1.

IT Application overview and features

1.1. Introduction to Application Understanding

If you manage your work without any mess with the help of alarms in a smart phone

Or if you are reading any posts with your tablet,

You are using Applications/App.

So what exactly does an Application mean?

An application is a type of software that allows you to perform specific tasks which otherwise is very difficult to

perform manually.

Before we go any further think about few computer applications you are familiar with.

Sticky Notes

You can use Sticky Notes to write a to-do list, jot down a phone number, or to do anything else that you would

you use a pad of paper for.

Windows Notepad

Notepad is a basic text editor that you can use to create simple documents.

Whatsapp

WhatsApp Messenger is a proprietary, cross-platform instant messaging subscription service for smart phones.
Facebook Application
A social utility that connects people with friends and others who work, study and live around them

IRCTC Portal

Online Passenger Reservation System provides booking facility of Railway tickets online

By giving a closer look to these applications you will find that few of the applications are specially designed for
Desktop/Personal computer while few others only work on mobile devices. Similarly you will find that in order
to run certain other applications you need a web browser like Internet Explorer, Chrome etc.

1.2. Different types of Applications with Examples

Broadly applications are divided broadly into three types

i. Desktop Applications
ii. Mobile Applications
iii. Web Applications

Desktop Applications – Desktop Applications are applications that runs stand alone in a desktop or laptop

computer.

Eg. Microsoft Paint

Mobile Applications

Desktop and laptop computers aren't the only devices that can run applications. You can also download

applications for mobile devices like smart phones and tablet computers, which opens up a lot of new

possibilities. Here are a few examples of mobile applications:

Google Wallet : is a mobile payment application

ICICI Mobile Banking Application

Web Applications - are applications that are accessed over a network such as the Internet or an Intranet.

Eg : ICICI Net Banking application

Passport Seva Portal to deliver passport services to citizens in a timely transparent manner.
1.3. Basic Application Architecture

At the highest and most abstract level, the logical architecture view of any system can be considered as a set of

cooperating components grouped into layers as given in the below figure.

Presentation Layer / User Interface layer -

The top most layer of the application through which end-user interacts with the system. The main

function of this layer is to translate the tasks and results to something which the end user can understand.
Business layer. This layer implements the core functionality of the system, and encapsulates the relevant

business logic.

Data/Resource layer. This layer stores and retrieves information from the storage systems (databases/file

systems). The information is then passed to the Business layer for processing and then eventually back to the

user.

1.4. Layers and Tiers of an Application

Layer

Irrespective of the type of application that you are designing, and whether it has a user interface or it is a

services application that only exposes services (not to be confused with services layer of an application), you

can decompose the design into logical groupings of software components. These logical groupings are called

layers. Layers help to differentiate between the different kinds of tasks performed by the components, making

it easier to create a design that supports re-usability of components.

Benefits of layers:

 Simplicity: easy to design once layers and their interaction are defined clearly
 Flexibility: easy to modify and develop networks by separate layers modifications
 Incremental changes: add new layers, add new functions to a layer

Tier

When the logical groups of components are physically separated in different machines, it is known as Tier. The

communication between the different tiers of an application is through network.

Single/One Tier Architecture – All layers (Presentation, Business and Resource) are at same place. The

application does not require network connection to work. It is easy to install in a system and use it.
Eg: MS Access, MS Excel

2- Tier Architecture - In 2 tier architecture there can be 2 possibilities

1. Presentation Layer in one machine and Business & Resource Layer is available in different machine

2. Presentation & Business layer in one machine and Resource layer in another machine.

Below figure shows a big picture of 2 tier Architecture.

3 – Tier Architecture – In this all three layers of an application are physically separated in different machines.
Eg : Most of the web applications which involves data storage are 3 -tier architecture applications.

The below figure will help you in visualizing the communication in a web application.

In this example a 3-tier web application system is represented where all three layers of the application is

distributed in three different machines.

The Presentation layer is at the client tier and from there request is sent to the Business layer and after

processing the request its again sent to Storage/Resource tier for storing.

Multi-tier/ N-tier Architecture: All the 3 -tiered applications can be again physically separated by breaking it

into different tiers and establishing a communication between all those tiers.

The terms tier and layer are often used interchangeably. When I use tier, I am referencing a physical layer.

When I use layer, I am referencing a distinct software layer. Layers must exist on a tier, and thus tiers contain

layers.

1.5. Basic Application Functions - CRUD

Each application gives the CRUD feature in its own way. CRUD is the acronym for Create, Read, Update and

Delete.

Create – Adding/Storing any kind of data to the application

Read - There should be a feature where by the data added can be read

Update – There should be a facility to update the data created. Which user can perform this operation will

depend purely on the application.

Delete – There should be a way to remove the data created. Again like Update, who can perform delete

operation will vary depending on the application.

Remember that Application should follow CRUD, but not CURD

ie, Create will happen first, Update and Delete should happen only after the data is Read.

Create
Let’s take example of well-known website Google. When you first time register or create an account in this

website, you have to fill certain details and click on register or sign up button. On clicking on the button,

information entered by you will be verified and added into the database and your account will be created. This

is one of the example for CREATE operation.

Similarly, adding a contact in gmail application of your Google account is also an example of create operation.

You can find these kind of options in many other websites. Creating your Facebook, twitter, IRCTC account,

registering in naukary.com, even creating an event in your Facebook account are all examples of create

operation.

Whenever a new set of information is added into the database of the system, then it is a create operation.

It results in creation of new entry into the database of that web application.
Read

Let’s take the example of Google again. When you log in to your Google account, a home page appears. It is a

read operation. In this, the web application retrieves the information from the application's database,

corresponding to the log in credentials which you have provided and displays it.

Viewing your profile by clicking on view profile is also an example of read operation.

When you are searching a person by their name, it is also a read operation. In this the web application will

search for various user profiles with that particular name and displays the list.

Even viewing your contact list of gmail is an example of read.

You can relate these examples with options being provided by many other social networks and web

applications.
It shows that, read is basically, retrieving data from the database and displaying it to the user.

Update

Think, you want to change some of your basic information in your Google account, then, you will click on the

edit button, which will take you to the edit profile page. It will display all the information which you have

already added. You can enter the new information and by clicking on save, the information will get updated.

Old information gets overwritten by the new information in the database.

Editing the contact details in gmail account is another example of update operation.

First time while filling the information, you might have left few non-mandatory fields blank. Filling those

information later is also an example of update operation. Even removing few information (not all) like, phone

number from your profile is also an example of update. Here the particular information will be set to blank.
Basically, update is, first a read operation, which displays the information which is already present in the

database of the web application and then overwrites it with a new information.

Delete

Let us take the example of contacts in gmail. If you want to delete a contact from the contacts list, you can

select the particular contact and click on the delete button. It will delete the contact from the contacts list.

If in future, you do not wish to use the account which you have created, then you can go for deactivation of

the account. This is also an example of the delete operation.

Now a day most of the websites do not provide direct deletion, they allow you to just deactivate the account.

Few websites even have facility to delete the account.

Delete is basically, deleting the information from the database of the website or making the information

inaccessible.
Need of programming and Introduction to OOP
Approach

2.1. Introduction to problem solving approach

Most people spend most of their time, at work or at home, solving problems. Most problems
we face are small, some are large and complex, but they all need to be solved in a
satisfactory way.

let's take a few moments to understand what we mean by a problem and problem solving.

A problem is a difficulty or challenge, or any situation that needs a solution

Driving a car to office, Making a cup of tea, Solving a crossword puzzle . all these are
examples of problems that we face every day.

Why Problem Solving

Problem Solving is actually a skill,and there are no universal methods to be followed to

solve a problem. Basically there could be multiple solutions to a single problem and one
must try all the possible solutions one by one until we come across with the correct and
feasible solution.

2.2. Step by step approach to problem solving

Effective problem solving involves number of steps or stages. They are

i) Problem Identification
 This stage involves detecting and recognizing that there is a problem; identifying the
nature of the problem; defining the problem. This phase also involves , structuring the
problem. Structuring the problem is all about gaining more information about the problem
and increasing understanding. By spending some time defining the problem will helps to
understand it more clearly and it will leads you to the next phase.

ii) Identifying possible solutions and Making Decisions

Once you complete the information gathering in the first phase, the next step is to
identify all possible solutions. Once the requirements have been finalized, we design a
solution(s) to the issue. We might note the steps on a piece of paper or we might take a
print out of it. Referring to these artifacts makes our work simpler and gives us a clear
idea of how to proceed with a task .Hence design becomes a very important task as far as
any system development is concerned.

iii) Implementation

Implementation means acting on the chosen solution .This phase deals with the actual
process of implementation of our design. In terms of programming, the code would follow
the design and then write code to translate the human-understandable design to a machine
understandable language. During implementation more problems may arise especially
if identification of the original problem was not carried out fully.

iv) Test the outcome – Testing

The outcome of our implementation needs to be tested before it is actually deployed.

Similarly, all code needs to be thoroughly tested to make sure that bugs are not present in it.
If any bugs are identified, they need to be removed and the system needs to be checked
again for consistency. Hence testing is a very important phase of problem solving.

v) Deployment and Maintenance

 The developed and tested outcome is finally given to the customer. The
deployment phase makes sure that the software that has been developed works fine in
the customer's environment as per the customer’s requirements. Maintenance phase deals
with the periodic updates that might be required for the application.

Example

Let us take an example of making a cup of tea. This is a minor problem but a
problem nevertheless. As a human being , we normally follow the established process of
making tea. Let us assume that we need to automate the system of making tea and we are
building a tea-vending machine. In the beginning, the tea-vending machine does not know
what it needs to do and what will be the outcome of its actions. Hence we program the
machine to understand our requirements and work accordingly. Assume that we are going to
instruct the machine to make tea. We need to think of the following things

1. What should be provided as the ingredients

2. What should be done with the ingredients
3. What will be the outcome

Ingredients of tea will normally be milk,water, sugar and tea-leaves. Hence we instruct the
machine to take milk, sugar and tea-leaves as the input.

Now once we have the inputs, we need to take the following steps

1. Boil water
2. Add tea-leaves
3. Add sugar
4. Add milk

We will instruct the machine to perform these steps sequentially. The machine understands
this and using the inputs that were provided to it, will solve the problem.
Finally the outcome of these steps will be tea and in the machines terms, this is called as the
output.

2.3. Key elements required for problem solving

Good Analytical Skills

Analytical skills are the ability to imagine, collect information, arrange it, analyse, solve
complex problems, and make decisions. The ability to organise data and draw proper
correlations and then interpreting these trends in terms that are meaningful to others is
called Analytical skill.

Let us look a example to understand the good analytical skills

i) Rainfall Data for past thirty years at random are supplied

ii) Organize and arrange the data

By feeding it to excel sheet or any logical approach

Draw graphs to demonstrate the data

iii) Output
 Make reasonable predictions about the extent of rain next year.

This is an example of using analytical skills.

Declarative and Imperative Knowledge

i) Declarative knowledge is factual knowledge or the knowledge of the solution. For

example knowing that "A pen is used for writing" is a declarative knowledge. Declarative
knowledge is knowledge or the possession of information that is either true or false. It
describes objects and events by specifying the properties which characterize them; it does
not pay attention to the actions needed to obtain a result

Take an example of a jigsaw puzzle

We know that the solution of this problem is

so this knowledge of the outcome is know as declarative knowledge.

ii) Imperative Knowledge

 Continuing with the above example, although we know the result, we also need to
know how to reach the result. This 'how-to' knowledge is called as imperative knowledge.
Let us consider the steps

1.Arrange the pieces according to their number

2.Turn the pieces fitting to nearby pieces.

