natured of behavior in sensation and
perception, and have investigated similar problems in learning,
thinking, emotions, personality and social psychology. Unlike the
behaviorists, the gestaltists did not protest against the concept of
conscious experience and introspection in any form. Instead, they
objected to the idea of “mental chemistry”, that complex conscious
experience could be broken down by introspective observation into
its component elements. Once this is done, they maintained, the unity

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of the phenomenon being studied is destroyed.

Meanwhile, individual differences in behavior interested Francis
Galton (1822-1911) and Alfred Binet (1858-1911) who studied and
measured these differences. Galton led in the development of a
branch of psychology which came to be known as behavioral
genetics, whereas Binet laid the foundations of the mental testing
movement, the development of intelligence tests, personality test and
tests of all types.
Today’s important psychology emphasize cognitive, humanistic and
biological psychology, community mental health and operant
conditioning and its practical applications such as behavior
modification.
Direction:
Evaluation No. 1:
Read carefully each item from Column A and choose the letter of
the best answer that matches the description in the Column B.
Column A Column B
1. Refers to stability or A. Structuralism
dependability of a test..
2. Used introspection as its B. Hypothesis
main method.
3. Refers to the extent to C. Psychoanalysis
which a test measures what it
wants to measure.
4.Emphasized pragmatism. D. Validity
5. Disregarded instincts. E. Gestalt
6. Means configuration, F. Behaviorism
pattern or structure.
7. A tentative explanation of G. Cognitive Psychology
some observation.
8. Emphasized free H. Rationalization
association.
9. Emphasized learned I. Functionalism
behavior.
10. Emphasized the J. Reliability
unconscious. K. Instrumentalism
Activity: Make a creative representation of the Self-worth and Spirituality.
Write in the paper/coupon bond in the three columns with the
following phrases.

Self-worth Spirituality

A. I think I feel I act____ A. I I feel I act____

I... that I... because.. think that I... because..
I...

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Reflect: My Reflection
List as many “positive selves” and “negative selves” that you can
have. Opposite each negative self, write its potential for a positive
self.

Assignment: Make a research about the Biological Factors in Behavior.

Module 2:
Biological Factors in Behavior

Duration: (Midterm)

Introduction: This module provide you with scientific knowledge and psychological
skills necessary to determine the biological factors in behavior.
You will learn here the heredity, maturation and environment; the
total response mechanisms (nervous system; endocrine glands and the
muscles; and senses).

Content Standard: The learners demonstrate an understanding of:

1. Heredity, Maturation and Environment.
2. The Total Response Mechanism:
A. The Nervous System
B. The Endocrine Glands and the Muscles
C. The Senses

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

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1. Accept yourself for what you are with the positive and negative
traits (phenotypes and genotypes);
2. Show willingness to change, some of you traits which can
possibly be changed for the better;
3. Express love for your parents and show sense of gratitude for
whatever traits (phenotypes and genotypes) they have transmitted
to you;
4. Explain the meaning of heredity and its mechanisms; and
5. Differentiate phenotype and genotype.
The learner is able to:
Performance Standard:
Make a timeline of yourself growth and development from birth
up to 10 years from now.
Materials/Resources: Computer/Laptop
PPT Handouts
Notebook/Paper/Pen
Assessment Criteria: Pre-test/Post-test
Demonstration/Reporting
Question & Answer

Pre-Test No. 2: Test Yourself:

Identify the following concepts.
1. _________________ Union of the egg cell and sperm cell.
2. _________________ Number of pairs of chromosomes a fertilized
cell contains.
3. _________________ Hereditary units in a chromosome.
4. _________________ Twins that develop from the same fertilized
egg.
5. _________________ Twins that develop from two separately
fertilized eggs.
6. _________________ Actual carrier of hereditay information
within the genes.
7. _________________ Genetic characteristics of a person noted in
his observable features.
8. _________________ All the person’s genetic characteristics seen
and unseen, dominant and recessive.
9. _________________ Includes all the conditions inside and outside
an organism that in any way influence its behavior.
10. _________________ Transmission of genetic characteristics from

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parents to offspring.

Information Sheet No. 2: A. Heredity, Maturation and Environment

Heredity-is a process of transmission of genetic characteristics from
the parents to offspring that determines many of their specific
characteristics , especially those that affect development.
Behavior Genetics-combines the methods of genetics and psychology
to study the inheritance of behavioral characteristics. Behavioral
characteristics are interested in the degree to which psychological
characteristics such as ability, temperament and emotional stability
are transmitted from parents to offspring. Physical characteristics
such as height, bone structure and the color of hair and eyes are
inherited.
The hereditary pattern is transmitted at conception when the female
egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell and form a zygote- a
fertilized egg cell. Zygotic nucleus from combined hereditary
materials from parents, within 24 hours begins the development of
newly formed structure which divides first into two, then into four,
and so on and eventually in about 9 months, a complete
transformation int a human beings.
Identical twins-twins that develop from the same fertilized egg.
Fraternal twins-twins that develop from two separately fertilized
eggs
Conjoined twins-twins that develop from a combined body parts or
non-separation of chromosomal intended for body parts.
Multiple births-result of multiple division of the same fertilized egg
cell.
Chromosomes-a ropelike structures that carry the genetic materials of
parents transmitted to offspring. Human contains 46 chromosomes
where 23 chromosomes from mother and 23 chromosomes from
father wherein form 23 pairs and duplicated (diploid). Each
chromosome is composed of many individual hereditary units called
genes, which also occur in pairs. The total genes in each human
chromosome is around 1,000 or so. Chromosomes are the
components of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-the blueprint of life or
actual carrier of hereditary information. A double stranded/helix
materials which made up of purine (adenine & guanine) and
pyrimidine (cytosine & thiamine). The DNA identified as the primary
genetic substance which is responsible for forming another similar
chemical known as RNA (ribonucleic acid)-a single stranded or
partial (haploid) containing the same base-substances adenine,
guanine, cytosine but instead of thiamine, uracil. Abnormal growth in
physical appearance even inside is brought by the chromosomal
aberration or abnormal cell division during growth and development.

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The two types of gene are the dominant and recessive genes.
Dominant gene-a gene that is phenotypically manifested when paired
with another gene.
Recessive gene-a gene carrying traits that become manifested after
lying dormant for several generations; a gene that is not produced
when paired with a dominant one.
Phenotype-the characteristics manifested in the individual such as
skin color or height.
Genotype-the inherited characteristics that an individual will transmit
to his or her descendants, whether or not these characteristics will be
manifested.
Dominant Gene Recessive Gene
Black eyes Brown/blue eyes
Dark or black hair Blond, light or red hair
Normal color vision Color blindness
Normal blood Hemophilia-failure of blood to clot
Dark skin White skin, albinism
Narrow nose-bridge Pointed nose-bridge
Free earlobes Attached earlobes
No widow’s peak With widow’s peak
Maturation
Heredity and maturation do not mean the same thing.
Heredity-is the direction and pattern given by the genes to growth and
development.
Maturation-is the process or completion of growth and development
within the organism, the unfolding of an individual’s inherent traits or
potentials. Maturation is not the same learning since changes due to
maturation are determined by heredity. For instance, a newborn baby
cannot learn to walk, no matter how much instruction he is given.
Only when his body structure has develop sufficiently due to
maturation can he be taught to walk.
Sartain (1973) Motor Maturation and Development
The Average Child
At birth Fetal posture
1 month Chin up
2 months Chest up
3 months Reach and miss
4 months Sit with support
5 months Sit on lap; grasp object
6 months Sit on high chair; grasp dangling objects
7 months Sit alone

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8 months Stand with help

9 months Stand holding furniture
10 months Creep
11 months Walk when led
12 months Pull to stand by furniture
13 months Climb stair steps
14 months Stand alone
15 months Walk alone
The development of language following shortly after birth is achieved
in the kind of orderly sequence that characterizes motor development
in the average child. A great deal of learning goes on before a child
utters his first word.
From the start infants make noises. They cry at first, and then they
coo. In the babbling stage, infants begin to make a greater variety of
sounds such as “da-da” and “ta-ta”.It is as if they were playing with
almost every sound used in the various human languages. Later, they
stick more closely to the sounds they often hear spoken around them.
Infants also listen. They easily recognizes the voices of their mother
and those of strangers.
The sequence in the child’s vocalization and acquisition of language
up to three years of age is shown in the table below from Wrightsman
(1979).

Age Vocalization & Language

(months)

4 Coos and chuckles

6 to 9 Babbles: produces sounds such as “ma” or “da”, “ta”;

reduplication of sounds common.

12 to 18 A small number of “words” follow simple commands

and responds to “no”.

18 to 21 From about 2 words at 18 months to about 200 words

at 21, points to many objects; comprehends simple
questions; forms two-word phrases.

24 to 27 Vocabulary of 300 to 400 words; has 2 to 3 word

phrases; uses prepositions and pronouns

30 to 33 Fastest increase in vocabulary; 3 to 4 word sentences

are common; word-order, phrase structure,
grammatical agreement approximate language of
surroundings, but many utterances are unlike anything
an adult would say.

36 to 39 Vocabulary of 1000 words or more; well-formed

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sentences using complex grammatical rules, although

certain rules have not yet been fully mastered;
grammatical mistakes are much less frequent; about 90
percent comprehensibility.

The importance of maturation is receiving more and more attention

in modern education. Children varied in terms of learnings. There are
advanced learners and late bloomers. Learning to read is influenced
partly by the processes of maturation and partly by environmental
influences. Child efficiently learn to read for example if he is given
instruction in reading at a time when he has achieved a sufficient
degree of maturation.
Environment
Environment-includes all the conditions inside and outside an
organism that in any ways influence its behavior, growth,
development, or life processes except the genes.
Internal Environment-immediate environment within which the genes
exist and function is the nucleus of a cell. The nucleus is surrounded
by and it interacts with the cytoplasm of the cell. All these chemical
materials held together by the cell membrane may be called the
intracellular internal environment.
Intracellular Environment-within the cell the genes also act as
environmental influences on one another. In addition, geneticists
have discovered that specific chemical factors in the cytoplasm can
help direct the course of growth and development. Thus, these
extragenic factors may be viewed as environmental influences. They
allow certain characteristics acquired by the parent in his lifetime.
Extracellular Environment- circulation of the blood and lymph fluids
in the body provides a means of transporting chemical building
materials and carrying away waste products.
External Environment-classified into two-physical and social.
1. External Physical Environment-is made up of all the many things
in the world that affect us directly (as food does) and all things that
stimulate our sense organs (as sight and sounds do). Other physical
influences stemming from outside contact with other people are
included in our “social environment”.
2. External Social Environment-includes all the human beings who in
any way influence us. They influences us directly or indirectly.
Direct or daily contact like our parents, friends, classmates and
business acquaintances. Indirect contact over radio, television, in
books, publications and many other ways like imagination, memory
and daydreams.
Total Response Mechanism
Behavior involves responding to or interacting with the environment.

