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BestHandwrittenNotesS
CLASS Izth -

PHYSICS

Acc to New Syllabus 2021

Prepared by :

Mr . SUNIL JANG RA

supporting
.

&
sharing Jangra physics
keep Sunil
(
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
ACC to New Syllabus
th
Class -
- 12 NCERT CHAPTER =
It
th .

2021 .

Quantum Theory
PHOTONS :→ Acc to Plank's quantum Theory of radiation, an electromagnetic waves travels in the form
.

of discrete packets of energy called Quanta .

One quantum of
light radiation is called a PHOTON .

Characteristics of PHOTON
D. A photon travels with speed of
light .

H The .

of a photon does not change as it travels from one medium to another

frequency
31 The Speed of photons changes as it travels through different media due to the
.

change in its wavelength .

41 The Rest mass of a photon is zero i.e a photon cannot exist at nest
. .
.

5) Energy of photong E hi h X wavelength

a
hey plank's Constant
- -
- -
.
-
- - . -
.

c- speed
-
of light .

d. Momentum of a photon P me
HI h
Ec
- -
- -
-
- =

;
7) From . Einstein Mass energy relationship the
-

,
equivalent Mass m of a photon is given by ,
E- ME -
- hi

OE
hee Eon
m -
- -
-

8) photons are electrically

.
neutral and are not deflected by electric and Magnetic fields .

9) In a photon particle Collision, the total energy and total momentum are conserved However, the Number of photons May
. - .

not be conserved in a collision The photons

may be absorbed or a new photon may be created
.
.

lol photon Energy.

is independent of intensity of radiation .

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
rrrrrrrrrrrr
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when
electromagnetic radiations
of sufficiently high frequency are incident on It, is called photoelectric effect
.
.

Note The photo ( light) generated electrons are Called photoelectrons

.
→ -

HETE
:p Alkali metals like hi
,
Ha , K, Cs shows photoelectric effect with visible light .
Metals like Zn, Cd ng
,

respond to Uv
light .
 Experimental Study of PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
To study photoelectric
effect, an
emitting electrode C of a
photo sensitive material is kept at Negative potential and a
collecting electrode A is kept at positive potential in evacuated Tube .

it hen a light of Sufficiently high frequency falls on

electrode , emitted which travels

photoelectron
emitting are

directly Collecting electrode and hence an electric Current

to
called photoelectric current starts flowing in the Circuitg
" "

Hh ich is directly proportional to the Number of photoelectrons emitted

by emitting ,
electrode E .

" '

When collecting electrode A is made negative w .

rt emitting
electrode C , an electric field is set up in the direction of
Motion of photoelectrons, which retarding force on apply
electrons . So now lesser electrons reach the collecting electrode
and photoelectric current in the circuit decrease
.

Retarding Potential i→ is that

potential at Hh ich no photoelectron reaches the Collecting electrode A and the
photoelectric current in the circuit becomes called Stopping potential
" "
zero is .

Experiments on photoelectric effect .

D. Effect of Intensity of light on photocurrent .

i. e Intensity of Photon a Photocurrent EEP)

→
photoelectric effect is a one to One
process
.

I:c One photon = One photoelectron .

Tsing intensity of photon Tsing of emitted electron (photoelectron)

→
→ number

2) .

Effect of potential on photoelectric Current .

i) At zero
.

potential the emitted electron are in random Motion , Due to random motion of photoelectron
a small current Constitute .
ie At
.
zero potential , photocurrent is not zero .

Ii) He hen Potential

.

applied to collector plate is + ve .

then most of the photoelectrons Moves towards it
and constitute photocurrent in the circuit ie photoelectric Current increases with increase in
accelerating.

voltage At some stage ,

.
for a certain positive potential of A
plate , all the emitted electrons are collected
by the plate A -
and the photoelectric Current becomes maximum or saturates .

If He increase the accelerating potential of plate A further, the photo

-

current does not increase This maximum value .

of photocurrent is called
saturation current .
Saturation Current means when all the photoelectron
reach the collector plate A .
iii. it hen Potential applied to Collector plate is Negative the electrons are repelled and only the
.

most energetic electrons are able to reach the plate A At a certain value of Negative .

A photocurrent becomes zero This minimum

voltage Vo on the plate , , "
negative potential Vo is
called the cut off or stopping potential
" " ←
-

mum mum mum

⑦ Effect of frequency of Incident radiation on

stopping Potential .

→
if radiation of same Intensity I but different
frequencies I
, Oz & Oz are incident on
metallic surface ,
then it is found that
photo electric current produced is same but

the stopping potentials are different at

different frequencies .

4) Variation of stopping Potential Vo with Frequency 0 of incident radiation

for a given photosensitive Material .

Cut -
off frequency : → The minimum frequency Do below

which no emission take place is

called
"
Cut off
"
as
frequency
-
or

Threshold frequency .

PP # ⑧¥ is .
Define the term threshold frequency in photoelectric emission (20203 .

→
Answer in Notes .

Cs .

→ Ans Collector
=
plate potential .

JWH
Potential
Ans
stopping
→ -
- .

Answer in Notes

Gangotri
→ .

→ Ans in notes .
Failure of Have theory of light to explain Photoelectric Effect .

D. Acc to .

theory greater the intensity of radiation greater are the amplitudes of electric
wave
, ,

and magnetic fields and Hence greater is the energy

density of wave so the maximum .

kinetic
energy of photo electro emitted must depend intensity of incident light, however on

practically it does not happens So Independence of Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron

.

emitted on
intensity of incident light cannot be explained using wave
theory of light .

2) Also, whatever the

.

frequency of incident radiation

may beg incident light of Large intensity over a sufficient
time must be able to impart enough energy to the electrons so that they can get out of the Matei
,
surface threshold must not exist
,
so a
frequency .