3.Join the pieces

As we can see, if this order is followed, the puzzle would be solved. Hence
the knowledge of the steps to reach the solution is called as Imperative knowledge.

Abstraction

A representation or model that includes the important, essential or distinguishing aspects

of something while suppressing or ignoring less important, immaterial or diversionary details
is called as Abstraction. Hence abstraction is a way of managing problem complexity by
focusing on the essential details and ignoring lower level details.

An example can be taken of a refrigerator

As a user, we just need to know that a fridge can be used to preserve food materials by
freezing them. Hence the user just needs to open the fridge and put the items inside.
User does not need to know the internal functioning of the fridge, hence the
wiring,electronics and other details are hidden behind the body of the fridge. This process of
hiding the irrelevant data is called as Abstraction.

Abstraction types
i) Functional Abstraction
Let see the above refrigerator example, all refrigerator contains a freezer box which can
preserves the food material below zero degree Celsius temperature. As a user we need to
get the food material to be preserved but we don't need how it will be get preserved , this
way of hiding
irrelevant details or process and getting the functionality of preservation to be done is an
example of functional abstraction.

ii) Data Abstraction

Let see the above refrigerator example,the inner temperature of the refrigerator is an
essential data which is sensed by the sensor and refrigerator monitors and controls the inner
temperature. Here inner temperature is the internal data which is used by the refrigerator to
maintain the temperature of the fridge, which is not controlled or altered by external
mechanism and is used by the functionalities of the refrigerator is an example of data
abstraction.

Knowledge in programming language

A programming language is a computer language programmers use to develop applications,
scripts, or other set of instructions for a computer to execute.

Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behaviour of a
machine and/or to express algorithms precisely.
Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer
field, with many more being created every year.

Elements of a programming language are -

i) Syntax: structural elements of the language. Programs must be syntactically correct.

Eg: English as a language has got a certain syntax. We have predefined syllables and
words like 'a' or 'cup' or 'welcome'. These words convey a meaning to the language.

ii) Grammar: defines how syntactical elements need to be combined to form programs
Eg: Continuing the same example, English language has got a certain grammar. The
grammar has to be followed to construct a proper sentence. 'I is a boy' is grammatically
wrong although syntactically correct.'I am a boy' is syntactically and grammatically correct.

iii) Semantics: defines meaning of the code

Eg: Continuing the same example, English language has got a certain semantics. 'An
elephant is white and has got two legs' is syntactically , grammatically correct. But it doesn’t
make any sense. Hence it is semantically wrong.

Good programming practices

i) Good vs Bad programming

Superior coding techniques and programming practices are hallmarks of a professional

programmer. The coding techniques are primarily those that improve the readability and
maintainability of code,whereas the programming practices are mostly performance
enhancements.
ii)

The readability of source code has a direct impact on how well a developer comprehends a
software system.

iii) Maintainability

Code maintainability refers to how easily that software system can be changed to add new
features, modify existing features, fix bugs, or improve performance
Although readability and maintainability are the result of many factors, one
particular facet of software development upon which all developers have an influence is
coding technique. The easiest method to ensure that a team of developers will yield quality
code is to establish a coding standard, which is then enforced at routine code reviews.

2.4. Evolution of Programming Approaches

As we have seen in the previous course, for automating the solution of a problem, we need
to do programming. Originally when the programming evolved, the adopted approach was
small with complex syntax and machine code. With time, as requirements increased, the
logic became much more complex with increase in the program size.

The following are the different programming approaches which evolved were:

 Unstructured Programming
 Structured Programming
 Procedural Programming
 Modular Programming
 Object Oriented Programming

The initial evolution methodologies had the following disadvantages

• Large volume of code and logic
• Lack of information hiding
• Poor readability
• Non-maintainable
• Reduced reusability

2.5. Object Oriented Programming Approach

For programming to be done, we need the following

 What is the information that is to be processed in the problem - Data

 What are the types or ways to process the information - Logic
 How will the processing happen using the logic – Methodology

Structured Programming Approach

Structured approach to programming, implements a system as a collection of functions

that accepts data, processes it and returns an output. A function sometimes calls another
function, when it wants to make use of the functionality defined in the other function. The
flow of program execution is based on the structure of the program written. There is more
dependency between the variables and the program like a chain.

Example: C language

The way of structured programming doesn't relate to real world problem scenarios. The
current problem scenarios doesn't call for functions that operate on data, rather the
scenarios have data and their associated behaviour. In such cases, the structured way of
programming becomes very huge and cumbersome. Information has to be manipulated
across all functions and an association of varied information in a problem scenario is not
possible.

Object Oriented Programming Approach

We write programs that make up software to solve a problem in real world. In real world
problem domains we do not find any functions that work on data. We find objects that are
described by some state (data) and having some behaviour (functions or routines).

Object Oriented (OO) Approach to programming is about implementing a system as

collection of objects that have state and behaviours, interacting with each other to achieve
expected functionalities.

Example: C++ & Java

In OO programming, the program basic entity is object. An object is any real world entity that
has a well-defined structure and behaviour.

Forget programming for a while. Think about the Real World and the things that are in it.
What things are objects? What things are not objects?

Look around you. You may try to list five objects and list five non-objects.
It is easier to list things that are objects than to list things that are not objects. Just to talk
about something seems to make it an object, somehow. When we observe, the humans view
the world in object-oriented terms. The human brain wants to think about objects, and our
thoughts and memories are organized into objects and their relationships. Perhaps non-
human brains work differently.
One of the ideas of object-oriented software is to organize software in a way that matches
the thinking style of our object-oriented brains.

Look at my list of objects and your own list and try to describe what all objects have in
common. What makes an object?

• An object is made of tangible material (the pen is made of plastic, metal, ink).
• An object holds together as a single whole (the whole pen, not a fog).
• An object has properties (the color of the pen, where it is, how thick it writes.).
• An object can do things and can have things done to it.

The first item in this list is too restrictive. For example, you can think of your bank account as
an object, but it is not made of material. (Although you and the bank may use paper and
other material in keeping track of your account, your account exists independently of this
material.) Although it is not material, your account has properties (a balance, an interest rate,
an owner) and you can do things to it (deposit money, cancel it) and it can do things (charge
for transactions, accumulate interest).
The last three items on the list seem clear enough. In fact, they have names:
i. An object has identity (each object is a distinct individual).
ii. An object has state (it has various properties, which might change).
iii. An object has behavior (it can do things and can have things done to it).
iv. This is a somewhat ordinary description of what an object is like. (This list comes from
the book Object-oriented Analysis and Design, by Grady Booch, Addison-Wesley, 1994.) Do
not be surprised if other notes and books have a different list. When you start writing object-
oriented software you will find that this list will help you decide what your objects should be.
Every object has its own characteristics. Every object has 5 sets of characteristics Viz. State,
Behaviour, Responsibility, Communication and Identity.

2.6. Characteristics of an object

The five characteristics of an Object are explained below:

States of an Object: The states of an object are known by the various attributes that
describe the Object. Example: If Human is an Object, colour of Hair, number of Teeth, skin
tone, etc., describe the object. These form the states of the Object, Human

More Examples:
i. Make of Tyres, Colour, Engine Type, Mileage of a Car Object.
ii. Account Number, Account Holder Name, Deposit Amount, Transaction Details in a Bank
Account Object.
iii. Employee ID, Employee Name, Date of Birth, Date of Joining, Number of Dependants in
an Employee Object.

Behaviours of an Object: The behaviours of an Object is known by its outcome or

reaction whenever there is a change in the states of it. The changes can also be infused by
operations which are performed on the states of the object.

Examples:

 Add, Update, Remove dependant information of an Employee object

 Calculate performance of the Car based on engine type and mileage
 Print transaction details in a Bank Account

Responsibilities of an Object: The responsibilities of an Object are of two types namely

Knowing Responsibility and Doing Responsibility
? Knowing Responsibility – Knowledge of the states of the Object
? Doing Responsibility – Operations performed on the states of the object

Examples:
The knowledge of the states like knowing the dependant details, retrieving date of birth of an
employee are knowing responsibility.
All operational logic performed on the states of the object through its behaviours constitutes
the Doing responsibility. Example: Calculate performance of the car

Communication between Objects: In a typical problem scenario, several objects

communicate with each other to perform operations, send messages and return data.
Example: Employee object has a salary account in a bank. So both objects communicate
with each other to perform all bank related transactions of the employee.

Identity of Objects: Identity of objects as explained earlier relates to the distinctness of

the object. We identify the objects in a problem scenario based on all nouns of the project.
The behaviours are identified using the verbs operated upon by the nouns
Example: Employee updating Bank Account information to Corporate Portal.

Distinct Objects: Employee, Bank Account, Portal

Behaviours: Updating the related information among the objects.

To enable understand the characteristics of an object, let us consider the following example

Consider a tube of four yellow tennis balls.

 Is the tube of tennis balls an object?

 Is each tennis ball an object?
 Could the top two balls be considered a single object?
 Is the color of the balls an object?
 Is your understanding of tennis balls an object?

Answers:
Is the tube of tennis balls an object?
Yes. It has identity (my tube of balls is different than yours), it has state (opened, unopened,
brand name, location), and behavior (although not much).
Is each tennis ball an object?
Yes. It is OK for objects to be part of other objects. Although each ball has nearly the same
state and behavior as the others, each has its own identity.
Could the top two balls be considered a single object?
Not ordinarily. Each has its own identity independent of the other. If they were joined
together with a stick you might consider them as one object.
Is the color of the balls an object?
No. It is a property of each ball.
Is your understanding of tennis balls an object?
Probably not, although it is unclear what it is. Perhaps it is a property of the object called
"your brain."

Software Objects:
Many programs are written to do things that are concerned with the real world. It is
convenient to have "software objects" that are similar to "real world objects". This makes the
program and what it does easier to think about. Software objects have identity, state, and
behavior just as do real world objects. Of course, software objects exist entirely within a
computer system and don't directly interact with real world objects.
An object stores its state in fields (variables in some programming languages) and exposes
its behavior through methods (functions in some programming languages).
What are software objects made out of?
Computer Memory.
Its important to ask yourself :

 What possible states can this object be in?

 What possible behavior can this object perform?

Think your table lamp may have only two possible states (on and off) and two possible
behaviors (turn on, turn off), but your table radio might have additional states (on, off, current
volume, current station) and behavior (turn on, turn off, increase volume, decrease volume,
seek, scan, and tune).These real-world observations all translate into the world of object-
oriented programming.

2.7. Classes and Objects

Consider this topic as introduction only. Detailed concept of class will be covered in following
chapters. Hence consider code sample shared here for reference and not implementation.

Classes are generic representations of Objects in problem scenarios. They help in

generalization of the object as a template. Each object becomes an instance or photocopy of
this template.

Consider a car, for example:

Here Car is the template having the generic states and behaviours. The states and
behaviour of the template are grouped in the following manner.

class Car {
int speed = 0; //state
int gear = 1; //state
// Behaviour
void changeGear(int newValue) {
gear = newValue;
}
// Behaviour
void speedUp(int increment) {
speed = speed + increment;
}
void applyBrakes(int decrement) {
speed = speed - decrement;
 }
void printStates() {
System.out.println("cadence:" + cadence + " speed:" + speed + "
gear:" + gear);
}
}

All various types of Cars which follow the generalization become Objects. Example: Maruti,
Volkswagen, Audi, etc.,.

Basic difference between Programming Paradigms

Functional/procedural programming:
Program is a list of instructions to the computer

Object-oriented programming:
Program is composed of a collection objects that communicate with each other

3.Introduction to Java, JVM, JDK

Objective

 Introduction to Java
 History of Java
 Brief to Java Platform, JVM, JDK, JRE
 Installation of JDK and its configurations
 Run a sample program

3.1. What is java

Java is a programming language created by James Gosling from Sun Microsystems (Sun) in
1991. The first publicly available version of Java (Java 1.0) was released in 1995.
Sun Microsystems was acquired by the Oracle Corporation in 2010. Now oracle is owning
Java.