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The three types of structure which affect behavior are receptors,

(found in the sense organs), neural conduction and integration
mechanism ( the nervous system) and the effectors (the muscles and
glands). Before the behavior can take place there should be an input
(information or stimulation) from sense organs, processing of this
input, and a flow of output messages to the muscles-all functions of
the nervous system.
The Nervous System
Nervous System-is a body system that function to detect the changes in
and outside the body, integrate the information from one senses to the
other senses and for the coordination of muscles, organs, and glands.

Divisions of the Nervous System

1.The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal
cord.

Figure 1. CNS
(https://www.google.com)

2.The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is all the nervous tissue

outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Figure 2. PNS
(https://www.google.com)

1. The afferent division transmits information from the senses

towards the brain.
2. The efferent division transmits commands to the muscles and
glands from the brain.
The efferent division of the PNS is divided into two systems:
1. The somatic nervous system (SNS) controls skeletal muscle.
2. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary
smooth and cardiac muscle, as well as glands.
The sympathetic division- includes “fight or flight” responses.
The parasympathetic division-includes “rest and digest” responses.

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Figure 3 The CNS & PNS (https://www.google.com)

Neurons (Nerve Cells) are the basic units of the nervous system, able
to communicate with other cells.
Neuroglia support neurons by regulating their surrounding
environment.

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Figure 4 The Neuron and Neuroglia (https://www.google.com)

Neurons are cells specialized in transmitting and receiving messages.

Dendrites receive incoming signals.
Axons conduct impulses away from the cell body.
The cell body contains the neuron’s organelles.
Neuron axons have myelin, thin pads of lipids that serve as electrical
insulation.
Myelinated neurons can transmit electrical signals much faster, and
appear white.
Demyelination is a progressive destruction of myelin sheaths, causing
a loss of sensation and motor control.
Examples include multiple sclerosis (MS) and mercury poisoning.
Nerve signals begin with a stimulus is required before a nerve
impulse begins – either from another neuron or from one of the
senses.
Nerve signals are electrical impulses sent across the membrane of
neurons called action potentials.
The electrical impulses are generated by changing amounts of ions
inside and outside the neuron.
Potassium, K+
Sodium, Na+
Chlorine, Cl-
Negative-charged proteins, Pr-
Neuron Polarization-a resting neuron has a negative potential of
about -70mV.

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Figure 5 Neuron Polarization(https://www.google.com)

Depolarization-occurs when a stimulus (such as a neurotransmitter)

causes a protein channel to open.

Figure 6 Neuron Depolarization(https://www.google.com)

The next step is repolarization; the return to the original negative
charge as K+ ions diffuse out of the cell.

Figure 7 Neuron Repolarization(https://www.google.com)

Figure 8 Action Potential Summary(https://www.google.com)

Transmission at a Synapse
Eventually, the signal will reach the synapse; a gap between the axon
of the neuron and another cell.
A neurotransmitter is released from the axon of the previous neuron.
The neurotransmitter passes through a gap called a synaptic cleft

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before reaching the next cell.

Figure 9 Transmission at a Synapse (https://www.google.com)

Figure 10 Classification of Neurons (https://www.google.com)

A reflex is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus.
These actions occur more quickly because they occur over a reflex
arc, a pathway that bypasses the brain.
A reflex arc begins with a stimulus at a sensory neuron, such as pain
or heat.
The sensory neuron is depolarized, and the signal is sent through its
axon.
The signal is processed by an interneuron in the spinal cord, which
then activates a motor neuron.
A neurotransmitter is released at a cholinergic synapse.
The muscle contracts in response to the neurotransmitter, and the
reflex is complete.

The Brain

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The External Part of the Brain

Figure 11 Parts of the Brain (https://www.google.com)

The adult brain has six major regions.
The cerebrum is the largest region, controlling conscious thought,
complex movements, and memory.
The frontal lobe controls movement, language, and other higher-
thinking functions.
The temporal lobe contains the auditory, taste, and olfactory areas.
The parietal lobe integrates sensory information.
The occipital lobe contains the vision center.
The cerebrum has two layers:
 Outer grey matter that contains neuron cell bodies.
 Inner white matter that contains axons encased in myelin sheaths.
The diencephalon integrates sensory information and motor
commands.
The thalamus transfers impulses received from sensory neurons to the
correct region of the cerebrum.
The hypothalamus controls many aspects of internal homeostasis,
including body temperature, water balance, and overall metabolism.
The pineal gland releases melatonin, a hormone that regulates day-
night cycles.
The brain stem directly attaches the brain to the spinal cord.
The pons contains the neurons responsible for controlling breathing

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(along with the medulla).

The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain stem, merging
into the spinal cord. Controls heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing,
vomiting, and breathing (with the pons).
The cerebellum coordinates posture, balance, and body movements.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is essentially a continuation of the brain stem down
the back towards the pelvis.
Bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid provide protection.
Spinal nerves are mixed nerves that carry motor, somatic, and
autonomic signals to the body from the spinal cord.

Figure 12 The Spinal Cord (https://www.google.com)

The Central Nervous System Disorders
1. Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain itself, caused by a
foreign substance or a virus.
Headache, drowsiness, nausea, fever.
2. Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges (membranes) of the
brain and spinal cord.
Fever, stiff neck.
3. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disease that causes a gradual
loss of neuron cell bodies and synapses in the cerebral cortex.
Tends to affect new memories first.

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Cause unknown.
4. Brain tumors are masses of cells that overgrow in specific areas of
the brain.
Symptoms vary depending on the exact region affected by the tumor.
5. A stroke occurs when a blood clot or ruptured blood vessel
interrupts blood flow to a specific part of the brain.
Brain cells die from lack of oxygen, causing permanent damage in
that region.
Brain equivalent of a heart attack.
6. A concussion is a traumatic brain injury caused by an impact that
is not absorbed by cerebrospinal fluid and damages the brain itself.
The Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves, mostly from the head and
neck, that attach directly to the brain.
Bypass the spinal cord.
Part of the autonomic nervous system.
1. Olfactory -Smell (sensory)
2. Optic -Vision (sensory)
3. Oculomotor- Eye muscles (motor)
4. Trochlear- Eye muscles (motor)
5. Trigeminal-Facial (sensory) , chewing muscles (motor)
6. Abducens- Eye muscles (motor)
7. Facial-Taste (sensory), facial muscles (motor)
8. Vestibulocochlear-Balance and hearing (sensory)
9. Glossopharyngeal-Taste (sensory), swallowing (motor)
10. Vagus- Sensory and motor neurons that affect sweating,
peristalsis, heart rate, opening the larynx for speech and breathing;
Has branches in the ear canal – cotton swab cough.
11. Accessory Nerve- Neck and upper back muscles (motor)
12. Hypoglossal- Tongue (motor)
The Endocrine System
Endocrine system includes all the glands of the body that secrete hormones
directly into the blood stream. They do not contain ducts, some glands may be
both endocrine and exocrine (ex: pancreas). The hormones are chemical
stimulants that control changes in the body. Endocrine glands may be
stimulated by the nervous system or chemical changes in the body.

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Figure 13 Endocrine Glands

(https://www.google.com)

Hormones- each hormone type had its own chemical structure and thus
performs different actions.
Classes of Hormones
1. Amino acid-based hormones contain amino acids or small proteins as part of
their structure. Steroids are hormones that contain a cholesterol group as part
of its structure.
2. Basic hormone action- Cells have receptors on their surface that bind only
specific types of hormones. When receptor binding occurs a program
response/reaction takes place. Hormones do not carry information but are only
released to stimulate a chemical reaction. Tropic hormones are secreted by an
endocrine to stimulate the activity of another endocrine gland.
3. Control of hormone secretion- the following list condition under which an
endocrine gland releases hormones:
a. Humoral stimuli: gland responds to chemical changes in the body such as
changing levels or ions or nutrients in the blood.
b. Neural stimuli: some glands are signal by nervous system (sympathetic
nerves) to release hormones in order to induce physiological changes.
c. Hormonal stimuli: some endocrine glands are controlled by other endocrine
glands and thus respond to hormone.
d. Feedback loops: hormone levels are also controlled by feedback loops that
either stimulate or halt the production of a hormone
The pituitary gland: is also called the hypophysis and is located within the
cranium inferior to the brain. It sits on the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica
(sphenoid bone). This gland connects to the hypothalums through a stalk called
the infundibulum, the infundibulum connect to the tuber cinereum of the
hypothalamus.
1. Adenohypophysis: also known as the anterior pituitary gland. The majority
of the hormones produced are amino acid based hormones. Different cell types
produce different hormones including:
a. Growth hormone (GH)- signals growth of the body
b. Somatotropic hormone(SH) or somatotropin- signals growth of the body

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c. Prolactin- stimulates the breast tissue to produce milk

d. Thyroid-Stimulating hormone (TSH)- stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete
hormones that influence our metabolism.
e. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- stimulates adrenal gland to signal its
hormones that help us deal with stress.
f. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)- stimulates melanocytes of the
epidermis to produce more melanin, thus darkening the skin.
g. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- act on testes or ovaries an stimulate the
maturation of egg/sperm and induce secretion of sex hormones
h. Luteinizing hormone (LH)- During the menstrual cycle it signals ovulation
2. Hypothalamic control of hormone secretion from the adenohypophysis: the
hypothalamus had neurons that produce hormones and release them much like
neurotransmitters are released. These travel through the hypophyseal portal
system into the anterior pituitary and stimulate its hormone secretion. The
hypophysial portal system involves two beds of capillaries connected by a vein.
It allows a high level of horomone concentration within a small region and it is
designed so that the hormones released by the hypothalamus travel directly to
the anterior pituitary and it in turn release hormones into systemic circulation.
3. Neurohypophysis: also known as the posterior pituitary gland, it is
technically part of the brain and it composed of neurons. Rather than making
hormones it stores those produced by the hypothalamus and releases them when
it receives a neural inputs. The hormones produced by the hypothalamus but
released by the neurohypophysis are:
a. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- stimulates the collecting tubules of the kidney
to concentrate the urine in order to reduce water loss.
b. Oxytocin- induces contractions of smooth muscle of the sexual organs, such
when a mother experiences contractions of the uterus during labor.
The thyroid gland: located just inferior to the larynx, it has two lobes that give
it the appearance of butterfly wings. It is the largest endocrine gland and it
releases thyroid hormones and calcitonin.
a. Thyroid hormone: T4 and T3, amino acid based hormones that contain
iodine, main function is to increase metabolic rate.
b. Calcitonin- reduces excessive levels of calcium ion in the blood by slowing
down osteoclast activity, actively secreted during childhood.
The parathyroid gland: yellowish in color, lie posterior or the thyroid gland.
There are at least two pairs of glands but some may have as many as four pairs.
The hormone it releases is parathyroid hormone (PTH) which has the opposite
effect if calcitonin. It increase calcium ion levels in the blood by either
activating the osteoclast, stimulating the kidney to reabsorb more calcium, or
activation vitamin D production for calcium to be absorbed from food.
The adrenal (suprarenal) gland: These are two glands located superiorly to
the kidney and are actually two different glands within one structure.
1. adrenal medulla: considered part of the autonomic nervous system, it
releases adrenaline or epinephrine to assist in the “fight or flight” response.
2. adrenal cortex: secretes steroids called corticosteroids. Aldosterone
(mineralocorticoid) is secreted in response to a decrease in blood volume or
blood pressure stimulating the kidneys to reabsorb more water or sodium.