I. Further, number of electrons absorb

energy continuously over the entire wavefront of the radiation -
so
absorbed per unit time by an electron becomes very small So , in that case electrons may take quite
energy
.

long time to come out of Metallic surface on continuous exposure of light on the surface However ,
practically .

we found that there is no time hag between incident of light and emission of photoelectron .

So, we conclude that wave nature of light cannot be used to explain photoelectric Effect .

PY =
Discuss briefly how wave theory of light cannot explain photoelectric effect (2/3 AI 2015)
Ans In above Article
,

= .

Einstein's Explanation to Photoelectric effect CPrevious Year 's Questions

Einstein 's Photoelectric Equation :→ when light is incident on metal surface, incident
.
Acc to Einstein
.

,
photons are absorbed completely by of atoms of metal on its surface valence electron .

Energy HD of each photon is

partially utilised by an electron to become free or to overcome
H ORK FUNCTION f Ho) and rest of the absorbed
energy provides the Maximum kinetic
" "
its

energy of photoelectron during the emission .

'
hit Energy of photon
=

h D=
{ Miina t Ho Ho work function
-
- .

{ Mick
K E to the
-

photoelectron .

Work function : →( Ho ) The minimum

energy required by the valence electron of an atom on the
surface of metal to become free or to become a photo electron .

At threshold frequency Do .

, energy of photon halo of incident radiation

the is just sufficient enough
to Liberate the electron wire just equal to work function Ho .

"

frequency
"

Ho hbo
-
- =
he X= Threshold
Xo

HD No
so
=L thyme ,
+

this Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

{ Miina
"

hH Called
"
= -
D) .
is .

so at threshold frequency Do ,
kinetic
Energy of photoelectron emitted is zero .
 Explanation to Laws of Photoelectric Effect .
CPXQI .

it As soon as an electron absorbs energy of photon , it sets itself free So emission of

. .

photoelectron starts as light falls on metal surface .

lit Below threshold frequency Do , of photon is less than work function of metal
.

energy
surface ire less than minimum amount of energy required to librate an electron So
.
.

emission of photoelectron take place only when the frequency of incident radiation
is above on
equal to the threshold frequency Do Further the slope of graph between
.

of incident radiation is
stopping potential Ho and frequency no

von tana
¥, e¥o ,
-

joie - - - - - - - -

I mv2ma×
EE t

k¥3:} he
=
-

EE
-

i
- -
-

* o .
* "
"o
Frequency
However the intercept of this curve on
tho potential axis is at
ke
A the OA OB tano =
Do
- -
- -

or OA = -

h2o
e

But if the
graph is plotted between maximum kinetic
energy Emina ello of ,
=

0 of incident radiation then the slope of graph is

Photoelectron and frequency ,
potential
'

equal to h , and intercept on the axis is at -

hi .
.

iii. As energy of photon depends on the frequency of light,

so the maximum Ko E with
which photoelectron is emitted depends only on the
energy of photon
of incident radiation
or on the
frequency
-
.

Cut As light depend its one photon

the Number of photons in
number of
on
intensity , andemitted
Liberates one photoelectron ,
so
photoelectrons depend only on
the
intensity of incident
light
.

Have Nature of Matter :

DEBIILieIILypqthesi.EE (De Broy ) In 1924 , French physicist Lewis de Broglie suggested like
-
-

radiation g Matter too should have dual Nature ie the particle like electrons, protons, .
-

neutron etc , can have particle as well as wave nature .

He reasoned that Nature was symmetrical and that two basic physical entities -

matter and ,
must have symmetrical character
energy .

He proposed that the wavelength X associated with a particle

of momentum p is
' '

Ip hq
X -
-
=
where m
-
-
mass of particle
, v =
speed of particle .

X -
-

wavelength of Matter wave .

 have
For a
photon as we seen
p= h.CI Therefore
hp q
X
- =

→
X is smaller for a heavier particle ( large m) or more
energetic particle .

Broglie Hypothesis of a 0.12kg moving

For example the de -
ball of mass
,
'
with a speed of 20ms is easily calculated .

P -
-
MV =
0.12
kg . X 20 m 51=2.40 kg MS l -

6.63×90-34 Js 2.76×10-34m , This wavelength is so small

X
hp
= = =

'
£40 kg m5 that is beyond any measurement .

→
This is the why macroscopic objects life do show
like
reason in our
daily not
wave -

properties .

De Broglie wavelength
-

X of the electron .

Consider an electron ( mass m

, charge e) accelerated from rest through
a
potential V The
.
kinetic
energy K of the electron equals the
work done cell) on it the electric field
by
.

K = ex
Now K
Izmir we know p my
- -
- -

SO V I =

tmz :
Tank
and K
K=zIm so that P
-
-
-
-

P -
-
tame

The de -

Broglie wavelength X of the electron is then

*
tf ;÷ey substituting
'
h ,
m, e
the numerical value of

we
get
y =
12.27 nm V -
-

Magnitude of accelerating
potential in volts .

PYQ :-)
me
A proton and an electron have same kinetic
energy . which one has
greater de -

Broglie wavelength why &

? CAI 20123
solution :→ we know
X= h_ given ke= Kp
+2M
K

Xx I °o° Mp3 > me ooo

Xp ←
Xe
Tm
PYQ :-) A proton and an electron have equal speeds .
Find the ratio of de -

Broglie
Have lengths associated with them C 2020? .
.

t.fi?npe--otzgAnsweE
Solution : →
= .

*m¥ ,
 Characteristics of matter waves
④ Matter waves are not
electromagnetic waves in nature .

ii. Matter waves are non mechanical waves ire

they can travel in vacuum
- . .