Java is Simple:There are various features that makes the java as a simple language.
because Java is easy to learn and developed by taking the best features from other
languages mainly like C and C++.

Java is Platform Independent-Java provides the facility to "Write once -Run any
where"(Known as platform independent).

Java is Robust-Java has the strong memory allocation and automatic garbage collection
mechanism. It carries out type checking at both compile and runtime making sure that every
data structure has been clearly defined and typed. compiler checks the program for any error
and interpreter checks any run time error that every data structure is clearly defined and
typed.

Java manages the memory automatically by using an automatic garbage collector.

All the above features makes Java language robust.

Why Java is important to internet

In a network, two very broad categories of objects are transmitted between the server and
your personal computer: passive information and dynamic, active programs. For example,
when you read your e-mail, you are viewing passive data. Even when you download a
program, the program’s code is still only passive data. Even when you download a second
type of object can be transmitted to your computer: a dynamic, self-executing program. Such
a program is and the server yet initiates active agent on the client computer. For example,
the server to display properly the data that the server is sending might provide a program.

As desirable as dynamic, networked programs are, they also present serious problems in the
areas of security and portability

Let us begin by writing our first Java program that prints a message "Hello, world!" to the
display console, as follows:
? Hello World program in java
Step 1: Write the Source Code: Enter the following source codes using a programming text
editor (such as TextPad or NotePad++ for Windows or gedit for UNIX/Linux/Mac) or an
Interactive Development Environment (IDE) (such as Eclipse or NetBeans - Read the
respective "How-To" article on how to install and get started with these IDEs – to see more
about IDE refer the Glossary).

Save the source file as "Hello.java". A Java source file should be saved with a file extension
of ".java". The filename shall be the same as the classname - in this case "Hello".

// Write simple Hello Program in Java

class HelloWorld //Start

{
public static void main(String args[])
{

System.out.println("Hello World program in java");

}// Main methods ends
}// Java class ends
Step 2: Compile the Source Code: Compile the source code "Hello.java" into portable
bytecode "HelloWorld.class" using JDK compiler "javac". Start a CMD Shell (Windows) or
Terminal (UNIX/Linux/Mac) and issue this command:

before run java file you should set the path and classpath
path: to instruct compiler that where your JDK is installed
How to set the path:
set PATH=.;C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin(for example:
C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.5.0\bin (Provided your jdk installed in the given path)

See the below screen shots in order to run any java program in command prompt mode
Summary:
Java is platform Independent and Portable.
Java is Robust and secured.
Java is pure object oriented language.
Java does compilation as well Interpretation.
Java latest version of JDK 7(Current version is being used in Industry)
JDK and JRK has to be installed in order to Java program.

3.2. History of Java

Java is released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Micro system's Java platform. In year
1991 they make a platform independent software called it Oak. and in early 1995 Java 1.0 is
officially released. This is the first version of Java as JDK1.0. After the first version, many
classes, packages are added in Java in future and new version's are released .

Java version releases

Current version of Java is Java SE7. The Key features in Java SE 7:

 Strings in switch Statement

 Type Inference for Generic Instance Creation
 Multiple Exception Handling
 Support for Dynamic Languages
 Try with Resources
 Java nio Package
 Binary Literals, underscore in literals
 Diamond Syntax
  Automatic Null Handling

Differ Version Available prior to Current Version (Java SE7)

Version Year of Release Description

This was the first release of

the java platform developed
under java community
process as JSR 59. The
Major Changes are- assert
J2SE 1.4 6-Feb-2002
Keyword, Regular
Expression, Exception
chaining, Image I/O API for
reading and writing images,
Java Web start included.

New features added are-

Generics, Metadata,
J2SE 5.0 30-Sept-2004 Autoboxing, Enumeratations,
Swing, Var args, collections
static imports etc.

New changes are- Scripting

Language support, Improved
web service support trough
JAX-WS , JDBC 4.0 support,
support for pluggable
Java SE 6 11-Dec-2006
annotations, JVM
improvements including
Synchronization and compiler
performance optimizations,
Garbaze collection algorithms
Java Platform

 JRE and JDK : See the JDK Section in detail

 Java Programming Language:
 Java Virtual Machines – See the JVM Section in detail
 Base Libraries
 Integration Libraries
 User Interface Libraries
 Deployment
 Java Deployment
 Tool Specifications
 JDK Tools & Utilities
 Platforms

3.3. JVM- Java Virtual Machine

A Java virtual machine (JVM), an implementation of the Java Virtual Machine Specification,
interprets compiled Java binary code (called bytecode) for a computer's processor(or
"hardware platform") so that it can perform a Java program's instructions. Java was
designed to allow application programs to be built that could be run on any platform without
having to be rewritten or recompiled by the programmer for each separate platform. A Java
virtual machine makes this possible because it is aware of the specific instruction lengths
and other particularities of the platform.

JVM is:
A specification where working of Java Virtual Machine is specified. But implementation
provider is independent to choose the algorithm. Its implementation has been provided by
Sun and other companies.
An implementation Its implementation is known as JRE (Java Runtime Environment).
Runtime Instance Whenever you write java command on the command prompt to run the
java class, and instance of JVM is created.
The JVM performs following operation:

 Loads code
 Verifies code
 Executes code
 Provides runtime environment.
JDK - Java Development Kit

A Java Development Kit (JDK) is a program development environment for writing Java
applications. It consists of a run time environment that sits on top of the operating system
layer and also the tools and programming that developers need to compile, debug, and run
applications written in the Java language.

The JDK (Java Development Kit) is used for developing java applications. The JDK includes
JRE, set of API classes, Java compiler, Webstart and additional files needed to write Java
applications. The JDK (Java Development Kit) contains software development tools which
are used to compile and run the Java program. Both JDK and JRE contains the JVM
3.4. JRE- Java Runtime Environment
Java Runtime Environment (JRE), also known as Java Runtime, is part of the JDK. JRE
provides the minimum requirements for executing a Java application; it consists of the Java
Virtual Machine (JVM), core classes, and supporting files. Thus it covers most end-users
needs and contains everything required to run Java applications on our system.
Java Environment Setup

Java installation and environment variable setup steps are clearly described in Video 6.
Follow the instructions given in the video and set up the Java environment.

Download JDK 5 or above setup for installation. Link to download latest version of java, jdk 7
is given below.

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloads/jdk7-downloads-1880260.html

Set the environment variables CLASSPATH and JAVA_HOME after JDK installation.

3.5. Know more on Command Promt

1. What is Command Prompt?

Command Prompt is a feature of Windows that provides an entry point for typing MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System) commands and other computer commands. The most
important thing to know is that by typing commands, you can perform tasks on your
computer without using the Windows graphical interface.

When you're using Command Prompt, the term command prompt also refers to the right
angle bracket (>, also known as the greater than character) that indicates the command line
interface can accept commands. Other important information, such as the current working
directory (or location) where the command will be run, can be included as part of the
command prompt.

For example, if you open the Command Prompt window and see the C:\> command prompt
with a blinking cursor to the right of the right angle bracket character (>), you know that the
command you enter will be run on the entire C drive of your computer.
2. How do I get to a command prompt?

Open the Command Prompt window by clicking the Start button Picture of the Start button,
clicking All Programs, clicking Accessories, and then clicking Command Prompt.
Execute a Sample Java Program using Command Prompt

Steps to run a java program is described in Video 6. We will provide you a sample Java
program for execution.

Create a java file “TestClass.java” and put the sample code given below in it. We will study
more on how to write a Java class later in this course. This is just to understand how to
compile a Java program file and how to execute it using command prompt.

class TestClass {
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println("TestClass is running fine.");
}
}
After execution of TestClass, you should get the message on the command prompt as
"TestClass is running fine". Have you got the output on command prompt / console.
Reference links

http://www.devmanuals.com/tutorials/java/corejava/JavaHistory.html

http://www.freejavaguide.com/history.html

http://www.devmanuals.com/tutorials/java/corejava/IntroductionJava.html

http://www.w3resource.com/java-tutorial/download-and-Install-JDK-Eclipse-IDE.php

http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/getStarted/application/index.html

http://www.devmanuals.com/tutorials/java/corejava/JavaEclipseHelloWorld.html

http://www.devmanuals.com/tutorials/java/corejava/JavaVirtualMachine.html

http://viralpatel.net/blogs/java-virtual-machine-an-inside-story/

http://www.javatpoint.com/internal-details-of-jvm#jvminternalarch
http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/getStarted/intro/definition.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Development_Kit

http://www.javatpoint.com/difference-between-jdk-jre-and-jvm

3.6. Different tools to create Java program

Download & Install JDK:
Oracle.com hosts the latest JDK installer and also the archives of older versions of JDK
installer. The latest installer could be downloaded from the link:

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloads/index.html

If you need a previous version of Java visit the following link:

http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/archive-139210.html

After the download is complete, double click the installer and follow the installation process.
Follow the recommended settings during installation.
Depending on the location that was chosen to install the JDK, you would see the following
contents.
The outer most folder that has all the installed contents is generally referred to as Java
Home.
So, as the per the below installation, the Java Home directory is C:\jdk1.5.0
The developer frequently needs an access to the java compiler (javac) and java interpreter
(java). These tools come along with JDK and you will find them under the bin folder in Java
installation folder.
To enable to developer to use these tools from any directory in the command prompt, we set
these values in the operating system environment variable.
Configure JDK:

Environment variables are key and value pair. PATH is one of the environment variable
(key). It's value is a collection of more than 1 directory path. Operating system uses the
PATH variable to scan all the directory when a user want to execute a tool without
mentioning the installation path.

eg. PATH = C:\jdk1.5.0\bin; C:\Program Files\Intel\iCLS Client\; C:\Program Files\IBM\Trace

Facility\

As you can see, the delimeter (;) is used to separate multiple directory mentioned as a value
to the PATH environment variable.

To set and environment variable, right click on Computer icon, and select Properties.
It will open Control Panel Home as shown below:

Right click on the Advanced system setting, it will open System Properties as shown below.
Go to the Advanced tab, and click on the Environment Variables button available at the
bottom. This is would open a small window that will list all the existing environment variables.
It has 3 button – New (to add a new environment variable), Edit (to edit the value of existing
environment variable) and Delete (to delete and existing environment variable)
Click on the button – New. It will open a new window with 2 empty text boxes. Enter the
variable name as PATH. In variable value, enter the path to the bin folder in java installation
directory.

Click on OK to save changes.

You can verify the installation, by the command: java –version

Example:
Create a folder javaproject in your D: drive. Create a file MyFirstJavaProgram.java with
following contents.

Open command prompt and browse to your folder D:\javaproject

Compile the file MyFirstJavaProgram.java with the help of the compiler – javac. The sytanx
to compile a file with java extension is – javac FileName.java
If the compilation is successful, a file MyFirstJavaProgram.class is generated. The
generated class file can be run with help of an interpreter – java. The syntax to execute a
class file is – java FileName

Congratulations !! You have executed your first java program.

3.7. Eclipse
Good as of now we have learnt how to install JDK on our systems. We also learnt how to
write a java program, compile it and run the java program. Let us now learn another way of
writing Java program. That is using an IDE. IDE means Integrated Development
Environment. There are many IDE’s available in the market but we will be using
Eclipse. Eclipse is an Integrated Environment which provides programmers perform a lot of
activities required during development at one place. Some of the activities that can be done
using Eclipse are writing code, making code more readable, like indentation, providing
spacing, compiling, running, debugging etc. There are many tools available in the market
which helps in doing each of the activity mentioned above in separate windows, but IDE
integrates all the above windows into one environment. Using Eclipse we can write programs
in many languages like C, CPP and Java, html, Perl etc. But we will only be focused on
learning how to use Eclipse to develop Java programs. First of all let us learn how to get
eclipse installed in our system.