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Another group of hormones is called the glucocorticoids which include cortisol.

These hormones keep blood glucose levels high to maintain brain activity
during stressful situations. They can direct lymphocytes, or decrease
inflammation.
The pineal gland: also located in the brain and controlled by the hypothalamus,
it is composed of endocrine cells that secrete melatonin which regulates the
internal body clocks: it induces sleep.
The pancreas: located in the abdominal cavity it contains endocrine cells called
the islets of Langerhans that produce amino acid based hormones. The cells
release insulin which stimulates absorption of glucose by tissue cells when
blood glucose levels are high, and also releases glucagon that stimulates the
liver to release sugar into the blood when blood glucose levels are low.
The thymus: located in lower neck, anterior thorax, and posterior to the
sternum. It secretes amino acid based hormones called thymic hormones like
thymopoeitin and thymosin that stimulate T-lymphocytes to become
immunocompetent.
The gonads: testes and ovaries are organs that secret steroid sex hormones.
Androgens released by these glands are changed into testosterone, estrogen, and
progesterone. They maintain primary and secondary sex characteristics and
cells involved in reproduction.
Other endocrine structures:
A. The heart has sensory cells in the atria that stimulate the kidneys to produce
more urine containing salt. Getting rid of the excess fluid and salt reduces
excess blood volume and salt blood levels, and reduces blood pressure.
B. The GI tract has scattered cells that release amino acid/peptide hormones
chemically similar to neurotransmitters. They affect functions related to
regulating digestion, blood chemistry, and blood flow.
C. The placenta is produced only when conception occurs, it secrets hormones
that prevent the uterus from getting rid of the nutrient layer to which it is
attached. It also produces other steroid hormones: estrogen, progesterone,
corticotropin-releasing hormone, and human chorionic gonadotropin.
D. The kidneys release rennin which regulates blood pressure and
erythropoietin which stimulates erythrocyte production.
E. When exposed to UV rays, the skin produces a steroid hormone precursor to
vitamin D. Vitamin D helps in the absorption of calcium.
The Muscular System

Figure 14 The Muscular Cell

(https://www.google.com)

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The Muscular System Functions

Skeletal muscle pulls on the bones of the skeleton, creating
movement. Even when not moving, skeletal muscle is partially
contracted, maintaining tone and posture. A wall of skeletal muscle
provides protection for the organs of the abdominal cavity. Circular
muscles called sphincters control openings in the digestive and
urinary systems. Muscle contractions generate heat, helping to
maintain body temperature.
Anatomy of Muscle
Each muscle is covered with epimysium, a layer of collagen fibers
that separates it from surrounding organs. The muscle is made of
bundles called fascicles. Each fascicle is divided by another layer
called the perimysium. Nerves and blood vessels are also found here.
Individual muscle cells within a fascicle are called muscle fibers.
The endomysium surrounds and each individual muscle fiber. A
bundle of collagen fibers called a tendon, which attaches cylindrical
muscles (in the appendages) to bones. A sheet of collagen fibers
called a aponeurosis, which attaches wide, flat muscles to bones or
other muscles.

Figure 15 Parts of the Muscle Cell

(https://www.google.com)

Muscle fibers are some of the longest cells in the body. Longest is in
the sartorius muscle – 60cm! Each fiber is multinucleate, meaning

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there are multiple nuclei in each cell, and amitotic, meaning they
cannot divide. The sarcolemma, the cell membrane of the muscle
fiber, is covered with openings to a network of small tubules called T
tubules. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a special type of smooth ER
that stores calcium ions that signal muscle contraction. Each muscle
fiber contains myofibrils, long filaments that have the ability to
contract. Thin, light filaments, made of the protein actin. Thick, dark
filaments, made of the protein myosin.
Muscle contractions occur in the following sequence of events: A
signal is passed through motor neuron to a muscle. This signal is sent
to every fiber in the muscle simultaneously through the t-tubules. The
sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions (Ca2+), initiating
muscle contraction. The calcium influx stimulates the myosin
filaments to form connections to the actin filaments. The myosin
filaments pull the actin filaments inward, causing the muscle to
contract. Shortening occurs in each sarcomere, the contractile unit of
myofibrils. A single muscle fiber may contain 100,000 sarcomeres.
When a muscle contracts, it pulls bones closer together, creating
movement. Contracted muscles become more visible because all of
the volume (cytoplasm) is forced outward, creating a muscle belly.
The amount and force of muscle tension depends on: Frequency of
simulation (from the central nervous system); Number of skeletal
muscle fibers involved; The size of the muscle fibers – larger fibers
contain more myofibrils.
Muscle Stimulation
Summation is the process of recruiting more muscle fibers to
generate a greater force. Summation begins when a single electrical
impulse from a neuron stimulates a twitch, a single stimulus-
contraction-relaxation sequence in a muscle.
A twitch has these parts:
1. The stimulus, or signal from the brain.
2. The latent period, where the stimulus spreads through the
muscle.
3. The contraction phase, where actin and myosin generate tension.
4. The relaxation phase, where actin and myosin uncouple and the
muscle relaxes.
Continuous stimulation results in twitches overlapping, eventually
producing a prolonged contraction called tetanus.
Energy for Muscle Contraction
ATP is the direct unit of energy used by muscle fibers. ATP is
converted to ADP when it is used. If the supply of ATP is exhausted,
the muscle becomes fatigued and will not contract.

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Figure 16 ADP & ATP Production

(https://www.google.com)
ATP is an unstable molecule, so cells only have small amounts
available at any given moment. About 3 seconds worth. Creatine
phosphate can be broken down to release high-energy phosphates,
quickly recharging ATP. 8-1o seconds worth of contraction. To
continue contracting, muscle fibers must start using glucose.
Glycolysis breaks down glucose, releasing two molecules of pyruvate
and two molecules of ATP. Anaerobic, meaning no oxygen is used.
Takes place in the cytoplasm.
The next step depends on the oxygen levels in the muscle fiber. If
oxygen levels are high, cell respiration continues breaking down
glucose into 34 molecules of ATP for every 1 molecule of glucose.
Aerobic, meaning oxygen is required. Takes place in the
mitochondria.
When oxygen levels are low, cells use fermentation reactions to
recycle the unused products of glycolysis. Lactic acid is a byproduct
of fermentation and can cause fatigue and soreness. It is gradually re-
absorbed when oxygen levels return to normal. When glucose levels
run low, a polysaccharide called glycogen can be broken down to
generate more. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.
Muscle fatigue has two possible causes:
1. Running out of glycogen.
 Limits available glucose to muscle cells.
 “Hitting the wall.”
2. Insufficient oxygen levels.
 Forces muscle fibers to rely more on
glycolysis and fermentation.
 “Out of breath.”
Types of Muscle Fibers
Fast-twitch fibers are able to reach peak tension within 0.01 seconds
or less of neural stimulation.
 Large in diameter.
 Densely packed with myofibrils (actin and myosin).

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 Large glycogen reserves.

 Fewer mitochondria.
Fast-twitch fibers produce the most tension, but get fatigued quickly.
Slow-twitch fibers can take three times as long to reach peak tension.
 Half the diameter of fast-twitch fibers.
 Increased network of capillaries, allowing for a greater and more
reliable oxygen supply.
 Contain a special protein called myoglobin that reserves
additional oxygen within the muscle.
 Higher numbers of mitochondria.
 Produce less power, but much more endurance.
Physical conditioning can focus on improving muscle force or
endurance.
Aerobic exercise focuses on improving endurance by improving
oxygen intake, lactate clearance,and glycogen storage.
 Jogging, distance swimming, etc.
Anaerobic exercise improves strength by increasing the size of each
muscle fiber.
 Each muscle fiber has more myofibrils.
Anabolic steroids are chemical compounds that mimic the effects of
testosterone.
 This increases protein synthesis in muscle fibers.
As a hormone, testosterone affects many other tissues besides
muscles, causing side effects:
 Increase in blood cholesterol.
 Acne
 High blood pressure
 Testicular atrophy
 Increase in male characteristics in women.
Muscular System Disorders
Polio is a viral infection that can infects and destroys motor neurons,
causing paralysis. Considered eradicated due to a vaccine.
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig’s
Disease, is a genetic neurodegenerative disease that damages motor
neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Causes muscle atrophy due
to disuse.
Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic degenerative disorders

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that directly affects muscle tissue, causing it to atrophy.

Muscle Anatomy
A. Some muscles are named based on the direction of their fibers.
Rectus means straight. Rectus abdominis. Oblique means diagonally
arranged. External abdominal oblique.
B. Muscles within a group may have different names based on their
size. Maximus and longus indicates a larger muscle. Minimus and
brevis indicate a smaller muscle.
C. Muscles may also be named based on their relative location to
other muscles. Medial means towards the midline of the body. Lateral
means towards the sides of the body.
D. Prefixes like bi- and tri- may be used to indicate multiple heads or
attachment sites. Bi – Two attachment sites. Tri – Three attachment
sites.
E. Muscles may also be named based on their origin and insertion
bones. The origin is an attachment to a immovable bone. The
insertion is an attachment to an movable bone.
F. If a muscle resembles a shape, it can be named after that shape.
Delta is a Greek letter shaped like a triangle. Trapezius is shaped like
a trapezoid. Serratus means saw-toothed.
G. Finally, muscle names may indicate a specific action they perform.
Flex means to bend a joint. Extend means to straighten a joint.
Abductors move an appendage away from the body. Adductors move
an appendage towards the body.
Head and Neck Muscles
The frontalis raises the eyebrows. The masseter and temporalis both
elevate the mandible. Chewing muscles The buccinator flattens the
cheeks during chewing, holding them against the teeth. The
orbicularis oculi performs all eyelid movements, including opening,
closing, blinking, etc. The orbicularis oris closes the mouth with the
lips. The zygomaticus raises the corners of the mouth when smiling.
The sternocleidomastoid rotates the head and flexes the neck.
Muscles of the Trunk
The pectoralis major adducts the humerus. The rectus abdominis
flexes the vertebral column and compresses the contents of the
abdomen. The “pushing” muscle of defecation, childbirth, and forced
breathing. The transversus abdominis also performs this action. The
external and internal obliques rotate the trunk.
Muscles of the Dorsal Trunk
The trapezius elevates and depresses the scapula. The latissimus dorsi
adducts the humerus.The deltoid abducts the arm. The teres major

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and infraspinatus rotate and adduct the humerus.