Ciii) Matter
.
independent of charge ire
waves are .

they are associated with every moving

particle ( whether charged or uncharged ) .

Civ) Observation of matter waves is possible when the de Broglie

only
-
.

wavelength is of the order of size of particle C i e the waves are diffracted) -

.

④ The phase velocity of the Matter waves can be greater than the speed of the light
.
.

Hit The Number of de Broglie waves associated with nth orbital electron is n
.
- .

# Laws of Bho to electric Effect .

it For a . material and a given frequency of incident radiation , the photoelectric

given
current or number of photoelectrons ejected per second is proportional directly
to the intensity of the incident
light
-

H for
-
a
given material and frequency of incident radiation , saturation current is
Found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation , whereas the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity .

⑦ for a given material , there exists

. a certain minimum frequency of the incident
radiation below which no emission of photoelectron takes place .
This frequency
is called threshold frequency .

Above the threshold frequency , the maximum kinetic energy of the

emitted photoelectrons or equivalent stopping potential is independent
of the of the
intensity incident light but depends upon only the frequency
( or wavelength) of the incident light -

④ The photoelectric emission is

.
instantaneous process The time
an .

lag between
the incidence of radiation and emission of photoelectron is very small g
less than even 10-9s .
 ATOMS
class Kth
-

NCERT CH =
12
th
Acc to New
.

Syllabus .

2021 .

Structure of A TOM
Thomson 's model of an Atom
~r~~~~~~→w÷
Terrene-

The first model of atom was proposed by

Jr J Thomson in 1898 According to this model,
.

the positive charge of the atom is uniformly

distributed throughout the volume of atom and
negatively charged electrons are embedded in it
like seeds in a watermelon . This model was called
plum pudding model of the atom .

The mutual repulsion between the electron are balanced by their attraction with
the positively charged matter .

Thus the atom as a whole is stable and Neutral .

Failure of Thomson's Model

Thomson 's model was failed in explaining the a- particle scattering
experiment proposed by Rutherford and hater performed by Hans Geiger
and Ernest Marsden .

Alpha Particle scattering Experiment cmon

-

Turn
.

At the suggestion of Rutherford in 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed a- -

particle scattering experiment .

They directed
radioactive
a

source at a
beam of 5.5 MeV
thin Metal foil made of Gold
x -

particle
.
emitted from a
:O:B :
The beam was thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 XIE'm
allowed to fall on a .

Alpha particles emitted by radioactive source were collimated into a

narrow beam
by passing through lead bricks .

The scattered alpha particle were received by a ro table detector with zinc sulphide
screen and a microscope .

Distribution of the Number of scattered by flashes or scintillations produced by

striking a-

particles on the zinc sulphide screen .

Alpha Particle :→ Alpha particle also called alpha rays or alpha radiation
-

,
,
consist of two protons and two neutron bound together into a particle
identical to a helium -4 nucleus .

They are generally produced in the process of

alpha decay , but may also be produced in other ways .

Rutherford's Observations and Results :

D. Most of the x particle pass

through the gold
-

Foil without
any deflection This shows that
.

most of the space in an atom is

empty :
2) Few a- particles got scattered
deflecting at
,
.

various
'
angles from 0 to it .

This shows that

called
atom has a small positively charged core

nucleus at centre of atom which deflects the

positively changed x particles
e ' -

,
their distance from
at different
angles depending on centre of nucleus .

⑤ very few
.
in 8000) suffers deflection of 1800 This shows
A- particles ( I .

that size of Nucleus is very small , nearly µ oooo times the size of
atom .

N
-

# Rutherford 's a -

scattering formulae .

Number alpha particle scattered per

of
unit area NCOs at scattering angle O
,
varies inversely as

NCO) x I
sin 40123

* Impact Parameter Cbs : CPYQ)

Gt is defined as the perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector
the
of the alpha particle
from the centre of the nucleus when the particle is
,
Far
away from the nucleus of the atom
.

b=IekotCO# K kinetic energy

-
-

4 it Eo K of the x particle
-

F- atomic no of nucleus
. O -

scattering
angle .

# Distance of closest approach Q2

At a certain distance ro from the Nucleus
,
the X particle stops for a moment and then
-

begin to retrace its path The distance ro is called .

the distance of closest
approach .

ro = 221
4 it Eok

At the distance of closest approach whole kinetic energy of the alpha particle
is converted into potential energy .
 let, initial kinetic energy of particle
→ a =
K
Imf
-
- -

→ electrostatic pot of a -

particle and
Nucleus at distance ro
4=9,92 deke
Toute
-

Utero .

At distance ro
,
k=U K =
221
Utero
no =
2¥
UITEOK
# Electron Orbit / Using Rutherford's model of the atom find total
,
of electron in atom Clones
energy Hydrogen
H atom has both kinetic
. .

An electron revolving in an orbit of energy and

-

,
electrostatic potential energy .

The electrostatic force of attraction Fe between the revolving electrons and

,

the Nucleus provides the requisite centripetal force E to keep them in orbit .

it .

Fe =
Fc
I is
ate.fi M¥2
-
-
r-
-
-
.

-
HtEo MV Relation between
the orbit radius and the
electron velocity .

The kinetic Energy Ck) and the electrostatic potential energy cos of
'
the electron in hydrogen atom are .

"
*
Em I fifer
" '
'

'
and ↳ =
-
e
negative sign indicates
d-
-

K =
4# Eor that the electrostatic force
8# Eor is in the -
r direction .