Install Eclipse:

Eclipse has been evolving and there are many versions available and you may choose any
of the existing versions for java development but we would recommend use of Galileo. You
can download the same using the following
urlhttp://www.eclipse.org/downloads/packages/eclipse-ide-java-ee-developers/galileor . You
may download the appropriate version depending upon your Operating System. Please
refer the below diagram for the same.

Make sure you download the right installation file based on your OS (winodws, linux or Mac)
and architecture (32 or 64 bit). You may download and place the archive (zip, tar.gz) at any
location of the hard disk of your system. Then the archive needs to be extracted using any of
the archiving tools provided by your OS. The installation of eclipse is done just by unzipping
the downloaded zip file.

Configure Eclipse:

Before starting eclipse, make sure that you have downloaded Java Development Kit(JDK).
We recommend you to download version 1.5. Refer to the download, install & configure JDK
section present in this document for details.
Start eclipse from the eclipse installation directory. The eclipse installation directory will have
an eclipse application as highlighted below.

1. Start Eclipse
When eclipse starts up for the first time it prompts you for the location of the workspace
folder. All your data will be stored in the workspace folder. You can accept the default or
choose a new location.
If you check "Use this as the default and do not ask again", this dialog box will not come up
again.

After selecting workspace, you will see a welcome screen. Close the welcome screen.
Setting up eclipse

Now we need to make sure of certain things before proceeding with the creation of Java
Project. We should set up environment for running programs in eclipse.
2.1 Compiler compliance level
Right click Window and select Preferences.
Preferences window is opened. Now select Compiler from Java

Compiler compliance level can be changed here. Select the appropriate version from drop
down and click OK.

In the above scenario previous version was 1.6 which is now changed to 1.5
2.2 Installed JREs
You can also add/remove JRE definitions using Installed JREs from Java of Preferences tab.
Now the default JRE is already checked in the Installed JREs, you can add new JRE using
Add button and to remove, select the existing JRE and click Remove button.

On clicking Add a window is opened where you need to select JRE Type
Select the type of JRE and click Next. Now you need to add JRE definition, for this you need
to click on Directory.

Choose the appropriate folder from the respective location and click OK

Now the library files related to the new definition are added. Click Finish to add it.
Select default JRE and click OK.

Now the setup is done.

3. Create Java Project
Right click anywhere in the Project Explorer area. Select New → Project.

A wizard to create new project will appear. Select Java Project from the list of options
available. Click Next.
It opens a wizard to configure few setting for the new project. Enter the project name of your
choice – eg. FirstJavaProject. Make sure your have select the below highlighted options.
Click Finish.
Eclipse may ask you to open the associate perspective. Click Yes.
4. Project Directory.

5. Create Java Class

Right click on src folder. Select New → Class
Reconfirm the location where you want the class to be created – its is in the src folder.
Enter the package name – tcs.ilp
Enter the class name - MyFirstJavaProgram

Eclipse created a package tcs.ilp under the src folder. It also creates a java file
MyFristJavaProgram.java. Double click on the MyFristJavaProgram.java and eclipse opens
the contents of the file in a window.
Add the main method and a simple print statement.

6. Execute the Java program

Right click on the file MyFirstJavaProgram. Select Run As → Java Application.

Here you do not need to compile the java file as eclipse does it for us automatically. We just
need to run the program. Eclipse provides a console window where you can see the output
of the program that you executed as Java Application.

3.8. Compileonline.com
Compileonline.com is a web application which is used to compile and execute programming
languages online. You can compile java programs as well. Here is the quick guide to compile
and execute your program.

Step1:
Open browser and type www.compileonline.com in the address bar.
Step 2:
Click on “Java” in the Programming Languages section.
Now a window appears something like this:
The left hand area is where the source code is written and the right side “Result” tab is
where the output is displayed. Steps to compile and execute the programs are given on the
right hand area. We will now execute a sample code.

Step 3: Write a program on the left hand area in “Main class file” tab

Step 4: Finally click the following button [ Ctrl+E on Windows & Command+E on Mac ]
to see the result.
Step 5: The result is displayed on the right hand side

That's it!! Done!!

This application also helps us to execute multiple class files let us also see a small demo on
how to execute multiple class files using compile online.

Step 1: Check the check box named “Multiple Files”

Step 2: Click “Support class file” and write the program in the area provided
In the above program, we have created a Dog class which has a method bark(). Now to
execute the above program, we need a Test class which contains main() method and a call
to bark() method.

Step 3: Click Main class file tab and create a class with main() method

Step 4: Click Compile & Execute.

4.Operators and Variables in Java
Objective

 Understand Java Variables

 Understand numeric data types, basic operations and expressions and operator
precedence.
 Perform simple and complex numeric computations
 Ability to choose right numeric data types and order of computation
 Understanding this keyword

4.1. Java Variables

 In Java, the attributes in classes are called as Variables.
 A variable is a container that holds values that are used in a Java program.
 Variable is declared with a type of data it stores.
 All variables should be declared before they are used in the program.
 As shown below, variables have a name, value and type.

Variable declaration

The basic form of a variable declaration is shown:

<data type> <variable name> = <initial value>

Example:

int age =20;

Here age is a variable of type integer with initial value of 20.

Note:Product.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main method is
not there.

Types of Variables

Member / Instance variables:

Instance variables are declared in a class, but outside a method, constructor or any block.
Access modifiers such as private, public, protected can be specified for instance variables.
They are visible for all methods, constructors and blocks in the class.
Values can be assigned during the declaration or within the constructor.

Example 1:
In this example we can see how to declare and assign initial value to the variables. We can
also see the access modifiers used with the variable declaration. Here we have used private
access modifier.

Note:Product.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main method is
not there.

Example 2:

This example demonstrates the default values of instance variables.

Note:Employee.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main method
is not there.
The default initial values of the data members of Employee class are as shown below:
name is null (as it is a String object reference)
id is 0(as it is primitive type : integer)
basicSalary is 0.0 (as it is primitive type : float)

Local variables

 Local variables are declared inside methods, constructors or blocks.

 Access modifiers cannot be used for local variables.
 They are visible only within the declared method, constructor or block.
 There is no default value for local variables. So local variables should be declared and
an initialized before its first use.

Example:
This example demonstrates how to declare and use local variables.
Note:Calculator.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main method
is not there.

Here "d" is the local variable created inside the calculation method.

Parameters

Parameters are the list of arguments that come into the function. Parameters are used to
pass values to functions and to receive values in a function.

Example: This example demonstrates to how to use parameters to receive values.

Here we are using int a, int b as parameters to receive values sent to add method.
Note:Calculator.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main method
is not there.

Example 2:
This example demonstrates to how to use parameters to send values to functions.

In c.add(a,b) a and b act as parameters, which are used to send values to add method.

Note: Until, you will not include import statement or if both programs (Tester.java,
Calculator.java)
are not in same package that program will not run.

4.2. Static Variables and Functions

Static Variables

i. Class variables also known as static variables, are declared with the static keyword in a
class.
ii. These are declared outside a method or constructor.

Eg: public static int count = 0;

iii. The basic concept behind static is, there would only be one copy of each class variable
per class, regardless of how many objects are created from it.
iv. That means, for a static field, regardless of the number of instances created, will hold the
same data across all objects.
v. If the value in static variable is changed, it is reflected in all objects. On the other hand,
non-static fields of objects store their individual state. The value of a non-static field (also
called instance variables) is unique for every instance / object.

vi. Static variables are created when the program starts and destroyed when the program
stops.
vii. Default values are same as instance variables. For numbers, the default value is 0; for
boolean, it is false; and for object references, it is null.
viii. Values can be assigned during the declaration or within the constructor.

ix. Static variables in a class can be accessed from a second class by calling with the class
name of the first. ClassName.variableName. Thus we can see that the static variables are
not called by objects. It is directly called with class name.

Example 1:
Following example demonstrates how to declare and use static variables.

Note: StaticExample.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main
method is not there.
In StaticExample class we have declared a static variable called num.

In TestStatic class we are accessing that variable.

We have created object of StaticExample class in TestStatic class to access the attributes
and methods of StaticExample class.

Since num is a static variable, we can access it directly with the class name, before
creating object of that class.

Static Functions
Through these courses we have already come across a static function. Can you guess? Yes,
it’s nothing but the main method which we used to test the classes and functions which we
write.

Static methods are conceptually the same as static variables, thus the reasons to use or not
use them are similar. They belong to the class, not specific objects of that class. There is no
need of a logical instance variable to call these methods. That is, if a method needs to be in
a class, but not tied to an object, then it make it static. If the method is more logically part of
an object, then it should not be static.

Main is static because JVM can call main without creating an object first. It probably
simplified the design of the JVM.
Static methods are also accessed by calling the method with the class name.
ClassName.methodname.

Example: This example demonstrates use of static methods.

Note: Calculator.java example which is been given that can not be executed as main
method is not there.

Here add is a static method written in calculator class. We are accessing that in
TestCalculator class.
Since it is static method we can access it without creating object of that class, directly with
the classname.

Points to remember

1. Static methods can't use non-static, instance variables directly.

2. Static methods can't use non-static, methods directly.
That means, if a static method need to access a non-static variable or method, then first
create an object and using that object you need to access the method or variable.
This is because; static members which are related directly to class cannot see instance
variable state and behaviour.

4.3. Numeric Data types

Numbers are so important in Java that 6 of the 8 primitive data types are numeric types
which are shown in tabular format below.
There are both integer and floating point primitive types. Integer types have no fractional part
whereas floating point types have a fractional part.
Description of each type is given after the table.

Each of these types uses a fixed number of bits. i.e. same number of bits will be used no
matter what value is represented.
For example, all values represented using the short data type use 16 bits. The value zero
(as a short) uses 16 bits and the value thirty thousand also uses 16 bits.

1] byte:
  byte data type is an 8-bit signed two's complement integer.
 Minimum value is -128 (-2^7)
 Maximum value is 127 (inclusive)(2^7 -1)
 Default value is 0
 byte data type is used to save space in large arrays, mainly in place of integers,
since a byte is four times smaller than an int.
 Example: byte a = 100 , byte b = -50

2] short:

 short data type is a 16-bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is -32,768 (-2^15)
 Maximum value is 32,767 (inclusive) (2^15 -1)
 short data type can also be used to save memory as byte data type.
 A short is 2 times smaller than an int.
 Default value is 0.
 Example: short s = 10000, short r = -20000

3] int:

 int data type is a 32-bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is - 2,147,483,648.(-2^31)
 Maximum value is 2,147,483,647(inclusive).(2^31 -1)
 int is generally used as the default data type for integral values unless there is a
concern about memory.
 The default value is 0.
 Example: int a = 100000, int b = -200000

4] long:

 long data type is a 64 bit signed two's complement integer.

 Minimum value is -9,223,372,036,854,775,808.(-2^63)
 Maximum value is 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (inclusive). (2^63 -1)
 This type is used when a wider range than int is needed.
 Default value is 0L.
 Example: long a = 100000L, int b = -200000L

5] float:

 float data type is a single-precision 32-bit IEEE 754 floating point.

 float is mainly used to save memory in large arrays of floating point numbers.
 Default value is 0.0
  float data type is never used for precise values such as currency.
 Example: float f1 = 234.5f

6] double:

 double data type is a double-precision 64-bit IEEE 754 floating point.