Anterior Muscles of the Arm
The biceps brachii and brachioradialis flex the arm.The triceps
brachii extends the arm. The extensor carpi radialis and ulnaris
extend the wrist. Each muscle has a flexor antagonist that flexes the
wrist. The extensor digitorum extends the four non-thumb digits.
Muscles of the Hip, Thigh, and Leg
The gluteus maximus abducts the leg. The gluteus medius abducts the
leg. The hamstring group flexes the knee.
 Biceps femoris
 Semitendinosus
 Semimembranosus
The gastrocnemius and soleus extend the foot. The gracilis adducts
and rotates the hip. The tensor fascia latae abducts the hip. The
sartorius flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates the thigh.
 Look at the bottom of your foot while standing to demonstrate
these actions.
The quadriceps group extends the knee.
 Rectus femoris
 Vastus medialis
 Vastus lateralis
 Vastus intermedialis (a deep muscle)
The tibialis anterior and fibularis muscles flex the foot.

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Figure 17 Parts of the Muscle Cell

(https://www.google.com)

The Senses
General senses have receptors throughout the body. Pain, touch,
pressure, etc. Special senses have receptors concentrated within
specific structures. Taste, smell, vision, balance.
General Sensory Receptors
Temperature receptors are called thermoreceptors. Located in the
dermis, skeletal muscles, liver, and hypothalamus. Thermoreceptors
undergo quick adaptation, or a reduction of sensitivity in the presence
of a constant stimulus. Hot shower, cold room, etc.
Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to any stimuli that cause a physical
distortion of the neuron’s plasma membrane.
Examples include:
 Touch (skin)

Figure 17 The Skin (https://www.google.com)

 Pressure (digestive organs, bladder, lungs).
 Position (tendons, ligaments, skeletal muscles).

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Nociceptors are free nerve endings that generate the sensation of

pain. Found in the dermis, within joints, covering bones, and along
the walls of blood vessels. Nociceptors have large receptive fields, or
areas monitored by each cell. This makes locating the exact source of
pain difficult.
Myelin is a lipid that coats nerve fibers, increasing the speed of
impulse conduction.
Myelinated nociceptor fibers carry fast pain.
 “Pricking pain”, such as a injection or cut.
 Often associated with a reflex.
Unmyelinated nociceptor fibers carry slow pain.
 Burning or aching pain.
The eye is a special sense organ that detects visible light waves.

Figure 18 The Eye (https://www.google.com)

Several accessory structures help maintain and protect the eye.

Eye Accessory Structure
 Lacrimal glands produce tears that moisten the eyes and clear
foreign material.
 Lacrimal pores and canals drain tears out of the eye.
 The nasolacrimal duct conducts the tears to the nose, where they
are eliminated.
Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye. Controlled by three
cranial nerves: abducens, oculomotor, and trochlear. The lateral and
medial rectus move the eye side-to-side. The superior and inferior
rectus raise and lower the eye vertically. The oblique muscles work
with the rectus muscles to roll the eyes in angled directions.
The eye is divided into three primary layers: the retina, choroid, and
sclera. The sclera is made of dense connective tissue and protects the
entire eyeball except the front. “White of the eye.” The choroid
contains many of the blood vessels that supply the eye with oxygen
and nutrients. Responsible for the red eye effect in photography.
Animals have a shiny coating on their choroid, called the tapetum
lucidum, which reflects light and amplifies night vision. The retina
contains the photoreceptors that respond to light and any supporting

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cells and blood vessels. The cornea is the transparent ventral surface
of the sclera. The cornea is the only organ that can be transplanted
without rejection, as there are no blood vessels present in it. The iris
is the colored ventral surface of the choroid. Can expand and
contract, controlling the pupil. The hole in the middle of the iris is the
pupil. The lens is a transparent structure that refracts (bends) light
towards the retina. The shape of the lens can be adjusted by a muscle
called the ciliary body. Aqueous humor is a watery solution found
between the cornea and lens. Provides nutrients to the cornea.
Vitreous humor is a gel-like solution found between the lens and
retina. Gives the eye its shape.
Aging can cause protein fibers in the vitreous humor to clump
together, creating “floaters” in vision.
Vision Disorders
1. Cataracts are caused by a hardening of the lens with age, causing
increasingly hazy vision.
2. Glaucoma is optic nerve damage caused by too much pressure in
the aqueous humor region. The “air puff” test checks for symptoms
of glaucoma.
Myopia, or near-sightedness, is caused by light rays converging
before they reach the retina. Distant objects appear blurry.
3. Myopia is caused by an elongated eyeball or a cornea or lens that
is too curved.
4. Hyperopia, or far-sightedness, is caused by light rays converging
too late – past the retina. Nearby objects appear blurry.
Caused by a short eyeball or cornea or lens that isn’t curved enough.
The Sense of Taste
The tongue is covered in raised projections called papillae that
contain the sensory neurons for taste.

Figure 19 The Tongue(https://www.google.com)

Taste buds are nerve receptors are found on the sides of these
papillae. Long microvilli (smaller than cilia) are found at the end of
each neuron. Chemicals must dissolve in saliva to be detected .
Each taste helps to detect different nutrients.
 Bitterness is thought to recognize different poisons.
 Sweet recognizes sugars and carbohydrates.

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 Salty recognizes compounds that contain electrolyte ions

(Sodium, potassium, etc)
 Sourness tends to be found in foods with high amounts of
vitamins (citrus fruit)
 Umami tends to be activated by high protein foods, such as soy
sauce or cheese.
 Fat is activated by foods high in lipids.
Taste is not divided into separate regions, there are only subtle
differences over the surface of the tongue.
The Ear

Figure 20 The Ear (https://www.google.com)

The ear actually houses two separate organs, each with a different
sense: Hearing (detection of sound waves); and Equilibrium (balance)
The external structures of the ear are involved in the sense of hearing
only. The pinna collects sound waves, like a funnel. Animals with
larger pinna are able to detect subtle sounds, such as the burrowing of
underground prey. The auditory canal is a narrow passageway
through the temporal bone of the skull. The canal is lined with
ceruminous glands that produce ear wax. Slightly acidic and
antibacterial. Traps dirt and is gradually moved out of the ear.
The tympanic membrane converts sound waves into mechanical
vibrations, which are transmitted deeper within the ear. The cavity of
the middle ear is filled with three ear bones, called ossicles:
 Malleus
 Incus
 Stapes

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Figure 18 Air Bones (https://www.google.com)

These bones convey vibrations from the tympanic membrane into the
inner ear through a membrane called the oval window.
The eustachian tube connects the middle ear chamber to the throat.
Can open to equalize pressure in the middle ear when yawning or
chewing. The inner ear contains organs for both hearing and balance.
The cochlea is for hearing. The vestibule and semicircular canals are
for balance.
Pathway of Hearing
The sound waves vibrate through a fluid inside the cochlea,
stimulating tiny hair cells lined throughout called stereocilia. Each
hair cell is stimulated by a different frequency. The round window
bends outward, releasing pressure from the sound wave. The human
ear can perceive, at best, 20Hz to 20,000 Hz. This range shrinks later
in life.
Hearing Damage
Tinnitis, or ringing of the ears, can be caused when the cilia are
constantly stimulated.
Hearing loss is caused when stereocilia are damaged; as they cannot
regenerate.
Equilibrium
The vestibule contains two chambers that detect tilting of the head in
response to gravity. Sensations of gravity and acceleration are
detected within two chambers in the vestibule, the saccule and
utricle. When the head moves vertically or laterally, small calcium
stones called otoliths move, causing the cilia to bend.
The semicircular canals are three long tubes situated at right angles to
each other. Each canal is filled with fluid called endolymph. At the
base of each canal is a swollen region called the ampulla. A dome-
shaped structure called a cupula that contains sensory neurons is
found within the ampulla. At rest, there is no movement in the
endolymph. Acceleration causes the endolymph to move, pushing
cupula. Residual momentum causes the fluid to keep spinning even
though the head has stopped. This creates the sensation of dizziness.

Direction:
Evaluation No. 2:
Answer the following questions:
1. Which systems comprise the body’s total response mechanism?

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2. In brief statements, what is the role of the nervous system?

3. What is the general function of the endocrine glands?
4. How do muscles generally function in the response system of the
body?
5. Why are the senses studied in psychology?

Activity: Make an ALBUM of the body systems responsible for the total
response mechanism and opposite of each body system write the the
function/s.

Body System/Parts Functions

Reflect: My Reflection
Give at least five negative stimuli that you have experience and write
your positive responses for each stimulus.

Negative Stimulus Your Positive Response

Assignment: Make a research about the the different behavioral processes of an

organisms.

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Module 3:
Behavioral Process of an Organisms

Duration: (Semi-Final)

Introduction: This module provide you with scientific knowledge and psychological
skills necessary to determine the behavioral processes of the
organisms.
You will learn here the sensation and perception; learning and
memory; thinking, problem-solving and creativity; motivation and
emotion as well as consciousness.

Content Standard: The learners demonstrate an understanding of:

1. Sensation and Perception.
2. Learning and Memory.
3. Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Creativity.
4. Motivation and Emotion.
5. Consciousness.

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Sensation and Perception;
2. Learning and Memory;
3. Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Creativity;
4. Motivation and Emotion; and
5. Consciousness.
The learner is able to:
Performance Standard:
Make a Diary stating how to manage positive and negative
feedback about oneself; openness to and sincerity with others.
Materials/Resources: Computer/Laptop
PPT Handouts
Notebook/Paper/Pen

Assessment Criteria: Pre-test/Post-test

Demonstration/Reporting
Question & Answer

Pre-Test No. 3: Test Yourself: TRUE OR FALSE. Write True if the statement is
correct and False if not.
1.__________Sensation starts with perception.
2.__________Sensation are the raw stuff of which experience is

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made.
3.__________Sense organs provide the pathways and message
runners.
4.__________In order to simplify our perceptual load, we have to
encode sensory input.
5.__________We perceive only those aspects of the environment to
which we attend.
6.__________The best location of a visual stimulus for attracting
attention is at the sides of the eyes.
7. __________ The customary is observed immediately.
8.__________ Humans have a basic tendency to organize stimuli into
objects.
9. __________The Gestalt psychologists emphasize the importance
of figure-ground relationships.
10. __________Illusions and hallucinations are the results of accurate
perceptions.
11.__________We are able to recognize quite different stimulus
patterns as representing the same object.
12. __________A piece of white paper appears as black even if you
know that it is white. This is color constancy.
13.__________An object’s shape tends to change due to its angle.
This is shape constancy.
14.__________Regardless of light conditions an object may have an
unchanging color.
15.__________The study of perception includes distance and depth.
16.__________Objects of known size appear closer together when
they are far away.
17.__________Extrasensory perception refers to a form of perception
that involves the stimulation of known sensory receptors.
18.__________The most widespread method for studying ESP uses a
deck of 25 cards.
19.__________Psychologists are unanimous in their belief of the
scientificness of ESP.
20.__________Parapsychology and ESP are synonymous.