Thus total energy E of the

.
electron in a
hydrogen atom
is

,¥gr after
E =
Ktv -

50
E- ¥ The total energy of the electron is negative .

Ester This implies the fact that the electron is

bound to the Nucleus If E were positive, .

an electron will not follow a closed orbit

around the Nucleus .
 Limitations of Rutherford 's Atomic Model
it .

Ateoutthestablikyefatem : Acc to Maxwell 's electromagnetic wave theory ,

electron should emit energy in electromagnetic during the form of wave
its orbital motion .

Therefore , radius of orbit of electron will decrease gradually and ul ti -

matey it will fall in the Nucleus

-
.

ii. About the line spectrum on Rutherford atomic Model cannot

~-~--~~
explain atomic
line spectrum

BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

postulates 8 This model , also called Planetary model of the atom , is
based on the following postulates .

it Nuclear
.

= I I
concept :→ An atom consists of a small and Massive central core
,
-_

called Nucleus aroundwhich planetary electron revolve The centripetal

.

force required for their rotation is provided by the electrostatics attraction

between the electron and the nucleus .

lit Quantum condition :→

. of all possible circular orbit are allowed by the
classical theory the electrons are permitted to circulate only in those
,
orbit , in which the angular momentum at an electron is an integral multiple
of h .

2¥ ie
-

L =
Mvr =
nd n =
I , 2,3, - - - -
n =
principal Quantum
2 it numbers .

↳ Called Bohr 's

guantfsatfon Condition .

h= plank 's constant

Liii .
Stationary orbit :→ while resolving in the permissible orbits, an electron
does not radiate energy .
These non -

radiating orbit are called

stationary orbit .

Liv) .

frequency condition :→ An atom can emit or absorb radiation in the

Form of discrete energy photons only when an electron jumps
from a higher to a Lower orbit or from a tower
'
to a higher
orbit , respectively
E- Ep -

Eg
his = E, -

Eg D= Ei -

Eg
-

'
hi

where D is frequency of radiation emitted E

, ,
e Ef are the

energies associated with stationary orbit of principal quantum

respectively C where
Tng )
'

number n and n >

, ng ,
 BOHR 'S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM Cmas .

Radius of nth Orbit is In H atom an electron

, having e revolves
-

charge
-

around the nucleus of charge te in a circular orbit of radius r ,

such
that necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of
attraction and nucleus .

minute E
"
ie ti '
my u¥eoe¥
-

.
e
.
.

.IE . . .
-
e

From Bohr 's quantization condition .

Mvr
-
- nd or v= nd - Li:3 .

It Atman

using equation Lii) in eq we get

(y¥mrj=y¥qF
'

r m

or
f,fInIyE¥qE Or "
7IhmIer where mi , 2,3 .
. - - -
is principal
quantum number .

i. e bank

Radius of nth orbit of H atom

-
r = n'X 0.529 Ao

Radius of
Hydrogen like species Het ,
Lit ; Bet "
such atoms have one electron like Hydrogen atom , but the charge of
their nucleus is + Eeg where Z is their atomic number .

So that in this case radius of nth orbit of such atom becomes .

f- n' h'Eo
'
or t =
XO 529A
.

Emea

speed of Electron in nth Orbit of Hydrogen atom

From Bohr 's quantization condition .

of
Mvr = HI or v =
nd using
value r here , we get
.

dit dit r

nd I
IIe! I then E
Y =
or v =
" or "= i -
e v
-
-
I

'4n÷hmIej
d an neo ban

where a-
gente Ig
Called fine structure constant .
=
g
.
, ,

PYQ Using Bohr 's atomic model , derive the expression for the radius of nth
= '
orbit of the revolving electron in a hydrogen atom CAI £0203 . .

Solution : -
answer in notes .
 Energy of Electron in nth Orbit Hydrogen atom .

An electron revolving in an orbit of H atom , has both kinetic energy -

and electrostatic potential energy .

Kinetic energy of the electron revolving in a circular orbit of radius

r is '
K
IM "
-

using equation CD K=¥eoELr

-

in it .

Electrostatic potential energy of electron of charge -

e
revolving around
of is
the nucleus charge te in an orbit of radius r

I
U = e- so total of electron in orbit of radius is
, energy r

41TEor

uteoeztr u¥qr
E Ktv E-
-
-
-

-
E- -
e

Iter using value of r we

get E- -

I -

4tTEo2Tn2ho) "me

En
-
-
-

MI En = -

13€ ex { let i. 6×10-19-4

8Efn2h2
-
n i

note : → it .
-

ve sign of energy of electron indicates that the electron and nucleus

together form a bound system . ire electron is bound to the nucleus .

'
Lii) energy of electron in its orbit varies inversely of
-

i. e
with
negative n .

E at
2
Th

energy level
diagram of
Hydrogen atom o

In the ground state of atom its Bohr radius is given

PXQ :S Hydrogen ,
as
'
5. 3×10 'm The atom is excited such that the radius becomes 21.2×15 'm
"
. .

Find the value of the principal quantum number and the total energy
of the atom in this excited state Delhi 2013 .

Solution : s -

'
it since ran

so

¥ =p:
-
n'=tln
nf=a÷;gio 3¥
=
n
. .
= .

,
 Lii )
-13yd
E-
know that
-13mi 3.4
we = = -
ell
Answer -

→ THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM . .

←

If Ei and Ef are energies associated with the radius of H atom of principal -

quantum number n , and ng respectively Chi > ng) , then on jumping of

electron from orbit n to ng g the difference of energy associated with
-

,
these orbit is emitted as a photon of frequency O whose energy is
' '

given BY

@neng.enYnatgmeeg7nyTyEiE-ioneinInB.or
'
E-
Ei Ef or his =
- -

t.me#i.EnEtiIorE--:neo*n.KnEtn.itxt=gmepIu
[ ¥ tnp)
-

or
f-
=
RH
[thy In ;] -

RH MEI -
-

8Etch
-
-

'
to axiom

is Called
-
I

Rydberg 's constant .