 This data type is generally used as the default data type for decimal values,
generally the default choice.
 double data type should never be used for precise values such as currency.
 Default value is 0.0d.
 Example: double d1 = 123.4

Fig: This digram demonstrates use of different datatypes.

Example : This program demonstrate the use of data types.

The result has fractional value, so we are using float variable to store it

4.4. Operators
Java provides a rich set of operators to manipulate variables. We can divide all the Java
operators into the following groups:

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Misc Operators

1] The Arithmetic Operators:

Arithmetic operators are used in mathematical expressions in the same way that they are
used in algebra. The following table lists the arithmetic operators:
Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:
2] The Relational Operators:

There are following relational operators supported by Java language

Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

3] The Logical Operators:

 Logical operators return a true or false value based on the state of the Variables.
 There are six logical, or boolean, operators. They are AND, conditional AND, OR,
conditional OR, exclusive OR, and NOT.
 Each argument to a logical operator must be a boolean data type, and the result is
always a boolean data type.
 An example program is shown below that demonstrates the different Logical
operators in Java.

Example:

In this example you can see the use of logical operators.

5] The Assignment Operator:

 Assignment operator is used to assign values to variables.

 “ = “ is used as assignment operator. Eg: int i=10;
 The variable are always on the left-hand side of the assignment operator and the
value to be assigned is always on the right-hand side of the assignment operator.
 The assignment operator is evaluated from right to left, so a = b = c = 0; would
assign 0 to c, then c to b then b to a.
 i = i + 2; // same as i=10+2
 Here we say that we are assigning i's value to the new value which is i+2.
 A short cut way to write assignments like this is to use the += operator. It's one
operator symbol so don't put blanks between the + and =. So it is also called as short
hand operator.
 i += 2; // Same as "i = i + 2
6] The Conditional Operator or Misc operator:

 The Conditional operator is the only ternary (operator takes three arguments)
operator in Java. The operator evaluates the first argument and, if true, evaluates the
second argument. If the first argument evaluates to false, then the third argument is
evaluated.
 The conditional operator is the expression equivalent of the if-else statement.
 An example program is shown below that demonstrates the Ternary operator in Java.
 This example demonstrates how conditional operator can be used to find grater of 2
numbers.

Operators can also be classified as follows:

Unary Operators
The unary operators require only one operand. They work with single operands.

Example:
count ++; // Existing value in variable count is incremented by 1.
count --; // Existing value in variable count is decremented by 1.

Binary Operators
Binary operators work with two operands or variables.
Example:
int age = 35; // value 35 assigned to variable age.

int x = 5; int y = 3;
int z = x + y; // adding values of two variables and assigning result to another variable.

Ternary Operators
In ternary operator, takes 3 components: condition, true result, false result. This operator is
having a ? and :. It looks like result = condition ? value 1 : value 2

Example:
int a = 10;
int x = a > 0 ? 1: 0; // checking a > 0, if yes returns 1, if no returns 0.

Precedence of Operators
Java has well-defined rules for specifying the order in which the operators in an expression
are evaluated when the expression has several operators. For example, multiplication and
division have a higher precedence than addition and subtraction. Precedence rules can be
overridden by explicit parentheses.

Precedence Order:

When two operators share an operand the operator with the higher precedence goes first.
For example, 1 + 2 * 3 is treated as 1 + (2 * 3), whereas 1 * 2 + 3 is treated as (1 * 2) + 3
since multiplication has a higher precedence than addition.

Associativity:

When two operators with the same precedence the expression is evaluated according to its
associativity. For example x = y = z = 17 is treated as x = (y = (z = 17)), leaving all three
variables with the value 17, since the = operator has right-to-left associativity (and an
assignment statement evaluates to the value on the right hand side). On the other hand, 72 /
2 / 3 is treated as (72 / 2) / 3 since the / operator has left-to-right associativity.

Precedence and associativity of Java operators:

The table below shows all Java operators from highest to lowest precedence, along with
their associativity. Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the
table, those with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence
operators will be evaluated first.

For more information on precedence and associativity you can visit the following link.
http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/operators.html

4.5. Precedence of Operators

Java has well-defined rules for specifying the order in which the operators in an

expression are evaluated when the expression has several operators. For

example, multiplication and division have a higher precedence than addition and

subtraction. Precedence rules can be overridden by explicit parentheses.

Precedence Order:

When two operators share an operand the operator with the

higher precedence goes first. For example, 1 + 2 * 3 is treated as 1 + (2 * 3),

whereas 1 * 2 + 3 is treated as (1 * 2) + 3 since multiplication has a higher

precedence than addition.

Associativity:

When two operators with the same precedence the expression is evaluated

according to its associativity. For example x = y = z = 17 is treated as x = (y = (z

= 17)), leaving all three variables with the value 17, since the = operator has

right-to-left associativity (and an assignment statement evaluates to the value on

the right hand side). On the other hand, 72 / 2 / 3 is treated as (72 / 2) / 3 since

the / operator has left-to-right associativity.

Precedence and associativity of Java operators:

The table below shows all Java operators from highest to lowest precedence,

along with their associativity.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those

with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence

operators will be evaluated first.

For more information on precedence and associativity you can visit the following link.

http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/java/nutsandbolts/operators.html

4.6. String
Strings are an incredibly common type of data in computers. Strings, which are widely used
in Java programming, are a sequence of characters. In the Java programming language,
strings are objects.

Java string is a series of characters gathered together, like the word "Hello", or the phrase
"practice makes perfect". Create a string in the code by writing its chars out between double
quotes.

Following are some of the ways to instantiate a java String

String str1 = "Hello";

String str2 = new String("Apple");

String str3 = new String(char []);

Methods:

There are methods for:

concatenating two strings - concat() ,+

Result:

getting the character at a given position within the string -- charAt() .By using indexOf()
method you get get the position of the sepcified string or char from the given string. You can
also get the index strting from a specified position of the string.
ex:
charAt( int index )
@Returns the char value at the specified index

will result as

Combining charAt() with another String method, we can get the final character of any String,
regardless of length:
will result as

seeing if a character or string exists within a string -- indexOf()

By using indexOf() method you get get the position of the sepcified string or char from
the given string. We can also get the index strting from a specified position of the string.

Output is

 getting the number of characters in a string -- length()

Example:

Output:
extracting a substring from a string – substring()
The substring begins with the character at the specified index and extends to the end of
this string or up to endIndex - 1 if second argument is given.

Syntax of this method:

public String substring(int beginIndex)

or
public String substring(int beginIndex, int endIndex)

Note:

beginIndex -- the begin index, inclusive.

endIndex -- the end index, exclusive.

Example:

Output:
4.7. Practice Problems
1. Write a program to find the difference between sum of the squares and the square of the
sums of 2 numbers?
2. Develop a program that accepts the area of a square and will calculate its perimeter.
3. Utopias tax accountants always use programs that compute income taxes even though
the tax rate is a solid, never-changing 15%. Write a program that calculates net pay of an
employee based on number of hours the employee has worked. Assume an hourly rate of
$12.

4. An old-style movie theater has a simple profit program. Each customer pays $5 per
ticket. Every performance costs the theater $20, plus $.50 per attendee. Develop the
program that accepts the number of attendees (of a show) and calculates how much income
the show earns.

5. Develop the program which computes the height that a rocket reaches in a given
amount of time. If the rocket accelerates at a constant rate g, it reaches a speed of g • t in t
time units and a height of 1/2 * v * t where v is the speed at t.

6. Develop a program that accepts the length and width of a rectangular floor and the edge
length of a square tile and will compute the whole number of tiles needed to cover the floor
completely.
5.Introduction to class in java,access specifiers, this and
static in Java
Objective

 Introduction to Classes
 Declaration of Classes
 Declaration of instance variables
 Declaration of methods
 Object and Object creation
 Access Modifiers
 Constructors
 Use of this Keyword
 Examples for “this” keyword
 static keyword

5.1. Introduction to Classes

A class is a template, blueprint,or contract that defines what an object’s data fields and
methods will be. An object is an instance of a class. You can create many instances of a
class.
A Java class uses variables to define data fields and methods to define actions. The
attributes and behaviours defined by a class are common to all objects of the same kind.

Declaration of Classes

A class is declared by the use of the “class” keyword. Class body is enclosed between
curly braces { and }. The data or variables defined within the class are called instance
variables. The code is contained within methods. Collectively, the methods and variables
defined in a class are called members of the class.

Finally we can say a class is a blue print of particular classification of objects.

Please refer to the below image for more details.

Here we can say there is a class Car.

Here we can say there is a class called Animal..

A class can contain any of the following variable types.

Local variables: Variables defined inside methods, constructors or blocks are called local
variables. The variable will be declared and initialized within the method and the variable will
be destroyed when the method has completed.

Instance variables: Instance variables are variables within a class but outside any method.
These variables are instantiated when the class is loaded. Instance variables can be
accessed from inside any method, constructor or blocks of that particular class.

Class variables: Class variables are variables declared with in a class, outside any method,
with the static keyword.
Declaration of Instance Variables

Variables defined within a class are called instance variables because each instance of the
class (ie, each object of the class) contains its own copy of these variables. Thus, the data
for one object is seperate and unique from the data of another. Instance variables can be
declared public or private or default (no modifier). When we do not want our variables value
to be changed outside our class we should declare them private. Public variables can be
accessed and changed from outside the class. We will have more information about this on
OOP tutorial.

Below find the syntax for declaring an instance variable.

Declaration of Methods

A method is a program module that contains a series of statements that carry out a task. To
execute a method, you invoke or call it from another method; the calling method makes a
method call, which invokes the called method. Any class can contain an unlimited number of
methods, and each method can be called an unlimited number of times.

The syntax for method declaration is as given below. Java main method is given as an
example.
5.2. Objects or Instances

Consider Tiger from the above list,

Objects are made up of attributes(properties) and methods(behaviours). Attributes are
the characteristics that define an object; the values contained in attributes differentiate the
objects of the same class from one another.
To understand this in a better way, let's take an example of Mobile as an object. Mobile has
characteristics like model, manufacturer, cost, operating system etc. So if we create
“Samsung” mobile object and “iPhone” mobile object, we can distinguish them from their
characteristics. The values of the attributes of an object are also referred to as the object's
state.

Objects need not be physical objects. It can be any entity. It can be account,an
organization etc.

We can say --- Object is an instance of a class.

Consider an object Car. What we know about a car defines its attributes. What a car can do
defines its behaviours/methods.

Always operations can alter the state of the attributes.

Consider the above start operation for a Car. When the car is started ,it is affecting the
state of the engine.
Creating an Object:

As mentioned previously, a class provides the blueprints for objects. So basically an object is
created from a class. In Java, the new key word is used to create new objects.

There are three steps when creating an object from a class:

Declaration: A variable declaration with a variable name with an object type.

Instantiation: The 'new' key word is used to create the object.

Initialization: The 'new' keyword is followed by a call to a constructor. This call initializes the
new object.

Example of creating an object is given below:

ClassName ObjectReferenceVariableName = new ConstructorName();

Vehicle car= new Vehicle();

Refer the below Vehicle class.

We are creating three objects truck, bike and a car from Vehicle class.
Accessing Instance Variables and Methods using Objects:

ObjectReference.variableName;

/* Now you can call a class method as follows */

ObjectReference.MethodName();
How objects communicates each other?

5.3. Constructors and Access Specifiers

Constructors

Java constructors are special methods which are used to initialize objects. Constructor
method has the same name as that of class, they are called or invoked when an object of
class is created and can't be called explicitly. They are designed to perform initializing
actions such as initializing the data fields or objects.

A java constructor has the same name as the name of the class to which it belongs.
Constructor’s syntax does not include a return type, since constructors never return a value.