Information Sheet No. 3: A. Sensation and Perception

Sensation refers to the process through which our sense organs
receive and transmit information while perception means the
processing and interpretation of the sensory information. The senses
may be classified in terms of energy to which they respond. These

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energy forms- electromagnetic (light), mechanical (sound), thermal or

chemical- are transformed into the common language of nerve
impulses through a process called transduction. The kind of
sensation- visual, auditory, etc. depends on the part of the cerebral
cortex that receives the nerve impulses.
The approximate point at which a stimulus becomes strong enough to
produce a response is called the threshold. The absolute threshold is
the point at which the stimulus is sensed 50 percent of the time. The
smallest change in a stimulus that a person cant detect is called the
difference threshold.
All our senses are interrelated and the information they send to the
brain is used to help us to adjust better to our changing environment.
Attention is an active process in which ceratin aspects of the
environment are focused on while other stimuli are blocked out. We
cannot attend completely to more than one thing at a time, but we are
capable of rapid attentional shifts. Attentional processes are affected
by stimulus factors as well as by such internal factors as motives,
interests, and previous learning.
The Gestalt psychologists identified a number of principles of
perceptual organization including figure and ground, similarity,
proximity, closure, and continuity. From a cognitive viewpoint, a
percept is a hypothesis testing emphasizes the active nature of
perception and depends on context and past experience. According to
this view, illusions are incorrect hypothesis.
Perceptual constancies allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under
changing conditions. These are three constancies in the visual realm;
size, shape and brightness or color constancies.
Depth perception is made possible by both monocular cues such as
perspective, texture, clarity, and interposition, and binocular cues,
resulting from the use of our two eyes.
Perception of loudness and pitch are not perfectly related to the
intensity and frequency oof sounds. Our auditory system is designed
to localize the direction of a sound by detecting differences in time of
arrival, intensity, and phase of sounds reaching the two ears.
The discovery of the endorphins has revolutionized pain research and
theory. These are natural opiate substances produced by the body.
Activity of the endorphins may underlie many of the physical and
psychological procedures which reduce pain. The influence of
cognitive factors on the experience of pain is shown by research on
placebo effects, cultural and personal beliefs, and cognitive strategies
for controlling pain.
Biases in perception suggest that motivational and interpersonal
factors affect perception. Sometimes we perceive what we need or
what we value, sometimes we fail to perceive what threatens us, and

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at times our perceptions are influenced by other people.

Perceptual development involves both physical maturation and
learning. Certain perceptual abilities are innate or they develop
shortly after birth, whereas others require particular kinds of
experiences in order to develop. There are “critical periods” for the
development of the perceptual systems depends upon certain sensory
experiences as had been shown by a number of visual deprivation
studies, manipulation of visual input, and restored vison studies.
A controversial issue in psychology is the existence of extrasensory
perception (ESP). Many scientists hold the view that the existence of
paranormal abilities has not been scientifically established. The major
criticisms of previous ESP researchers include the way data are
collected and analyzed, the discarding of data that do not confirm
expected results, and the fact that under controlled conditions ESP
findings cannot be repeated.
Parapsychology is a science developed to investigations of psychical
phenomena. The majority of parapsychologists tend to to believe in
the reality of the ESP phenomenon but most other psychologists
remain or less skeptical.
B. Learning and Memory
Learning refers to the process that leads to a relatively permanent
change in behavior as a result of maturation, practice or experience.
Conditioning is a simple form of learning in which a stimulus is to
be associated with a response. The acquisition phase of classical
conditioning involves the pairing of the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
with Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). Extinction, the disappearance of
the Conditioned Response (CR), occurs when the CS-CR bond is
weakened because the UCS has not occurred and the CS will
temporarily evoke a response even after extinction. Generalization
occurs when a response is made to stimulus that is similar to the CS.
Discrimination is the ability to respond differentially to stimuli which
differ from one another.
In operant or instrumental conditioning, the organism’s behavior
in a stimulus situation brings about consequences that determine
whether or not goal achievement is attained. Reinforcement which
can be either positive or negative, increases the future probability of a
behavior, whereas punishment decreases the likelihood of the
behavior that precedes it. The four types of partial reinforcement
schedules have differing effects on behavior, but they are often very
effective in maintaining behavior for long period of time. Application
of basic conditioning principles in behavior-modification programs
have been very effective.
Behaviorists regard classical conditioning suggests that the subject
actually learns an expectancy that the UCS will follow the CS, and

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that this expectancy, rather than an automatic stamping in of the

UCS-CS bond is the basis of learning.
Observational learning does not require the learner to behave or to be
reinforced. It only requires that the learner observe a model. It
depends on cognitive processing of what is observed. The debate
between behaviorists and cognitive psychologists is being replaced
by integration of these two opposing points of view.
At least in the development of skilled performance, distributed
practice is more effective than massed practice although there seems
to be no difference between the two when a person is in the initial
stage of learning new associations. The effectiveness of learning by
wholes instead of by parts increases with such factors as the
intelligence of the learner, amount of practice with the method,
meaningfulness of the material and distribution of practice. Positive
transfer is enhanced when sets of materials are similar and when
general principles are learned and applied to future tasks.
Memory is essential to learning. We can distinguish between short-
term memory, which stores materials for only 20-30 seconds and
long-term memory, which is a consolidation of selected experience in
organized and coded form.
The ability to retrieve material from memory can be measured
through recall, recognition, and relearning tasks. Forgetting is not
just a passive process in which memory traces fade. Interference, in
the form of retroactive and proactive inhibitions, suggests that
activities intervening between learning and recall of old memories
entangled with new ones account for much of forgetting. Improving
memory through mnemonic techniques is a matter of learning well
and then establishing cues to recall.
People can change their own behavior by careful behavioral analysis.
Self-controlling behaviors can be developes following these
steps:specification of the problem, monitoring of problem behavior
and collection of baseline data, identification of antecedents and
consequences, control of antecedents, alteration or response
consequences, and the use of shaping and self-administration of
punishment.
Biofeedback techniques for controlling response systems, previously
thought to be involuntary, have inspired attempts to treat medical and
psychological problems utilizing the same technique.
Programmed learning involves placing in the hands of learners
specially prepared learning programs that are designed to make use of
the best strategies in learning such as spaced practice, immediate
knowledge of results, and active recitation rather than simple reading
of the materials to be learned.
C. Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Creativity

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Thinking consists of symbolic mediations. The symbols (images,

concepts, words) represent previous experience with the world. They
mediate or intervene between external stimulus situations and our
responses to them.
The motor theory of thinking holds that we think with our bodies. The
speech muscles are active in thinking and those of other parts of our
body are also active if the thinking performed is related to those body
parts.
The function and value of thinking is its concern with relationships
between objects and events that are physically existing or non-
existing in the environment.
The symbolic mediation of abstract thinking takes place through
concepts rather than through concrete images or movements. Most
concepts are generally acquired through discrimination learning
through their use in different contexts and by way of definitions. The
maturational schedule of a child determines when he will be able to
perceive and identify concepts. Concepts influence our ability to
learn and solve problems.
The stages in problem-solving includes preparation, incubation,
illumination and evaluation. Intelligence, motivation, set and
functional fixedness are factors that influence success in problem-
solving.
The goal is creative thinking is the discovery of new ways to solve
problems, utilizing a great deal of divergent thinking. Creative
people are generally described as possessing the following
characteristics: independence, flexibility, impulsiveness, preference
for unstructured and complex experiences, sense of humor, and
strong motivation. We can develop creativity in young people by
encouraging divergent production in many media, by rewarding
creative effort and by fostering a creative personality.
Uncritical thinking poses a threat to the society. This usually takes
the following forms: “all-or-nothing” thinking, confusing coincidence
with cause and delusions which are false beliefs that persistently
disturb mentally ill persons.
D. Motivation and Emotion
Motivation is any behavior directed toward a goal and it involves
some motivating state, a series of responses and goal attainment.
Motivated behavior has the following properties: it is instigated,
directional, selective and satiable.
Unconscious motivation, emphasized by psychoanalysis led by
Sigmund Freud, refers to those behaviors that cannot be inferred
plainly from observation of overt human behavior.
There are varied theories that attempt to explain goal-seeking

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behavior among which are the hedonistic, rational, instinctive and

drive-reduction homeostatic and incentive theories.
Motivation objects or conditions in the environment are called
incentives. Positive incentives lead behavior toward a goal while
negative ones cause the organism to avoid or move away from a goal
object.
Motives found in both human and animals can be classified as either
learned or unlearned-hunger and thirst, sex and material drives,
curiosity and sensory stimulation, activity and manipulation, and
competence motives. Social motives-affection and affiliation, social
approval and esteem and achievement, like primary motives, may
also be learned or unlearned.
Maslow distinguishes between deficiency and growth needs. The
former is concerned with the physical and social survival of the
individual while the latter refers to those that motivate the person to
develop his full potential as a human being. Biological needs, safety
needs, love, self-esteem, aesthetic and cognitive needs and self-
actualization compose Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.
Motivating by force, by enticement and by identification or ego-
involvement are some of the ways people are motivated.
Emotion refers to a generalized disturbance or “stirring up” of the
organism accompanied by conscious, behavioral and physiological
manifestations. They may either be conscious feelings or responses as
the sympathetic division of the nervous system becomes active in
preparing the body for emergency action.
Bodily responses during an emotional arousal may be recorded by
researchers through a number of measuring instruments and
techniques-sphygmomanometer, stethoscope, pneumograph,
electrocardiograph, external application of slight electrical current on
the skin, polygraph recorder or lie detector, and the psychological
stress evaluator.
Emotions may be classified into those that are pleasant (joy, love)
and those that are unpleasant (anger, fear). They may also be
classified in terms of their intensity. Milder affective states are called
feelings.. Motivation and emotion are directly related to each other.
Emotions accompany motivated behavior and they activate and direct
behavior in the same way biological or psychological motives do.
The James Lange Theory, The Cannon-Board Thalamic Theory and
the Cognitive Theory of Emotion are some of the more commonly
known theories proposed to explain emotional behavior.
The major emotions include love, fear and anger. Love compared to
liking, involves a deeper feeling. It involves attachment, caring and
intimacy, while liking has some more to do with a favorable opinion

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toward another person.