I
=
wave number .

Spectral series of Atom

Hydrogen .

When the electron in a H -

atom jumps from Higher energy level to lower

energy level , the difference of energies of two

energy Levels is emitted as
radiation of particular wavelength , called spectral line .

Spectral lines of different wavelengths are obtained for transition of

electron between two different energy levels
,
which are Found to fall
in a number of spectral series given by .

tillman series : I
=L RH
[ Ip In;] ht I
ni Ri 3,4 O
- -
-
- - -
-
- - -
.

lies in
Lyman series v.v
region .

Lii) Balmer I
If Rt,
[ Iz In;) 2
hi =3 4,5
=
-7
ng o
-
= - -
- -
o , ,

Balmer series lies in the Balmer

region .

Liii) Paschen series :→ I

f- RH
[ ya th ;) hf =3 hi 4,5
= = -
-
-
N -

.
- - -

= =

Paschen series lies IR

region of em .
waves .

.BR#ckttSeiesoo-I=,f=iRH-Ltfz-tnqJnf=4ni--5i6i
it -
- o

Brackett series lies in IR of

region em waves .

④ Ptund series it
I=¥=RH[ ¥ ÷) 5
hi 6,7
d
- -

ng
'
- - -
- - -

Pfund series also lies in IR of

region em waves .
 Energy level
diagram for spectral
of
series
Hydrogen .

Transition of Electron
is .

Emissions peetrum:→ when an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower

energy state, it emits energy in the form of radiation

which produce a spectrum called emission of spectrum .

ii. Absorption spectrum : when an electron jumps from lower '

energy state to higher energy state , it absorbs

energies of the photons of certain frequencies,
of the white light passed through the hydrogen gas .

The resulting spectrum then produced consist of

bright background with some dark lines corresponding
to the frequencies absorbed by the electron This pattern
.

of dark lines is called absorption spectrum .

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 NUCLEI
class
runner
-

12
th
NCERT CH
were
=
13
th
Acc New
.

nonrecurrent
Syllabus 2021 -

Composition of Nucleus
The radius of nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor
of 104 More than 99.9 to mass of the atom is concentrated in the
.

Nucleus .

Nucleons 8-2 Proton and neutrons which are

present
in the nuclei of atoms are collectively
known as nucleons .

Atomic Number : →
The number of protons in the nucleus is Called the
atomic number of the element .
Gt is denoted by E .

Mass Number : →
The total number of protons and neutrons present in
nucleus is called the Mass number of the element
a
- .

Gt is denoted by A .

→
number of protons in an atom = E
→ number of electrons in an atom Z =

→ number of nucleons in an atom A =

→ number of neutrons in an atom = N A Z = -

Nuclear mass
'

:The total Mass of the protons and neutrons present in a

nucleus is called the nuclear Masso

Nuclide A nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom characterised by

its atomic number Z and mass number Ao Gt is
symbolically represented as EX .

Where
A- Chemical Symbol of the element .

Atomic Mass Unit on The mass of atom is very small, compared to

an a

kilogram . Therefore a different mass unit is

,
used for expressing atomic masses .
i e atomic mass unit ru
-
.

One atomic mass unit is defined as of the

fun
u
actual Mass of carbon 12 atom -
.

Gt is denoted by am U or only u .

"
I am U =
Mass of one C atom
12
I am U = l 992678
.
X 10-26 kg
I 2
I am U = 931 they

tff
gafEagtTgagTTTed
 TYPES OF ATOMS
/ te te →

Isotopes Isobars Iso tones Isomers .

is Isotopes :S are those atoms which have some atomic number but
different atomic masses .

'
IL : Fyi
'
c-
g ,
H , ,H3 ,
H

Cli ) Isobars : those atoms which have

are same atomic mass but
"
different atomic numbers
"
e.g Ar g
KYO ,
Ca etc .

,@ µ ↳

Liii) Isotones 8-2 are those atoms which have same number of neutrons in
their nuclei cire same number of neutrons)
" "

g g CL g + N' , go
5
e. N= A Z -

N = 14-6=8 15-7=8 , I G- 8=8 .

ill Isomers
. : → are the nuclei with same atomic no .
and same mass no .

but existing in different energy state .

Discovery of Neutron
In 1932 James Chadwick Observed that when
alpha particles are bombarded on beryllium
nuclei emission of neutral radiation take place .

This neutral radiation could knock

out protons from light nuclei such as those
of helium , carbon and nitrogen Chadwick .

assumed that the neutral radiation consists of

new type of neutral particles called neutrons .

i' tape
'
I
'

tie →
+ on
(neutron )

The neutrons is not a stable particle .

get spontaneously
decays as follow :

it t.ie
"

on → ti t
Q
 Important properties of neutron
lil Neutron is
.
an elementary particle present in the nuclei of all elements
except hydrogen .

is
Neutron has no
charge and its mass
slightly more than that of a

proton .
Mn = I .
00866 am U =
I .
6749×110-27 kg

Iii) A free neutron is unstable Gt .

spontaneously decays into a proton,
electron and an anti neutrino with a Half life of about 1000 s .

In →
it tie + J t Q

in Neutrons being neutral , have low ionising power

.
.

④ Being neutral , neutrons are not repelled or attracted by the

.

nucleus and the electrons of an atom They can easily penetrate

.

'

through heavy nuclei and induce nuclear reactions .

Hi) They induce radioactivity in many eldments .