Constructors can be classified into two types, default constructors and parametrized
constructors.
If you don't define a constructor, then the compiler creates a default constructor. Default
constructors do not contain any parameters. Default constructors are created only if there
are no constructors defined by us. Java provides a default constructor which takes no
arguments, when no explicit constructors are provided. Parametrized constructors are
required to pass parameters on creation of objects.

Access Specifiers

Each object has members (members can be variables or methods) which can be declared to
have specific access.
Access Modifier - private:
Methods, Variables and Constructors that are declared private can only be accessed
within the declared class itself. Private access modifier is the most restrictive access level.

Variables that are declared private can be accessed outside the class if public getter
methods are present in the class. Using the private modifier is the main way that an object
encapsulates itself and hide data from the outside world.

Access Modifier - public:

Members (variables, methods and constructors) declared public (least restrictive)
within a public class are visible to any class in the java program, irrespective of whether
these classes are in the package or in another package.
Below program will give compilation Error.

5.4. Use of this Keyword

There can be a lot of usage of this keyword. In java, this is a reference variable that refers
to the current object.

Example on this keyword

If there is ambiguity between the instance variable and parameter, this keyword resolves the
problem of ambiguity.

Understanding the problem without this keyword

Let's understand the problem if we don't use this keyword by the example given below:
In the above example, parameter (formal arguments) and instance variables are same that is
why we are using this keyword to distinguish between local variable and instance variable.

Solution of the above problem by this keyword

Solution of the above problem by with out using this keyword

5.5. Static Keyword
Static variables are also known as Class variables. Static variables are declared with the
static keyword in a class, but outside a method, constructor or a block.

There would only be one copy of each class variable per class, regardless of how many
objects are created from it.Static variables are stored in static memory.

Static variables are created when the program starts and destroyed when the program
stops.
Visibility is similar to instance variables. However, most static variables are declared public
since they must be available for users of the class.

Default values are same as instance variables. For numbers, the default value is 0; for
Booleans, it is false; and for object references, it is null. Values can be assigned during the
declaration or within the constructor.

Static variables can be accessed by calling with the class name . ClassName.VariableName.

Consider the below class Vehicle, here manufacturteName is declared as static and
getManufactureName() method also declared as static.
OUTPUT is:

5.6. Practice Problems

Note:
All attributes to be private for below classes.
Declare public getters and setters as per required.
Declare constructor which takes required parameters.

1. Declare class Calculator with attributes:

double valueOne, double valueTwo

Write below methods in this class and test those methods:

Add() //addes two values
Subtract() //subtracts valueTwo from valueOne
Multiply() // multiplies valueTwo and valueOne
Divide() //Divides valueTwo with valueOne. Returns 0 of valueOne is 0.

2. Declare class Triangle with below attributes:

double base, double height, double sideOne, doubleSideTwo

Write below methods in this class amd test those methods:

GetArea() // return area of the triangle

GetPeremeter() //return peremeter of the triangle

3. Declare class Cuboid with below attributes:

length, width, height

write below methods in this class and test those methods:

GetSurfaceArea() // return surface area of the cuboid

GetVolume() // return volume of the cuboid

4. Create class BankAccount with below attributes:

customerId, accountId,balance

write below methods in this class and test those methods:

DepositAmonut(double amount) // adds the amount to existing balance and returns new
balance
WithdrawAmount(double amount) // deducts the amount from existing balance and returns
new balance.
// however, if amount is greater than balance, returns -1
AddInterest(double percent) // adds amount based on interest percentage and returns new
balance

5. Declare class Associate with below attributes:

 id, grade (can be A/B/C), designation (can be J/M/S), basicPay
//basic pay for designation J = 10000, M = 15000, S = 20000

Write below methods:

PromoteEmployee(char newDesignation) //Check if new designation is not equal to or

less than current. If yes, return -1. else return 1 after promoted.
CalculateSalary()
Guidelines for CalculateSalary():

Grade A: HRA as 15%, DA as 25%

Grade B: HRA as 10%, DA as 20%
Grade C: HRA as 5%, DA as 15%

Designation: S : Add designation pay as 50% of basicPay

Designation: M : Add designation pay as 40% of basicPay
Designation: J : Add designation pay as 20% of basicPay

6. Declare class Time with below attributes:

hour, minute, second

Write below methods:

GetCurrentTime() //return Stirng as hh:mm:ss

Addtime(int hh, int mm, int ss) // adds seconds, minutes and hours to existing time and
returns new time in hh:mm:ss format
SubtractTime(int hh, int mm, int ss) // subtracts seconds, minutes and hours to existing time
and returns new time in hh:mm:ss format
6.Java Library, Packages, Use of import
Objective

a) Introduction to Packages and Imports

b) Understanding Java Libraries
c) More on access specifiers

6.1. Packages
A package is a namespace that organizes a set of related classes and interfaces, providing
access protection and name space management. Conceptually packages can be thought of
as similar to different folders on the computer. Packages are used in Java to prevent naming
conflicts, to control access, and to make searching/locating and usage of classes easier.

Java platform provides a very large library of classes and interfaces organized into different
packages known as “Application Programming Interface” or API. Some of the packages in
Java API Library are:

java.lang - bundles the fundamental classes

java.io - classes for input, output functions are bundled in this package

Because software written in Java can be composed of hundreds of individual classes,

programmers can define their own packages to group related classes together. It is a good
practice to organize by grouping related classes and interfaces into packages so that a
programmer can easily locate and find the classes he needs.

Since the package creates a new namespace there won't be any class name conflicts with
other class names in other packages.

Eg: Both java.awt and java.util packages have a class called “List”. There is no naming
conflict because the two “List” classes are part of two different packages.

Using packages, it is easier to provide access control and it is also easier to locate the
related classes.

Eg: Consider a scenario where a bank has many employees. New employees are added,
some may resign from bank, so those employees need to be removed from bank. Many
customers come to the bank to get services. Customers open account, deposit money to
account, withdraw money from account etc.

Here we have different objects and so different classes need to be created. If it is going to be
a large application, it will be difficult to manage all the files without using packages. Also if
we want to set different visibility, like Customer should not see the details of Employee,
packages can be used to organize and set visibility using access modifiers.

Implementation of Packages in Java

The package in Java is represented using the keyword 'package'. The package statement is
written with the keyword 'package' followed by the name of package and ends with a semi
colon.

Syntax: package packagename ;

Eg: package employee ;
package com.tcs.employees ;

The package statement should be the first line in the source file. There can be only one
package statement in each source file, and it applies to all types in the file.

Creating packages in Eclipse IDE

Step1: Create a package in eclipse and provide a name for the package as shown below.
Package name can be a one word name or multiple words separated by a dot.
Eg: com.tcs.employees (or) employee
Step 2: Create classe(s) inside the employee package. The java class file should have
package statement as the first line. In the screenshot below you can see the employee
package. The classes Employee.java and TestEmployee.java are created under this
package. You can see that the first line in Employee.java is the package statement.
6.2. Import Statement
A package is to group related classes or other type of files together. The classes and other
types under a package are called as package members. So as we saw above, we have
grouped all files into different packages.

If a class wants to access/use another class/member from the same package, the class
need not be imported. Classes/members within the same package can access each other
without importing them.

But in the scenario where the classes belonging to different packages need to access each
other, the class belonging to the other package must be imported into the class that wants to
use it.

The classes are imported using import statements. Import keyword is used to import the
classes from different packages. Import keyword is followed by the fully qualified name of the
class which includes the package name under which the class is present.
Eg: import java.util.Date ;

In the example below the Employee class is imported into the TestEmployee class.

You can see in the above example, the TestEmployee class is under the test package. You
can also see the import statement to import Employee in TestEmployee class. This is there
because TestEmployee is using Employee class, which is part of a different package
employee. However even after the Employee class is imported into TestEmployee there are
still errors in Testemployee class. This is because the Employee class is not visible to
classes outside its package. Earlier when the TestEmployee class was inside employee
package, it knew the Employee class. But when it was moved into a different package, and
even after Employee class was imported the Employee class and its constructor are not
visible. This is because only public members of a package/class are visible to classes from
other packages. So specify public access specifier to the class, constructor and method
which need to be accessed from outside.

In the below screen, you can see the changes made to access specifiers of Employee class
and its constructor and methods. They are all declared with public access modifier.

To use a public package member from outside its package any one of the following can be
used
a) Refer to the class/member by its fully qualified name
b) Import specific class/member in a package
c) Import all members/classes in a package

Refer to the class/member by its fully qualified name

employee.Employee = new employee.Employee() ;

Import all members/classes in a package:

By using * wild card, we can import all the classes inside employee package.
import employee.* ;
Import specific members/classes in a package:
We can also specify only the needed classes in the import statement.
import employee.Employee ;

If a class in a package has same name as another class in another package and both
packages are imported then you must refer to each class by its qualified name to resolve
any name ambiguities.

6.3. More on Access Modifiers and Java Libraries

We have discussed about 2 access specifiers in the previous courses. Which are they?

Yes -> public and private.

In Java, there are 4 access specifiers, they are:

Private Access Modifier – private

Methods, Variables and Constructors that are declared private can only be accessed within
the declared class itself. Private access modifier is the most restrictive access level.

Variables that are declared private can be accessed outside the class if public getter
methods are present in the class. Using the private modifier is the main way that an object
encapsulates itself and hide data from the outside world.

Public Access Modifier – public

A class, method or constructor declared public can be accessed from any other class.
Therefore attributes or methods declared inside a public class can be accessed from any
other Java class which is inside the same package or inside another package. If the public
class which we try to access is in a different package, it needs to be imported first.

Default Access Modifier - No keyword

For default access modifier, we do not explicitly declare an access modifier for a class, field,
method, constructors etc.

A variable or method declared without any access control modifier is available to any other
class in the same package. Such members can be considered as package private.
We have already seen such a scenario when we discussed about import statements.

Eg: The constructor method in the following Java class is in default access.
class Employee {

private String name;

private String empNo;
private int age;
private double basicPay;

// Constructor
Employee(String name, String empNo, int age) {
this.name = name;
this.empNo = empNo;
this.age = age;
}
}
Protected Access Modifier – protected
Protected is related to inheritance (a parent child relation). Protected members in a class can
be accessed only by its child classes from same/different package as well as by any other
classes in the same package.

The child class can be anywhere, in other package or within the same package of the parent
class.

The protected access modifier can be applied only to methods or fields, not to class. We can
see more on it when we go through inheritance.

Java Libraries

Java differs from most other languages in that the number of classes and interfaces in its
standard libraries is very large. Many common tasks have already been implemented by
these libraries.

They are generally of high quality and are widely used. Implementing something which
already exists in the libraries is probably wasted effort. Significant changes and additions to
the standard libraries occur in each major release of Java, and it pays to keep current.
The most widely used packages are java.lang and java.util. There are other packages used
for working with data such as java.sql, javax.sql, java.io etc.
For graphical applications, see the Swing classes (javax.swing, and so on).

You should go through JDK documentation just to get an idea of what is available. Later,
when a specific need arises, you will often know which packages might be helpful.

7.Conditional operations
Objective

 Understand conditional constructs, boolean operations and expressions, logical

operators and precedence
 Perform simple, nested and complex conditional operations
 Ability to choose right conditional constructs

7.1. Conditional Operations

There are many scenarios in our everyday life, where we need to take some decisions
based on some criteria or condition. Decision making is one of the major part of Java also.