Emotions may be helpful or harmful depending upon their intensity.
Phobias (irrational or unrealistic fears) and psychosomatic illnesses
result from persistent emotions that interfere with our adjustment to
our radically changing environment. Unreasonable fears may be
estimated or reduced at least through counterconditioning, disuse,
verbal appeal, social models and through improved skills.
E. Consciousness
Consciousness implies the ability to function mentally. It enables us
to receive, retrieve and rearrange information needed for problem-
solving and long-range planning.The process of consciousness gives
us superior coping mechanisms in dealing with the stimuli in our
environment. States or levels of consciousness include periods of
decreased mental functioning as well as mental activity that is outside
the realm of normal experience.
The electroencephalograph (EEG) , which records the patterns of
electrical activity of large areas of the brain, enables us to examine
brain activity. General EEG characteristics are assigned to the
various stages of awareness. Alpha, beta, theta and delta are the four
primary wave patterns; they differ in how often they occur
(represented in cycles per second) and in their size.
Near one end of the continuum of consciousness is that state known
as sleep. Some believe may be restorative. Our periods of sleeping
and walking are regulated by our circadian rhythms. Humans and
some other animals have a polyphasic sleep cycle. “ Jet lag” results
from an upset in our circadian rhythm.
Five different stages of sleep have been identified by nothing
differences in the brain waves recorded by the EEG. Dreaming
occurs in the fifth stage of sleep and is accompanied by rapid eye
movements (REM), loss of muscle tone, and fast activity of the brain.
Studies have shown that humans need to dream. According to Freud,
dreams allow safe opportunities for wish fulfillment denied in real
life. Dream interpretation is often a central part of psychoanalysis.
States of consciousness can be altered by meditation, hypnosis, drugs,
as well by certain diseases, such as epilepsy,. More recent researches
involving altered consciousness include biofeedback and the split-
brain techniques.
Biofeedback is a behavioral technique through which individuals
learn to monitor various physical functions such as heart rate, blood
pressure, and brain waves. Control of such physical processes allow
people to stay relaxed-that is, when alpha wave activity is increased.
The surgical disconnection of the brain hemispheres using the split-
brain technique has led to the discovery that one brain hemisphere
can carry out learning tasks and other functions independently of the

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other.
Direction:
Evaluation No. 3:
Read carefully each item from Column A and choose the letter of
the best answer that matches the description in the Column B.
Column A Column B
1. Refers to the process through A. Perception
which our sense organs receive and
transmit information.
2. The processing and interpretation B. Sensation
of the sensory information.
3. The process that leads to a C. Conditioning
relatively permanent change in
behavior as a result of maturation,
practice or experience.
4. A simple form of learning in D. Learning
which a stimulus is to be associated
with a response.
5. Essential to learning which can E. Motivation
stores materials through short-term
and long-term process.
6. Any behavior directed toward a F. Memory
goal and involves some series of
responses and goal attainment.
7. A generalized disturbance or G. Consciousness
“stirring up” of the organism
accompanied by conscious,
behavioral and physiological
manifestations.
8. It implies the ability to function H. Emotion
mentally and enables us to receive,
retrieve and rearrange information
needed for problem-solving and
long-range planning.
9. A behavioral technique through I. Jet lag
which individuals learn to monitor
various physical functions such as
heart rate, blood pressure and brain
waves..
10. Results from an upset in J. Biofeedback
circadian rhythm.
Activity: Make an Action Plan stating how you improve and maintain your
strengths and overcome your weakness and build confidence in
yourself.

Action Plan

Strength Weakness Plan of

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Improvement

Reflect: My Reflection
How your strengths and weaknesses improve your behavior and
perception in life?

Assignment: Make a research about the individual differences.

Module 4:
Individual Differences

Duration: (Final)

Introduction: This module provide you with scientific knowledge and psychological
skills necessary to determine the individual differences.
You will learn here how human beings differ in varied ways. From
their physical features both external and internal to their behavior and
innate characteristics such as those involving mental ability,
personality and attitudes and attitude changes.

Content Standard: The learners demonstrate an understanding of:

1. Intelligence.
2. Personality.

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3. Attitudes and Attitude Changes.

Objective: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Intelligence;
2. Personality; and
3. Attitudes and Attitude Changes.
The learner is able to:
Performance Standard:
Give and describe the physical features both external and internal
to their behavior and innate characteristics such as those involving
mental ability, personality, attitudes and attitude changes.
Materials/Resources: Computer/Laptop
PPT Handouts
Notebook/Paper/Pen

Assessment Criteria: Pre-test/Post-test

Demonstration/Reporting
Question & Answer

Pre-Test No. 4: Test Yourself: Identification. Identify and write the concepts and
theorists.
1. __________Sensation starts with perception.
2. __________Sensation are the raw stuff of which experience is
made.
3. __________Sense organs provide the pathways and message
runners.
4. __________In order to simplify our perceptual load, we have to
encode sensory input.
5. __________We perceive only those aspects of the environment
to which we attend.
6. __________The best location of a visual stimulus for attracting
attention is at the sides of the eyes.
7. __________ The customary is observed immediately.
8. __________ Humans have a basic tendency to organize stimuli
into objects.
9. __________The Gestalt psychologists emphasize the
importance of figure-ground relationships.
10. __________Illusions and hallucinations are the results of
accurate perceptions.

Information Sheet No. 4: A. Intelligence

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Intelligence, psychologists have come up with varied definitions of

the term. Davidoff (1976) defined intelligence as the ability to learn
or profit from formal instruction. Sax (1974) think of intelligence as
the ability to adapt effectively to the environment or ability to reason.
Terman (in Tyler, 1969) says that “an individual is intelligent in
proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking”.
Other psychologists see intelligence as “a cluster of relatively distinct
abilities, such as memory, reasoning and verbal fluency. Some
psychologists believe that the limits of intelligence are fixed by
heredity; other think that experience plays an important part in its
development (Munn, et.al., 1974). Davidoff (1976) defines
intelligence as “an overall ability to act purposefully, to thin
rationally and to do deal effectively with the environment”.
Chaplin and Krawiec (1979) have another way of approaching the
definition of intelligence. These are the “armchair” or deductive
method, employed by Binet and Simon theory of intelligence
revolves around goal direction, adaptability and critical judgment
where they believed intelligence was and then proceeded to construct
a test that could measure this belief. The second approach refers to
the analysis of already existing tests in order to assess what the tests
are measuring. This approach assumes that these tests are valid.
Theories of Intelligence
Spearman’s Two-factor Theory, Charles Spearman (1904) laid out the
foundations of two-factor theory of intellectual ability: general ability
to which the ability to educe abstract relationships (G) and specific
ability (s). G is common to all intellectual tasks while s is specific to
a given task and therefore of less value than the former. Thus, there is
only one G but there are many s’s. Spearman explain the fact that
people who show ability in one intellectual undertaking also exhibit
abilities along other lines. This theory supports the general ability
concept of Binet and Simon. In later studies, Spearman added general
factors such as p, o, and w which stand for preservation, oscillation,
and will, respectively. Preservation represents the inertia of the
individual’s supply of mental energy, oscillation the extent to which
it fluctuates from time to time. W, represents will, a motivational
personality factor that enters into the taking of intelligence tests.
Thurstone’s Weighted Group-Factor Theory, L.L. Thurstone, an
organization of mental abilities of group factors as correlation
clusters that are independent of each other: Verbal (V); Number (N);
Spatial (S); Perceptual speed (P); Memory (M); Reasoning (R); and
Word fluency (W).
Raymund B. Cattell’s Theory.It is also a product of factor nalytic
techniques. It is an extension of the Spearman and the Thurstone
analyses. This theory provide evidence of two fundamental types of
intelligence, crystallized and fluid intelligence (Jensen, 1980).

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Crystallized intelligence is a combination of acquired knowledge and

developed intellectual skills. Fluid intelligence is a capacity for
insight into complex relationships. It is the capacity for acquiring new
concepts and demonstrating general brightness and adaptability in
novel situations. It is independent of education (Chaplin and Krawiec,
1980).
Guilford’s Theory, J.P. Guilford (1967) published The Nature of
Human Intelligence in which he proposed a radically different theory
concerning the “structure of the intellect”.He denied the existence of
a general factor, G, or even rejected the possibility of intelligence
being reduced to just a few factors. Guilford posted 120 unique
intellectual abilities, demonstrates the structure of the intellect
(operations, products and contents). The 4 contents, 5 operations and
6 products involve a total of 120 unique intellectual abilities. (4X 5
X6 = 120), Klausmeir and Goodwin (1966).
The Measurement of Intelligence
Equation: IQ = MA/CA (100)
Where: IQ=Intelligence quotient
MA= Mental Age
CA= Correct Answer
For instance:
Mental Age= 72; CA =72
IQ = MA/CA (100)
= 72/72 (100)
=100 IQ
Intelligence is an overall capacity for particular mental activities that
cannot be measured directly. The IQ on the other hand, is the number
that indicates how a person has fared on a particular test as compared
to others in the same age bracket.
Below is a distribution of IQ based on the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (Morgan, 1961).
IQ Verbal Description Percent Adults
Above 130 Very Superior 2.2
120-129 Superior 6.7
110-119 Bright Normal 16.1
90-109 Average 50.0
80-89 Dull Normal 16.1
70-79 Borderline .67
Below 70 Defective 2.2
The person with IQ constant means a person with a high IQ that
demonstrate intellectual excellence throughout his life. This is also

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indicates that he is not bright this year and then dull the next year.
McCall (1975) points out that a good intelligence test can trustingly
reflect “real” intelligence and that a child’s score should be satble
from one assessment to another.
The Feeble-Minded. Individuals who had IQs of less than 70 were
considered as mentally deficient or defective and divided into three
groups as shown below (WHO, 1954):
1. Morons-IQ of 50 to 70
2. Imbeciles-IQ of 20 to 50
3. Idiots-IQ below 20
Causes of Mental Retardation. More than 200 causes of mental
retardation have been identified (Goldstein, 1978). Among the
specific identified causes are: rubella (German measles) in the mother
during the first 3 months of pregnancy, syphilis, meningitis,
toxoplasmosis, Rh-factor incompatibility between mother and fetus,
lead poisoning in young children, malnutrition, and chromosome
abnormality.
Down syndrome (Mongolism or mongoloids) which occurs in one out
of every 600 babies born and usually results to metal retardation from
moderate to severe.
Mentally Gifted, people found at the top end of the distribution of
IQs. The very superior individuals are in the range 130-140 and the
near genius are found with IQ of 140 and above. Can use very
complex language forms before they are 2; read fluently by the age of
3; complete jigsaw puzzles at the age of 3 and so on (Newland In
Roedell, 1980).
The Role of Heredity and Environment. Genetics indicates that
kinship relationship has some degree of correlation in regard to the
IQ of individuals.

The table below shows that as genetic similarity increases,

environmental similarity also increases (McCall, 1975).
Kinship Median Correlation
Unrelated children, reared apart -.01
Unrelated children, reared together .24
Parent and child .50
Siblings, reared apart .47
Siblings, reared together .55
Fraternal twins, different sex .49
Fraternal twins, same sex .56
Identical twins, reared apart .75
Identical twins, reared together .87
Assuming that the two babies had the same mental ability when they
were born, this finding tend to indicate that environment has a

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significant effect on the children’s intelligence.