Size of Nucleus LPXQ)

④ An alpha
.

particle which suffers head on collision, suffering a deflection

of 1800g helps us to find the radius of nucleus by
distance of closest approach .
As the alpha particle
comes to rest at almost on the surface of nucleus ,
IEEE
so distance of closest approach r, its kinetic
at

energy converts into electric potential energy .

:

-2,1%4%3
"
gives
¥eo2eIfe This approximate
r
Emv
or → an

idea of radius of nucleus

and is found to be order of 1044ns .

Gil volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons

in it; ie
-
on the mass number A of the nucleus so .

BoA's
'
Ab
It R in A Rd ie R =

5M Is
"
where Ro = lol X 15 called nucleus unit radius .

Density of the nucleus CPXQ)

D= massofnucteus k¥027
Afgf÷ezmU
or P =
P=
Volume of nucleus 1203
4g It

Note: s -

i) Density . of all the nuclei of all the atoms is same as it is independent

of mass number .

Ceil .
Matter is not distributed uniformly inside the nucleus and density
is maximum nucleus
at centre of .
which reduces towards it edge .

'
So
,
nucleus does not have sharp boundaries .

high density of
The the nucleus (a 1017kg m 3) suggest that nucleus is
-

highly compact .
 CAI 20203
PYQ → The nuclear radius of ight is 3. G Fermi .
find the nuclear radius of
:{ u .

Solution
Ab 's "

Piaf ( Aft ) ( Aff)

-

3
we know E- Ro i -
e
-
-

Rae -
-

Rai
. ,

"
Rue = 3.6
( GIF) 3 =
4 8 Fermi
.

LPXQ) Show that density of nucleus is independent of its mass number Ao

( Delhi 20193
Solution Answer in
=
= Notes . .

Nuclear force
The force acting
inside the nucleus or
acting between nucleons is
called nuclear force .

Nuclear forces forces in nature

→ are the
strongest .

→ gt is very short range attractive force .

→ gt is non -
central and non -
conservative force .

→ gt is independent of charge .

→ 9 t is too times that of electrostatic force and 1030 times that of gravitational
Force .

→
according to Yuk wa
,
the nuclear force acts between the nucleons due to
continuous exchange of meson particles .

# Features of Nuclear Binding force CPYYQ )

N The nuclear force is much stronger than the

.

coulombs force acting between charges on

the gravitational forces between masses .

The nuclear binding

force has to dominate
over the coulombs repulsive force between

proton inside the nucleus This happens .

only because the nuclear force is much

stronger than the coulombs force The .

gravitational force is much weaker

than even Coulomb force .

Ch The nuclear force between the nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance
-

is more than a few F-em to metres This heads to saturation of forces in a .

medium or a
large
-
sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of
the binding energy per nucleon
A
rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a
function of distance is shown in fig The potential energy is a minimum .

at a distance ro of about 0.8 fm This means that the force is attractive .

for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by
distance less than 0 8 Fm .
.

G) The nuclear force between neutron neutron neutron and proton-proton

, proton
-
. -

is approximately the same The nuclear force does not

.
depend on the electric
charge .

Unlike Coulomb's Law

Newton 's Law of or
gravitation there is no simple
mathematical form of the nuclear force .
 mm

ERIE
:3 Draw a plot of potential energy of a pain of nucleons as a Function of
their separation write two important conclusion which you can draw
.

regarding
the nature of nuclear forces . CAI-20153 .

Solution → Answer in above topic .

Mass -

Energy : Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy ,

say kinetic energy and vice-versa .

'
i -
e E =
me c
-
-
velocity of light in vacuum .

= 3×100 mls

Numerical ( NCERT solved) :→ Calculate the energy equivalent of

1g of substance .

Solution
153kg
: 2
I
E = me m= g =

-
E =
10-3×13×108)
E= 9X lol -3J Answers .
.

Mass Defect The of nucleus is the sum of masses of its nucleons

:
expected mass
ie
-

proton and neutrons , within it But , it is found that the nest mass of
.

nucleus is always the sum of masses of its nucleons

less than .

The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a

nucleus and the rest mass of nucleus is known as mass - defect .

Gt is denoted
by AM °

of proton
[Tempt ( A Mp mass of neutron
Mn )
Mn mass
-

= -
-

Am =
mm
-

mµ= rest mass of nucleus .

Nuclear fission
The Process of splitting of a
heavy nucleus into two nuclei of smaller masses with
Liberation of energy is called nuclear fission .

235
The nuclear fission reaction * is represented as

int: i'i'Bati:krt sin

'
→
II. →

'
neutron
on
= .

Nuclear fusion :S When two or more than two

light nuclei fuse together to form heavy
nucleus with liberation of energy , the process
is called Nuclear Fusion o

!H
'

,
H t →
2. H t ett Ot 0.42 MeV

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-

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-
Pt Q Q complete-
-
the following reactions : C Delhi 2015C )
at

⑨ .

:B in + → Ite t - - - - - - -

Cbs .

9470+2 H ,
→
9jTet - - - - - - - -

solution La? 101-1 =

4+A & 5+0=2-12
win
A = 7 2=3
ie t
Li
-

(b) .
94+2=95-1 A 42+1=43+2
A = 96-95=1 2--43-43=0
A =L 2=0

i e
-

in

note : → • Temperature a 107k are required for fusion to take place .

Nuclear fusion is basic of

a
Hydrogen bomb
.
•

• stellar Energy :S it is the energy obtained from the sun and stars . The
source of stellar energy is nuclear fusion .

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 Semiconductor Electronics
class -
12M NCERT CH -
14 Acc to New
.

Syllabus .

Classification of solids on the Basis of Energy Bands

Insulators : in insulators , the

valence band is completely filled
whereas the conduction band is

completely empty .