Conditional logic is involved when different operations are to be performed based on

whether a decision is true or not. Conditional expressions consists of conditions that results
in a boolean value and performs actions based on the boolean result. There are three types
of decision making statements in Java. They are:

1. if – This statement is the most basic of all control flow statements. “if” statement has a
certain condition expression. It executes a certain section of code only if that particular
condition is true. If the condition is false, control jumps to the end of the if statement.

if(condition)
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the condition is true.
For example, a=5
Checking condition -
if(a>3)
 {
This code will be executed because 'a' is greater than 5.
}
*/
}
2. If ... else – This statement provides a secondary path of execution when the condition
becomes false. There can be nested if then else statement also.

if(condition)
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the condition is true.*/
}
else
{
/* statement(s) will execute if the boolean condition is
false */
}
In the above example, if a=5 and condition is to check if a>6 then it will go to else block.

Flow Diagram:
3. switch – A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of
values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being given as input is checked for
each case.
This statement helps to select one out of the many choices based on an integer or String
value. The conditions will accept only integer, character or String. The syntax is different
from if else statements. Here we are comparing the input value with different cases. We can
set a default case for inputs which does not satisfy any case.
The syntax of the switch statement is as follows.

switch (expression) {
case value_1 :
statement(s);
break;
case value_2 :
statement(s);
break;
.
 .
.
case value_n :
statement(s);
break;
default:
statement(s);
}

Failure to add a break statement after a case will not generate a compile error but may have
more serious consequences because the statements on the next case will be executed.

The following rules apply to a switch statement:

1. The variable used in a switch statement can only be a byte, short, int, char or String(It is
allowed from jdk 1.7 version.).

2. You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is followed by
the value to be compared to and a colon.

3. The value for a case must be the same data type as the variable in the switch and it must
be a constant or a literal.

4. When the variable is found equal to a case, the statements following that case will
execute until a break statement is reached. When a break statement is reached, the switch
terminates, and the flow of control jumps to the next line following the switch statement. Not
every case needs to contain a break. If no break appears, the flow of control will fall through
to subsequent cases until a break is reached.

A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the end of the
switch. The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the cases is true.
No break is needed in the default case.

7.2. Ternary Operator and Conditional (Logical)

Operators
Java supports another conditional operator that is known as the ternary operator "?:" and
basically is used for an if-then-else as shorthand

boolean expression ? operand1 : operand2;

The "?:" operator evaluates an expression which may also be an operand and returns
operand1 if the expression is true; otherwise returns operand2, if the expression is false. We
can understand this thing with the help of a diagram shown as:

If we analyze this diagram then we find that, operand1 is returned, if the expression is true;
otherwise operand2 is returned in case of false expression.
Lets have an example implementing some Logical operators:

Output of the Program:

value of x is 5
value of y is greater than the value of x
The returned value is 5

Thus we can conclude the ternary operator can be considered as the short hand of if then
else statement.

Conditional (Logical) Operators

Conditional operators return a true or a false value based on the state of the variables i.e.
the operations using conditional operators are performed between the two boolean
expressions.

I. AND (&) and Conditional-AND (&&) operators:

The AND(&)operator is similar to the Conditional-AND operator (&&).Both of its operands are
of boolean type, even these operands may be boolean expressions. Other Relational
operators can also be used with these operators.

Lets use a Truth Table to know the status of an output

If we analyze the table we find that result is always true only in case of first condition where
both operands(or expressions) are true. On the other hand result is always false in other
conditions. Note that this table works alike for & and && operators.

In case of "&" operator,if both operands or expressions are true,the result is always true,
otherwise it is false if either left-hand or right-hand operand is false.

In case of "&&" operator, the result is also true, if both operands or expressions are true.
But this operator evaluates only the left-hand operand. It doesn't evaluate the right-hand
operand if the left-hand operand is false then it will not jump to the right-hand operand to
evaluate it, and will come out from that statement and read the next statement. That's why
this mechanism is known as short-circuiting. Consider the following statements where the
second expression returns false after evaluating only the left-hand operand.

True && true = true;// both operands are

evaluated
false && true = false;// only left-operand is
evaluated

But the "&" operator always evaluates both of its operands whether the first operand is true
or false. Consider the following statements where the second expression returns false after
evaluating the right-hand operand.

true & true = true;// both operands are

true
true & false = false;// both operands are
evaluated

II. OR (|)and Conditional-OR (||)operators:

Likewise, the OR operator(|) is similar to the Conditional-OR operator (||) and returns true, if
one or another of its operand is true.
Lets use a Truth Table to know the status of an output that works alike for"|" and "||"
operators.

Operation 1 Operation 2 Result

TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE TRUE
FALSE TRUE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE

If we analyze the table then we find that, result is always false only if both operands or
expression are false. On the other hand, result is always true in rest of the other conditions.
Still these exists a major difference in their mode of use:
The "|" operator always evaluates both of its operands and returns true if one or other of its
operand is true. Otherwise false if both the conditions are false. Consider the following
statements where the second expression returns false after evaluating the right-hand
operand.

true | false = true; // left operand is true but both are

evaluated
false | false = false;//both operands are evaluated

In case of "||" the result is also true, if one of the both operands is true. Otherwise it
evaluates to falseif both operands are false. But this operator conditionally evaluates the
right-hand operand only if the left-hand operands is false. Like the Conditional-AND
operator, this mechanism is also known as short-circuiting. Consider the following
statements where the first expression returns true after evaluating the right-hand operand.

false || true = true;// both operands are

evaluated
true || false = true;// only left-operand is
evaluated

III. NOT ("!") operator :

The NOT ("!") operator performs the boolean NOT operation on a single operand or an
expression. It checks the boolean status of a current operand or expression and reverses
the value of a boolean expression i.e. if the current value of an operand or expression is true
then it reverses as false; but if the value of an operand or expression is false then it reverses
as true.

Consider the following example:

7.3. Practice Problems
1. Find the maximum of three numbers
2. Write a program to check whether the input alphabet is a vowel or not.
3. Develop a program, that accepts a deposit amount and calculates amount of interest the
deposit amount earns in an year. The bank pays a flat 4% for deposits of up to Rs.1000, a
flat 4.5% per year for deposits of up to Rs.5000, and a flat 5% for deposits of more than
Rs.5000.
4. Develop the program, which accepts the gross pay and produces the amount of tax
owed. For a gross pay of $240 or less, the tax is 0%; for over $. 240 and $. 480 or less,
the tax rate is 15%; and for any pay over $480, the tax rate is 28%.
5. Some credit card companies pay back a small portion of the charges a customer makes
over a year. A particular credit card company's pay back policy is as follows:
1. 0.25% for charges up to Rs. 500.
2. 0.50% for the next Rs.1000 (that is, the portion between Rs. 500 and Rs. 1500),
3. 0.75% for the next Rs.1000 (that is, the portion between Rs. 1500 and Rs. 2500),
4. 1.0% for charges above Rs2500.
 Thus, a customer who charges Rs. 400 a year receives Rs.1.00, which is 0.25 • 1/100 •
400, and one who charges Rs1, 400 a year receives Rs. 5.75, which is 1.25 = 0.25 •
1/100 • 500 for the first Rs. 500 and 0.50 • 1/100 • 900 = 4.50 for the next Rs. 900.
Determine by hand the pay backs amount for a customer who charged Rs. 2000 and one
who charged Rs. 2600.
Define the program, which accepts a charge amount and computes the corresponding pay
back amount.

8.Basic Iterations and Arrays

Objective

 Understand need of arrays in programming

 Understand procedure to declare,initialize and access arrays
 Understand and implement solutions involving arrays of primitive and custom types
 Understand iterations and loops
 Understand and implement solutions involving simple and nested iterations
 Understand finite, infinite loops
 Understand break and continue conditions
 Understand and implement solutions on arrays using iterations

8.1. Arrays
We have seen how to declare variable in the previous section. int x; Here x is a variable of
type int, so x will be capable of storing an integer value. At any point of time a variable can
hold only a single value.

Few more eg.

int age=20;
int score=70;

Say, I need to store scores of last 5 matches. What kind of data type do I take? May be
I will take 5 variables of type int.
int scoreMatch1;
int scoreMatch2;
int scoreMatch3;
int scoreMatch4;
int scoreMatch5;

Similarly, I need to record no. of kms I drove each day in last 5 days.

int kmsDay1;
int kmsDay2;
int kmsDay3;
int kmsDay4;
int kmsDay5;

Similarly, I need to record the amount spent for each day in last 5 days.

double expenseDay1;
double expenseDay2;
double expenseDay3;
double expenseDay4;
double expenseDay5;

The above approach will not be efficient if the requirement(of recording data for a
specific period) changes from just last 5 days to last 30 days.

Array:
It is a single variable, capable of storing multiple values (of same data type). But an
array does not store the multiple values directly. It is a collection of more than one variable,
of same data type.

Declaring arrays:

The general syntax to declare an array is : data type variable name[]; The square
brackets indicate that the variable is an array of the data type declared.
Example:

int scores [];

int kmsTravelled [];
double expenses [];
char grades[];

Also, all the above arrays are just declared, and have not yet been initialized(not
defined the size).

Here scores is not just an int type variable. scores is an array of type int i.e. It is
capable of storing more than one int value.

int score = 70; Here the variable score holds a value 70.

Arrays

Here the array scores do not hold the values directly. It is just a reference (pointing to) to
the 5 variables score1 … score5. Hence arrays are called references or objects in Java.

If we do not initialize an int variable, its default value is 0. In case of array (as it does
not store value directly), if we do not initialize(do not say to which list of variables it refers to)
it, the default value is null. i.e. it does not point to any list of variables.

Similarly, expenses is not just a double type variable. expenses is an array of type
double i.e. it is capable of storing more than one double value.

Similarly, grades is not just a char type variable. grades is an array of type char i.e. it is
capable of storing more than one char value.
Once an array is declared, you can think of multiple variables being generated automatically
in a sequential order i.e. if an array double[] expense is declared, the variable that stores the
first value will be expense[0], the variable that stores the second value will be expense[1]
and so on.

Note: While talking about arrays, always remember two key things. One, about the array
itself, whether it is initialized or not. Two, about the element inside the array – whether it is
initialized or not.

Initializing arrays – using {} initializer:

Arrays have a specific length(or size). The length of the array cannot be changed after
it has been initialized. The elements in the array are put at index of the array. The first
element in the array is at index 0, and the last element is at the index length-1.

To declare and initialize an array at the same time, refer to the below syntax:

Example 1:

int[] scores = {55,15, 92,107,67}

The above statement declares an array, initializes an array (of size 5) and also puts
elements into the array. The value of first element is 55, the value of second element is 15,
the value of third element is 92, the value of fourth element is 107 and the value of fifth
element is 67.

Once the array is initialized, the length(or size) of an array can be known by the length
property. It is used after the dot operator on the array variable. Refer the syntax below:

array.length;

eg.
int scores[] = new int[]{55,15, 92,107,67};
System.out.println(scores.length);

You could either store it in an int variable eg. int size = scores.length;

Putting elements into array:

Step 1:
int scores[] = new int[5];

The above statement will declare an int array of length 5. The values in the array will be
initialized to the default values as per their data type.
Step 2:
The first value in the array is accessed by the code : scores[0]. To assign values to the
first element, use the assignment operator (=). The below statement assigns a value 55 to
the first element in the array. The remaining elements still have the default value.

scores[0] = 55;

Similarly, to assign value 15 to the second element.

scores[1] = 15;

The next line assigns a value 92 to the third element.

scores[2] = 92;
Accessing elements from the array:

int scores[] = new int[]{55,15, 92,107,67};

Assuming that the above array is initialized with the given values. The elements of the array
are accessed by their index. The first element of the array is stored at index 0 and the last
element is stored at index which is length-1.

To retrieve the value of the elements at index 0, use scores[0] which will return the value 55.