The Effect of Education on IQ. Research in enrichment education has
shown that children’s IQ can be improved. The usual decline in IQ
test performance during the first three years of life can be arrested by
a parent-infant educator with a relatively simple curriculum (McCall,
1975).

A Brief Description of Some Philippine Psychological Tests

1. The Philippine Non-Verbal Intelligence Test (PNIT) by George M.
Guthrie, et.al.
2. The Philippine Adaptation of the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test
(Filipino OLMAT) by Philippine Guidance and Personnel
Association (PGPA).
3. The Pilipino Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), by
Edwin A. Torres
4. The Philippine Self-Administering Test of Mental Ability Form A
by Dr. Sinforoso G. Padilla
5. The Pilipino Version of the Otis Quick Scoring Mental Ability Test
(Alpha Test: Short Form) by Dr. Arthur S. Otis.
6. The Local Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Dr. Alfredo V.
Lagmay.
7. The Manila Personality Inventory (MPI) by Dr. Petrocinio Toribio
8. Talaang Pangsanggunian ng Maynila-Para sa Elementarya
(Manila Counseling Inventory-Elementary Level by the “Lingkurang
Pamamatnubay, Pagpapayo at Pantanging Edukasyon”.
9. The Philippine Vocational Interest Record by former Bureau of
Public Schools, Manila of the DepEd, 1956.
10. The Philippine Trade Prognosis Test by former Bureau of
Vocational Education, Manila of the DeEd.
B. Personality
There are many definitions of personality as there are various theories
regarding it. Each definition is based on how the proponent of the
theory views personality.
Theories of Personality
Chaplin and Krawiec (1979) grouped representative theories into the
following:
1. The psychoanalytic, as represented by Sigmund Freud, personality
centers on the following:
Id-it consists of a mass of wild, blind instincts that does not have
direction.
Ego-the other aspect of personality, it is the realistic portion of
personality by virtue of its nearness to the external world. It serves
the purpose of receiving stimuli and protecting the organism like the
cortical layer with which a particle of living substance surrounds it.
Superego-regarded as the conscience of man that moral and judicial
aspects come mainly from internalization of parental restrictions,
prohibitions and customs through the process of identification.

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2. The factorial, as represented by Raymund B. Cattell, defines

personality as “that which permits a prediction of what a person will
do in a given situation”.personality drew on two types of traits,
surface and source traits.
Surface traits are those observed descriptive units that people
demonstrate as they carry on their daily chores and as they solve their
problems. There is a large number of surface traits.
Source traits are deeper, less variable and more significant aspects of
personality.
Sixteen Personality Factors (Cattell (in Chaplin and Krawiec, 1979)
Low-Score Factor Factor High-Score
Description Description
Reserved A-vs. A+ Outgoing
(sizothymia) (affectothymia)
Less intelligent (low B-vs. B+ More intelligent
“g”) (high “g”
Emotional (low ego C-vs. C+ Stable (high ego
strength) strength)
Humble (submissive) E-vs. E+ Assertive
( dominance)
Sober (desurgency) F-vs. F+ Happy-go-lucky
(surgency)
Expedient (low G-vs. G+ Conscientious (high
superego) superego)
Shy (threctia) H-vs. H+ Venturesome
(parmia)
Tough-minded I-vs. I+ Tender-minded
(harria) ( premsia)
Trusting (alaxia) L-vs. L+ Suspicious
(protension)
Practical (praxernia) M-vs. M+ Imaginative ( autia)
Forthright M-vs. N+ Shrewd
(artlessness)N-VS. ( shrewdness)
Placid (assurance) O-vs. O+ Apprehensive (guilt
proneness)
Conservative Q1-vs. Q1+ Experimenting
(conservatism) ( radicalism)
Group-tied (group Q2-vs. Q2+ Self-sufficient ( self-
adherence) sufficiency)
Casual (low Q3-vs. Q3+ Controlled ( high
integration) self-concept)
Relaxed (low ergic Q4-vs. Q4+ Tense (ergic
tension) tension)

3. The individual, a represented by Gordon W. Allport, defines

“personality as the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic
behavior and thought”, (Hall and Lindzey, 1970). Dynamic

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organization means that a personality is a developing, changing

organization that reflects motivational conditions.
Psychophysical refers to habits, attitudes and traits. Systems refer to
complexes of more elemental processes. Characteristics refers to the
uniqueness of each individual’s behavior. Behavior and thought refer
to whatever an individual may do.
Functional autonomy is the “acquired system of motivation in which
tensions involved are not the same kind as the antecedent tensions
from which acquired system has developed”.
4. The personalistic, as represented by Henry A. Murray, defines
personality as “the governing organ of the body, an institution, which
from birth to death, is ceaselessly engaged in transformative
functional operation” (Hall and Lindzey, 1970). He said that
personality is located in the brain, “no brain, no personality”.
5. The self, or ego-integrated, as represented by Carl Rogers, a
therapist who has devoted most of his career to study and treatment
of disturbed people (Fehr, 1983) considered self-theory as the unique
sense that grew directly out of clinical practice, (Chaplin and
Krawiec, 1979). Self-theory consists of positive self regard which
refers to attitudes of warmth, respect, liking and acceptance on the
part of others toward the self and similar attitudes with regard to
one’s own experiences independent of social transactions with others.
Rogers formulated ten characteristics of a normal, fully functioning
person. Fully functioning individual live in harmony because of the
rewarding character of reciprocal positive regard, a person who
achieved an optimal adjustment in his interpersonal relations or the
tendency to actualize (Fehr, 1983). Phenomenological approach.
Phenomenology views man as a being that acts upon his environment
with a degree of intentionality.
6. The behavioristic, as represented by Burrhus F. Skinner, proposed
that personality described by rules or principles that govern the
relationship between stimuli, responses and reinforcements (Fehr,
1983). He assume s that behavior orderly and that our primary
purpose is to control it. He believes that all behavior is learned and
that reinforcement plays a major role in it.
After presenting the various theories of personality, Fehr (1983)
recommends the following definition:
“Personality involves those dimensions of the individual which either
depict his uniqueness or his commonalities with others. These
dimensions form a consistent and enduring pattern in a manner that
determines the behavior and thoughts of the individual and facilitates
the accurate prediction of behavior in a wide variety of interpersonal
situations”.
Assessment of Personality

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Fehr (1983) defines assessment of personality as any effort to

systematically comprehend, predict, and/or explain the personality
characteristics of a person or of a group of people. It is in two forms-
I. Projective tests - (Rorschach Inkblot Test and Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT) (Hall and Lindzey, 1970); The Sentence
Completion Test; and II. Inventories- The Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI)is one of the most extensively used and
most firmly established personality inventories, (Draguns, 1975). It
consists of 550 affirmative statements to which the testee must
respond with “true”, ‘false”, or “cannot say” responses. (The 16
Personality Factor Questionnaire (developed by Cattell-with “yes”,
“uncertain” and “no” choices); and The California Psychological
Inventory by Fehr (1983) (in Harrison Gough ,1950) which aims to
remedy some alleged criticisms of the MMPI. The variables that it
measures are the order of dominance, socialization and feminity. It
contains 480 items designed to tap personality characteristics that are
important determinants of the ability of people to function in a world
in which social interactional skills are critical. The scoring of the CPI
is as objective as that of both the MMPI and the 16 PF. The results,
however, need interpretation by an experienced psychologists.
The Filipino Personality
This is our way of describing the Filipino Personality (Enriquez
(1978).
1. Hiya- “a painful emotion arising from a relationship with an
authority figure or with society, inhibiting self-assertion in a situation
which is percieved as dangerous to one’s ego”,.
2. Ningas Kugon-Along with Mañana Habit, means starting
something and being optimistic about it but not being able to finish it.
Mañana Habit indicates the custom of postponing for tomorrow what
can be done today.
3. Bahala Na-one of the weakest spots is the bahala na attitude. A
Filipino fatalism and reason for poverty of many Filipino people in
the country. For Filipinos, bahala na implies complete trust. It also
means resignation for whatever lot he has in life and individual
confidence in God.
4. Hospitality- an object of beauty in the Filipino which receives and
entertain visitors doing it with all might.It is the same among the poor
and rich people. Sometimes there is a deprivation of the main
convenience in own house just to give way to the needs of his/her
guests.
5. Utang na Loob-is practiced with the expectation of something in
return. It is one type of reciprocity which compels the recepient to
show his gratitude properly by returning the favor with interest to be
sure that he does not remain in the other’s debt and no feeling guilt or
hiya.
6. Smooth Interpersonal Relations (SIR)-the most striking quality
manifested by Filipinos is their pleasantness. SIR is defined as “a
facility of getting along with others so as to avoid outward signs of

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conflict; being agreeable even when you are under pressure because
you would not wish to hurt other people’s feelings. It is achieved
through pakikisama ( giving in), euphemism (couches what want to
say in a very careful, sweet language in order not to hurt his/her
listener, or fakeness) and the use of a go-between (padrino system;
backer or white horse; back-up).
7. Strong Family Ties-another Filipino value wherein kinship
relationships within a family, both nuclear and extended, are very
strong. The large size of the family members living together in a
house explains the presence of strong family ties.
Factors in Personality Development
1. Biological Factors- (Endocrine Glands; Hormones; and
Predispositions) (Morgan, 1961)
2. Psychological Factors- (Abilities such as intelligence, aptitudes
and maturation)
3. Cultural Factors- ((own mores, values and expectations)
4. The Family- (parents upbringing, developing personality of
children and affecting one another).
C. Attitudes and Attitude Changes
Attitude is commonly referred to as a tendency or learned
predisposition to act negatively or positively toward an object, a
person, or an event. It may involve a prejudice, a prejudgment based
on insufficient or inadequate information.
Attitudes, which may be learned through classical conditioning,
instrumental conditioning, and imitation, are composed of three basic
components: affective reactions (feeling), cognitions (thinking), and
action tendencies (reacting).
Common sources of attitudes include specific experiences,
communication from others, models, and institutional factors.
Interpersonal attraction is influenced by the following factors:
proximity, familiarity, similarity, and physical attractiveness. The
tendency for relationships to move liking to greater intimacy is
termed as love or the process of social penetration, which is markedly
characterized by reciprocal self-disclosure.
Attitudes are measured through physiological measures like the
Thurstone scales, in which category statements toward an object are
sorted into two categories, categories I representing the favorable
extreme; Likert scales, in which the individuals responds to items in
statement forms by indicating his agreement with these statements;
and projective tests, and interview methods.
The Reinforcement Theory, the Balance Theory, and Cognitive
Dissonance Theory endeavor to explain how attitudes can be
changed.
There are three parts of the act of communication that must be
considered in attempting to change an individual’s attitude: the

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source of communication (who says it), the nature of communication