As there is no electron in conduction

band so no electrical conduction is
possible .
The energy gap between
conduction band and valence band
is so Large ( Eg > 3 ell) that no electron
in valence band can be provided so
'

much energy from

any external
source that it can jump this energy gap .

Semiconductors : The energy band structure of a semiconductor is shown in

figure (b) It is similar to that of an insulator but
.

with a comparatively small energy gap C Eg <3 ex) .

At absolute temperature , the conduction band of semiconductor is

totally empty and valence band is completely filled .

Therefore , they are insulators at Low temperatures .

However, at room Temperhere , some electrons in the valence band acquire

'

thermal energy greater than energy band gap and jump over to the conduction
band where they are free to move under the influence of even a small electric
field and acquire small conductivity .

Hence the resistance of semiconductor is not as high as that of insulators .

conductors (Metal) on In case of metals either the conduction band is

partially filled and valence band is partially
empty , conduction band and valence band overlap
or .

In case of overlap ing electrons from valence band can easily

move into the conduction band, thus Large number of electrons available
For conduction .

In case valence band is empty g electrons from its lower level can
move to higher level
making conduction possible .

This is the reason why resistance of metal is how or the conductivity

is high o

Energy Bands of solids

Li! Valence Band → This energy band contains valence electrons This band may be .

partially or completely filled with electrons but never be empty .

The electron in this band are not capable of gaining energy from
external electric field to take part in conduction of current -
 ④ Conduction Band 8 This band contains conduction electrons This band is either .

empty or
partially filled with electrons .

→ Electrons present in this band take part in the conduction of current .

Liii) forbidden Band : This band is completely empty . As temperature increases ,

Forbidden energy gap decreases
.

Note →
The minimum energy required to shift an electron from valence band to
conduction band is called Badd Gat C Eg)
.

Types of SEMICONDUCTOR

i) intrinsic semiconductors .

④ Extrinsic semiconductor .

A semiconductor in its pure state A semiconductor doped with a

is called intrinsic semiconductor .
suitable impurity to increase its
or conductivity is called extrinsic
A pure semiconductor which is free semiconductor .

is known as
From every impurity Types
intrinsic semiconductor .

I ↳
e.
g Germanium ( Gel and Silicon Csi )

→ in intrinsic semiconductors, the

number of free electron he is
equal
{YITh {EoLPd%fomihg
to the number of holes ha That is .

hh n type semiconductor when a

he hi
→

@BGgGoy
- - -
- -

small amount of pentavalent

ni
= intrinsic carrier concentration .
impurity is added to a
pure
good semiconductor it is known as
,
n -

type semi conductor .

Bond
.

covalent
→ i. e intrinsic -1 Pentavalent -= n type -

Semiconductor Semiconductor .

P type semiconductor : when

-
a
small amount of trivalent
impunity is added to a pure
it is known
EGG
semiconductor ,
as
→ all the valence electrons of semi conduct P -

type semiconductor .

-
tor atoms are occupied in covalent.EE
bonding . ie
-

Intrinsic + trivalent =
p
-

type .

→ whentemperature is raised some of Semiconductor impurity

the covalent bonds in semiconductor
break due to thermal energy supplied . •
Pentavalent→ As , Sb, P etc .

Thus the electron which set free ,

provide small electrical conductivity to •
Trivalent → Ing B , Al etc .

a semiconductor crystal

→ conductivity of extrinsic semi -

→ when electron breaks its covalent

an conductor is high .

bond and becomes free , a vacancy is

created in the valence band .
 )
→ This missing electron in a covalent bond
hole which acts
ctsnacagueed
a as + ve

→ conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor

is low .

N -
Type semiconductor ;-7 =
A pentavalent impurity atom has
Five valence electron On .

adding
it to a semiconductor four of its electron form
,
covalent bond with semiconductor atoms
, leaving
the fifth valence electron unoccupied
small amount of
Thus on
adding pentavalent
impurity like As or Sb
, Large number of free
electron are produced in a semiconductor crystal .

→ The Fifth valence electron of impurity atom

,
called
as Donar o
→ so in n -

type semiconductor majority carriers are free electron and

minority carries are holes .

→
ie heh n
-
-

hit g ni is the number

density of electron in a conduction
band
→ so in n -

type semiconductor, current is mainly conducted by

free electron o

P-

type semiconductor :

when a small amount of trivalent

is added to a pure semi
impurity
conductor , it is called P type semi -
-

-
conductor .

trivalent impurity atom has three

A
valence electrons on
adding it to a .

semiconductor three of its electron

,
Form three covalent bonds with semiconductor atoms , leaving
the fourth covalent bond incomplete, with a vacancy of one electron .

This missing electron in the fourth covalent bond behaves as a hole .

,
The trivalent impurity atom are known as Acceptor atom .

p type semiconductor , majority

'
In -
carriers are holes and minority carriers are
free electrons .

→ ie henn =
hit or nh > he , so in p type
-

,
current is mainly
conducted by holes
'

in p type semiconductor , from

-
positive to negative terminal of Semiconductor Crystal .

Electrical I.
Conductivity of a semiconductor a
-

let us consider semiconductor crystal of length

a
Af
section area A across which a potential
g y
' ,
l and cross -

x is applied then Magnitude of electric field are set up

, -
y -

inside it
E-
Ie -
lit
 Electric current flowing through the semiconductor is the both due to free electrons
and holes and is given by
I = Iet In from drift velocity & current relation
I = nee Ave +
nneavh I= ett Chevet nhvin)
-
cis .

he = no .

density of free electron hhz no -

density of free Holes .

so mobility of free electron is

Ciii )
HE
¥ ve HEE
- -
-

mobility of holes is CD
teh
VIE Ye Une
-
-
.
-

using equation Ciii ) & Ev) in eg

EAEC nemeth n Un)
CAVE lnelletnhlle)
R=¥= leached
I =
or E- or

'hnUu7 et

P=R¥=eA¥etnnUn7 ¥
so

or p =
I
ecneuetnn Un )
so the electrical conductivity of semiconductor is then given by
,

f-
Ip or r =
ecneeletnhllh )
→ In Intrinsic semiconductor r =
ene Cnet un ) ooo ne nn
-
-
-
-
n

→ In extrinsic n -

type r -
-

eneue
°
: he> inn
→ In extrinsic p -

type r -
-
en nah
o
: nm> he

Note!→ as we > ten , so electrical conductivity of n -

type is more that that

of p -

type semiconductor .