(what is said and how it is said), and the characteristics of the
audience (who hears it).
People may be “inoculated” against attempts to change their attitudes
by presenting a form of two-sided arguments,i.e., by stating weak
counterarguments to their position and then refuting them, hence,
stimulating individuals to think of additional refutations of their own.
This is called the Inoculation Model.
A prejudice is a fixed attitude toward a person or a group. A group
prejudice is an unfavorable attitude held by the members of a group
or another group and its members, derived from the norms of the
group regulating treatment of the outgroup. Prejudice exists in the
context of four intergroup relations: competition, conflict, segregation
and discrimination, and cooperation. Changing prejudice through
intergroup contact can be made possible if the following are taken
into consideration: acquaintance potential, relative status, social
norms, cooperative reward, and characteristics of the individuals in
contact.
D. Adjustment in Behavior
Coping refers to the way in which we respond to situations and
stimuli around us. It is an active effort to eliminate or to get rid of
stress. Adaptation carries the connotation of biological
accommodation. Adjustment is a continuous process of satisfying
one’s needs.
Frustration is the outcome of the thrawrting of or delay in a desired
goal. The physical and social environment, physical handicaps, lack
of specific abilities and lack of adequate self-control may deter us
from the realization of our goals.
Frustration tolerance is the ability to endure or bear anxiety-
provoking situations without the use of defensive strategies.
Individuals differ in their tolerance of frustrating conditions.
A conflict arises when two opposing motives are aroused. The
positive or negative values of goals are represented as valences.
People are pulled towards and away from goals that have positive and
negative values. Approach-approach or double-approach, avoidance-
avoidance or double avoidance, approach-avoidance, and double
approach-avoidance or multiple conflicts are the four types of
conflicts. The third type of conflict is the most difficult to resolve.
General adaptation syndrome is a term applied to the widespread
bodily reaction characterized by the general mobilization of the
body’s resources during stressful situations. It has three stages: the
stage of alarm reaction, the stage of resistance, and the stage of
exhaustion. Sources of stress are biological deprivation, real or
imagined danger, threats to self-esteem, overload, crisis and stresses

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that accompany normal social and personal development.

Coping behaviors may take any of the following forms: direct action,
avoidance, prediction, and use of defense mechanisms.
A behavior pattern that protects an individual from pain, shame, or
guilt is called a defense mechanism. Escape reactions, compromise
reactions and substitute activities, and aggressive reactions are its
three main types. The use of defense mechanisms may yield both
negative and positive results. If these behavior patterns are used
habitually, they may prevent an individual from facing problems
squarely or from distinguishing the real from the unreal. However,
there are occasions when their use may provide a person temporary
relief from anxiety-producing situations and may enable him to face
grim failures at a more gradual pace.
E. Behavior Disorders and their Treatment
Behavior disorder, mental disorder, mental illness, abnormal behavior
in essence mean the same thing although the term abnormal behavior
which refers to a peculiar behavior in normal people is broadest in
scope. Behavioral deviancy refers to a wide range of deviation in
behavior and presumably, in personality. It has several major types:
Antisocial behavior-a result of interplay of social factors; Mental
retardation-a form of behavioral deviancy; and Behavioral disorder-
also called mental disorder, mental disease, or psychopathology.
Behavior pathology applies to forms of behavior in which an
individual is persistently tense, dissatisfied, or ineffectual, thus
preventing him from functioning effectively in society. Criteria of
pathology include personal discomfort, disruptive social behavior and
statistical frequency.
Definition of abnormal behavior change over time and from culture
to culture. Hence, no demarcation line exists between normality and
abnormality.
The representative traits possessed by “normal” persons to a greater
degree than the “non-normal” ones are their: efficient perception of
reality, self-knowledge, ability to exercise voluntary control over
their behavior, self-esteem and self-acceptance, ability to form
affectionate relationships and productivity.
Mental disorders may be classified into several categories: disorders
first evident in infancy, childhood or adolescence; organic mental
disorders, paranoid disorders, affective disorders, anxiety disorders,
somatoform disorders, dissociative disorders, psychosexual disorders,
conditions not attributable to a mental disorder, and personality
disorders.
Neurosis refers to a less severe, yet on occasions, personally the most
debilitating variety of behavior deviation. Psychosis, popularly
known as insanity, refers to a severe type of behavioral disorder in

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which there is a chronic disorganization of personality that requires

radical treatment and confinement in a mental hospital. Personality
disorder includes one or various deviations from normal to social
behavior.
Symptoms of neurosis are varied: anxiety, unreasonable fear, a sense
of inadequacy, loss of appetite, and insomnia. Typical neurotic
reactions include neurotic depression, anxiety, phobic and obsessive-
compulsive reactions.
Affective reactions, paranoid reactions, schizophrenic reactions and
chronic brain syndromes are the types of psychosis. Hebephrenia,
catatonia and paranoia are the common classes of schizophrenia.
Personality disorders, characterized by deviant, lifelong personality
traits, consist of several forms: drug dependents, schizoid, passive
and aggressive, and antisocial personalities.
Psychotherapy is a general term applied to the relationship where the
client or patient seeks help from a psychological principles.
Psychotherapists may be clinical psychologists, psychiatrists,
psychoanalysts, psychiatric social workers, nurses and mental health
aides.
There are six major forms of psychotherapy: psychoanalysis,
therapies based on self-actualization and medically-based therapies.
Preventive mental health care has three levels: primary, where
unnecessary stresses in the environment are reduced to enable the
disturbed person to focus his energies to the unavoidable ones::
secondary, where emphasis is placed on helping the client through
definition of his problem, presentation of alternative solutions and
selection of the best of these; and tertiary, where patients discharged
from mental hospitals are rehabilitated in areas of vocational training
and development of social skills.
To maintain sound physical and psychosocial health, an individual
must accept his feelings, know his vulnerabilities, develop his talents
and interests and know when to seek help.

Evaluation No. 4: A. Identification. Identify the following concepts and theorists.

1._________________A process of assessing the nature of
intelligence by identifying what it consists of and then constructing a
test to measure them.
2._________________Believes that there are 120 unique intellectual
abilities.
3._________________Originated the concept of intelligence
quotient.
4._________________Commissioned by the French government to
construct an intelligence test.

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5._________________Proponent of G and and s theory of

intelligence.
6._________________Constructed factor analysis.
7._________________Believes in fluid and crystallized intelligence.
8._________________Revised the Binet-Simon test.
9._________________IQ of above 130.
10._________________Produced the most popular group of mental
tests these days.
B. True or False. Write True if the statement is correct and False if
not.
1._________________It has been proven that IQ is constant.
2._________________Intelligence is easy to define.
3._________________Environment does not affect intelligence.
4._________________Idiots are those with lowest IQs.
5._________________Attitude is commonly referred to as a
tendency or learned predisposition to act negatively or positively
toward an object, a person, or an event.
6._________________Frustration is the outcome of the thrawrting of
or delay in a desired goal.
7._________________The physical and social environment, physical
handicaps, lack of specific abilities and lack of adequate self-control
may deter us from the realization of our goals.
8._________________Coping is commonly referred to as a tendency
or learned predisposition to act negatively or positively toward an
object, a person, or an event.
9._________________Attitude refers to the way in which we respond
to situations and stimuli around us.
10.________________Frustration tolerance is the ability to endure or
bear anxiety-provoking situations without the use of defensive
strategies. Individuals differ in their tolerance of frustrating
conditions.
Choose two classmates whom you may classify as bright and feeble-
Activity:
minded. List down their behaviors to assess whether your choices of
them Do it in a tabular form like below.

Characteristics/Behaviors
Classmate # 1 Classmate # 2
(Bright Classmate) (Feeble-Minded)

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Reflect: My Reflection
Describe the id, ego and superego. How it affect one’s life?

Assignment: Make a research about the person’s physical features both external
and internal to their behavior and innate characteristics such as those
involving mental ability, personality and attitudes and attitude
changes..

References

Aguinaldo, M. (2003) Self-learning modules in personality development and social relations.

Quezon City: MMA Publications.

Bernstein, D.A., Roy, E.J., Srull, T.K., & Wickens, C.D. (1991).Psychology (2nd Edition). Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin Company.

Chapman, C. & Freeman, C. (1966). Multiple Intelligences centers and projects. Arlington
Heights, II: Skylight Training and Publishing.

Costa, A. I. (2000). Teaching for i ntelligence II: A collection of articles. California: Sage
Publications.

Covey, S. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective people. New York: Free Press.

Eagly, A.H. (1978). Sex differences in influentiability: Psychological Bulletin, 85, 8-116.

Erickson, E. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton Company.

First Aid and Safety Magazine: Alcohol and Drug Addiction with Prevention. New York:
Free Press.

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Frando, M. & Mores, E. (2009). General Psychology: Simplified. Manadaluyong City:

Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.

Gardner, H. (1983).Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.

Gerrig, R.J. & Zimbardo, P.G. (2002). Psychology and life (16th edition). Boston, MA:
Allyn and Bacon.

Gracian, W. (2005). Find real happiness. Manila: World Link Books.

Lahey, B.B. (2207). Psychology: An introduction (9th edition). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Murray, S.L. (2005). Regulating the risks of closeness: A relationship-specific sense of felt
security. Current Directions in the Psychological Science, 14, 74-78.

Santrock, J. (2003). Psychology (7th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Trzesniewski, K.H., et.al. (2206). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health,
criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Development
Psychology, 42, 381-390.

AUTHOR’S VITAE
NAME: GRACE BALDOVIA VERIDIANO, Ph.D.
Contact No. : 09305221129/09091962338
Email: [email protected]
Bithplace: Castilla, Sorsogon
Address: Zone 2 Buendia St. Malitbog, Minalabac, 4414 Camarines Sur
Position: MPCF Associate Professor 1/DEPED -ANHS SHS Science Teacher
Husband: Jorge Solares Veridiano
Children: Jamil Lyka B. Veridiano
Yul Francis B. Veridiano
Marc Ringo B. Veridiano
Nova Jyn B. vERIDIANO
Parents: Loreta Latap Salomon
Ernesto Bustilla Baldovia
Address: Zone 4 Sto. Domingo, Bula 4430 Camarines Sur
Educational Background:
Primary Sto. Domingo Elem. School, Bula, C.S., 186-1992 Valedictorian
Secondary Pili Nationa HS, Pili, C.S., 1992-1996 Fifth Honors
Tertiary Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, Pili Main Campus,
1996-2000
Post-graduate Studies MSAED @ CBSUA Pili Main Campus, 2003-2004/20015-2016

PhD-Development of Education (DEVED) @ CBSUA Pili Main Dean’s List

Campus, 2016-2019

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Achievements: International Speakership on (Japan, 2018)

School /District/Division Local Speakerships (Science & Research)

Regional Demo-Teaching
Researcher
Private Research Consultant
Outstanding Teacher 2016 (Minalabac District)
IM/Module Writer (Adviser: DR. RAMONA ISABEL S. RAMIREZ)

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