PN Junction Diode on An arrangement consisting a p type semiconductor -

brought into a close contact with n type semiconductor , is called p n - -

junction → potential barrier

't
.

How ever if this junction is provided with P t n

a * I
metallic contacts at the ends for the ④ ④ to a - -

att , • •
• •

M
application
*

of external it is
voltage , then
I ⑧ 000

④ ④ ④
- -
a att ,
A • • •

junction
'
called Diode att
Pn p
- -
.
• •
l
④ ④ ④
a
a •

of
•
att ;
-

L y "
""

Engr:b! Electron-hole
Junction
P N

P N

when ph junction
is formed then at the junction free electrons from
,
n -

type
diffuse over to p type , thereby filling in the holes in p type
- - .
 Due to this a layer of positive charge is built on
p side and
-
a layer of
negative charge p side of pn junction This layer sufficiently
is built on - .

grows up within a very short time of the junction being formed, preventing any
Further movement of change carriers across the pn junction .

Thus a potential difference Vo of the order of o I to 0.3 V is setup across the .

potential
"

junction junction barrier

"
pan called barrier or .

The thin region around the junction containing immobile positive and negative
is known "
depletion layer
"

changes as .

Biasing
← →
① Forward
.

mmmm
Biasing ② . Reverse
rumrunner
Biasing .

is Forward
.

Biasing → when the tve terminal of battery is connected to p side and -

negative to n -
side of ph junction then pn junction is said to be forward
,
biased .

→
depletion layer reduces
The width of
and external applied field is able to
overcome the
strong electric field of
depletion layer .

→
movement of the majority charge carriers
across the junction gets established

Initially increases almost

→ the current
negligibly ,
till the voltage across

the diode threshold

crosses
voltage or knee
voltage
.

cutoff diode current increases exponentially

After the
voltage the .

Knee
voltage voltage for Ge diode is 0.3 V and for si diode is about
0.7 Ho
→ In forward biasing resistance of
diode is very low , which can

be obtained by the slope of IV

characteristics .

② .
Reverse Biasing : when the tue
terminal of battery is connected to

n side and
-

negative terminal to P side

-

of a p -
n junction , then the p n junction-

is said to be Reverse Biased .

→
The width of depletion layer increases
and the electric field of depletion layer
becomes more
stronger .

depletion layer does not at all allow the transfer of

majority charge
→
The now

carriers while support the crossing of minority charge carrier .

Thus the
reverses current flow only due to
minority change carriers .
 → for the diode in very small treeA) and almost
reverse bias
,
the current is
remain constant However , for special cases
.

,
at very high reverse
bias C breakdown voltage) the current suddenly increases The
general .

,
diode are not used the reverse saturation current
purpose beyond region .

RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a circuit which converts alternating current La c) into direct
.

current Cd c) . .

of Rectifier Principle
Pn junction diode is a unidirectional device i e it allows
. -

the current to flow through it only in one direction , when

it is in forward bias
'
.

TYPES
Half wave Rectifier full Rectifier

¥÷ :÷ ÷: ÷:i ÷ ¥÷ ÷
wave .

A half wave rectifier converts full wave rectifier converts the

A
the half cycle of applied AC whole cycle of applied AC signal
signal tosignal Ordinary
D.c .
into Dc signal .
centre tap -

transformer may be used here '

.
transformer is used here .

Circuit circuit
diagram diagram

D, Da Di Da Di D2

:÷÷:÷÷÷:÷÷:÷¥:÷ .

→
For -
ve half cycle ,
diode is → for -
ve half Cycle Diode Da is forward
reversed bias .
i -
e do not biased .
i. e Dz conduct and we
get
conduct , no output across output across RL .

Ro

Special Purpose p
-
n junction Diode .

47 LED ② Photodiode (3) .

Solar cell .
① LED (
light Emitting Diode) → Gt converts electrical energy into light energy .

9T is heavily doped p -
n
junction which operates under forward bias
and emits spontaneous radiation .

→ The IV characteristics of a LED is similar

to that of Si junction diode But the threshold .

voltagesare much higher and

slightly different
for each colour The reverse breakdown voltages
.

of LEDs are very low , typically around 54 -

The colour of light depends upon the types of material used

in making the semiconductor diode

txsoycoeuerf
.

Li ?GaAs → Infrared radiation .

Ii ) Gap → Red or
green
Liii) GaAs P → Red or yellow light .

PHOTODIODE
A photodiode is a special type of junction diode used for
detecting optical signals Gt is a . reverse biased pn junction
made from a photosensitive material .

when it is illuminated with

light of photon energy greater
than the energy gap of the
semiconductor , electron -
hole
pains are
generated in near

relepletion region .

external is used for the movement of electron &

The voltage
holes
aisocouerusesz
.

Solar cell
Gt convert solar energy electrical energy into .

A solar cell is basically a ph junction

which generates emf when solar radiation
Falls on the ph junction gt works on the .

same principle of
photodiode
is
except
that no external bias applied and
the junction area is kept laegeo

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