Similarly,

scores[1] will return the value 15

scores[2] will return the value 92
scores[3] will return the value 107
scores[4] will return the value 67

We can use a variable to store the value we retrieve from the array,
int x = scores[0]; as scores is an int array, scores[0] is going to return an int.

Creating array of custom types

Consider the case of library where it has list of books as inventory. So library will have
attributes like library name, address. It will also have list of books as an attribute. We could
model the Book class and Library class as follow.

The library class has an array of Book, i.e. the array will have multiple objects of Book
representing the real books in the library.

> Creating book objects:

Assuming the Book class has parameterized constructor.

Book b1 = new Book(101, “Head First Java”, “Author1”);

Book b2 = new Book(102, “Head First JSP”, “Author2”);
Book b3 = new Book(103, “Java Complete Reference”, “Author3”);

> Creating book array:

Book[] listOfBooks;

The above statement just declares the array variable. It is not initialized so the
listOfBooks is still null. Let us initialize the array.
listOfBooks = new Book[3];

The above statement just initialized the array itself, the elements have not yet been
initialized. Let us initialize the elements of the array by assigning the book object value.

> Putting book objects into the book array

listOfBooks[0] = b1;

listOfBooks[1] = b2;

listOfBooks[2] = b3;

The above 3 statement, initializes all the 3 elements to the value of objects b1, b2 and b3
respectively.

> Retrieving objects from the book array

listOfBooks[0] will return the objects b1
listOfBooks[1] will return the objects b2
listOfBooks[2] will return the objects b3

We can use a variable to store the value we retrieve from the array.

Book book = listOfBooks[0]; as listOfBooks is a Book array, listOfBooks[0] is going to return

a Book object.

8.2. Loops and Iterations

Let us take a scenario where a teacher has to perform task of giving grades to the students
according to their percentage. He/she checks the percentage of first student and enters the
grade, then checks the percentage of second student and enters the grade, same procedure
for the next student as well. Here, the teacher has to perform the same task again and
again. Don't you think this is a laborious and error prone work? Yes it is.

One of the things computers are often used for is the automation of repetitive tasks.
Repeating identical or similar tasks without making errors is something that computers do
well and humans do poorly. In this chapter, we shall study in detail how the repeated tasks
can be automated using Java programming.

Let us see a simple java program to print first 10 natural numbers.

Program:
Output:
12345678910

In the above program, we wrote the same line of code 10 times to obtain output. This is
nothing but code redundancy(repetition) which makes our program an inefficient one. To
eliminate this we use loops and iterations in Java.
Loop is a block of code executed repeatedly until some condition is satisfied and one
pass through(execution of) the loop is called iteration.
Here condition is a boolean expression. A boolean expression is an expression written
using conditional operators(<, >, ==, <=,>= etc) and the result of it will always be either true
or false.

Loops in Java are mainly of three types :-

1. 'while' loop
2. 'do while' loop
3. 'for' loop

While loop:
A while loop is a control structure that allows you to repeat a task certain number of
times. In simple words, using while loop we can execute a set of statements several times
based on a condition.

Syntax:
while(condition)
{
//Statements
}

Here, “while” is a keyword and “condition” is a boolean expression and as long as this
condition yields true, the statements within the braces({}) are executed. You can almost read
a while statement as if it were English- “while condition is true, continue executing the
Statements”.

Let us now write the same program(print first 10 natural numbers) using while loop.
Program:

Output:

12345678910

In the above code snippet, we eliminated those 9 repeated lines, clubbed them into a
single line and obtained the output using while. Here n is also called counter variable and it
is used to iterate through the loop.

Flow of control(while loop):

The flow of execution for a while statement is as follows:

1. Evaluate the condition, whether the result is true or false.
2. If the result is false, exit the while statement and and execute the first statement after the
while loop.
3. If the result is true, execute the set of statements within the curly braces, and then go
back to step 1.

Example:

/*Program to automate the grade generation of five students based on their percentage
using while loop */

Output:
Roll no 1: Grade is B
Roll no 2: Grade is B
Roll no 3: Grade is C
Roll no 4: Grade is A
Roll no 5: Grade is A
Flow of the above program:
1. Initialize an integer array of percentage.
2. Initialize an integer variable rollNo=0; which is used to iterate through the array.

3. Since we need to generate grades for only those students whose percentage is given, we
are specifying the condition in while as rollNo<percentage.length. We have learned in the
previous topic that .length property gives the size of array which is 4 in the above program.
rollNo points to the index of the array. So before entering while loop, the value of rollNo is
checked.
4. If the condition is satisfied(if rollNo<percentage.length) go to step 5 else go to step 6.
5. Now control is sent to the body of loop
• In the body of while loop, if-else conditions are specified to check the percentage of
student marks. Based on those conditions respective grade is printed.
• Increment rollNo.
• Go to Step 4.
6. End.

Do... While loop:

It is very similar to the 'while' loop shown above. The only difference being, in a 'while'
loop, the condition is checked beforehand, but in a 'do... while' loop, the condition is checked
after one execution of the loop. Hence, the body of do... while loop is executed at least once.

Syntax:

do
{
//statements
}while(condition);

Here, “while” and “do” are keywords and “condition” is a boolean expression. Each
iteration of the do-while loop first executes the statements and then evaluates the condition.
If the result of this condition is true, the loop will repeat. Otherwise, the loop
terminates. Notice, there is semicolon at the end of while(); in do... while loop.
Let us now write the same program(print first 10 natural numbers) using do... while loop.
Program:

Now you may get a question as why “do.. while” when we already have “while” and when
both are giving the same output? We shall study about it in detail.

Why do... while and how it differs from while?

If the condition controlling a while loop is initially false, then the body of the loop will not
be executed at all. However, sometimes it is desirable to execute the body of a while loop at
least once, even if the conditional expression is false to begin with. In other words, there are
times when you would like to test the condition at the end of the loop rather than at the
beginning.

Fortunately, Java supplies a loop that does just that: the do-while. The do-while loop
always executes its body at least once, because its condition is at the bottom of the loop.
Therefore, while is called entry-called loop whereas do...while is called exit-controlled loop.
The difference is best illustrated using the programs below:

/*Program to demonstrate difference between while and do..while*/

Do-while example:
Output:
do-while: 11

While example:

Output:(no output)

Flow of control(do...while loop):

The flow of execution for a do... while statement is as follows:
1. Execute the set of statements.
2. Evaluate the condition, whether the result is true or false.
3. If the result is false, exit the while statement and execute the first statement after the do...
while loop.
4. If the result is true, go back to step 1.

Example:

/*Program to generate the grade for five students of a class based on their percentage using
do... while loop */
Output:
Roll no 1: Grade is B
Roll no 2: Grade is B
Roll no 3: Grade is C
Roll no 4: Grade is A
Roll no 5: Grade is A

Flow of the above program:

1. Initialize an integer array of percentage.
2. Initialize an integer variable rollNo=0; which is used to iterate through the array
3. Execute step 4.

4. Now control is sent to the body of loop

i. In the body of do... while loop, if-else conditions are specified to check the percentage of
student marks. Based on those conditions respective grade is printed.
ii. Increment rollNo.
5. Since we need to generate grades for only those students whose percentage is given, we
are specifying the condition in while as rollNo<percentage.length. We have learned in the
previous topic that .length property gives the size of array which is 4 in the above program.
So before proceeding with the next iteration, the value of rollNo is checked.
6. If the condition is satisfied(if rollNo<percentage.length) go to step 3 else go to step 7.
7. End

For loop:
A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that
needs to execute a specific number of times. A for loop is useful when you know how many
times a task is to be repeated.

Syntax:

for(initialization; condition; increment/decrement)

{
//Statements
}

Here,the initialization step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to
declare and initialize any loop control variables. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true,
the statements are executed, else control comes out of for loop and the next statement after
the loop is executed.

Increment/decrement is an update statement which gets executed after the execution of

body of loop.
Let us now write the same program(print first 10 natural numbers) using for loop.

Program:
Output:

12345678910

Flow of control(for loop):

The flow of execution for a while statement is as follows:

1. Initialize the variable. Initialization step is executed first, and only once.
2. Evaluate the condition, whether the result is true or false.
3. If the result is false, exit the for loop and and execute the first statement after the for
loop.

4. If the result is true, execute the set of statements within the curly braces, and then go to
increment/decrement statement.
5. Go to step 2.

Example:
/*Program to generate the grades for five students based on their percentage using for loop
*/
Output:
Roll no 1: Grade is B
Roll no 2: Grade is B
Roll no 3: Grade is C
Roll no 4: Grade is A
Roll no 5: Grade is A

Flow of the above program:

1. Initialize an integer array of percentage.
2. Declare an integer variable rollNo; which is used to iterate through the array
3. Initial value of rollNo is 0 and this statement is executed only once in the entire cycle of for
loop.
4. Since we need to generate grades for only those students whose percentage is given, we
are specifying the condition as rollNo<percentage.length. We have learned in the previous
topic that .length property gives the size of array which is 4 in the above program. So before
entering into the for loop, the value of rollNo is checked.
5. If the condition is satisfied(if rollNo<percentage.length) go to step 6 else go to step 7.
6. Now control is sent to the body of loop
i. In the body of while loop, if-else conditions are specified to check the percentage of
numbers. Based on those conditions respective grade is printed.
ii. Increment rollNo.
iii. Go to Step 5.
7. End.

Advanced for loop:

This is an enhanced for loop which mainly used for arrays. Advanced for loop is also
called 'for each' loop.

Syntax:

for(declaration : expression)
{
//Statements
}

Declaration: The newly declared block variable, which is of a type compatible with the
elements of the array you are accessing. The variable will be available within the for block
and its value would be the same as the current array element.
Expression: This evaluates to the array you need to loop through. The expression can be
an array variable or method call that returns an array.

Let us take the same example of grade generation and see how it works in advanced for
loop.

Example:
/*Program to generate the grades of 5 students based on their percentage using advanced
for loop */
Output:
Percentage is 50: Grade is B
Percentage is 46: Grade is B
Percentage is 32: Grade is C
Percentage is 98: Grade is A
Percentage is 75: Grade is A

In the above program, eachPercentage is a variable that is of the same data type as
array of percentage. In the previous program rollNo takes the index value whereas here
eachPercentage takes value at index. Therefore, initially the value of eachPercentage is
percentage[0] which is 50 and in the second iteration eachPercentage will take the value
percentage[1] which is 46 and so on.

Nested loops:

We have seen the advantages of using various methods of iteration, or looping. Now
let's take a look at what happens when we combine looping procedures. The placing of one
loop inside the body of another loop is called nesting.
 When you "nest" two loops, the outer loop takes control of the number of complete
repetitions of the inner loop. While all types of loops may be nested, the most commonly
nested loops are for loops.

Let us look at an example on nested loops:

/*Program to print the following pattern
1
12
123
1234
12345
*/

Output:

12

123

1234

12345

In the above program, outer loop is used to determine the no.of digits to be
printed in a line whereas the inner loop is used to print the digits. We have used print() within
the body of inner loop because we want the digits to be displayed in the same line and after
the inner loop is executed, we go to the next line using println() statement.

8.3. Finite and Infinite loops

A finite loop ends itself i.e control comes out of the loop at certain point of time. For example,
the for loop in the previous program that displays multiples of 3 is a finite loop because the
loop exits if n>10.
In other case,a loop becomes an infinite loop if a condition never becomes false. The
for loop is traditionally used for this purpose. Since none of the three expressions that form
the for loop are required, you can make an endless loop by leaving the conditional
expression empty.

Example for infinite loop:

Output:
Tata Consultancy Services
Tata Consultancy Services
Tata Consultancy Services
.
.
.
.
This goes on printing until we forcefully stop the execution. The above program is an
example of implementing infinite loop using for loop. Similarly, you can implement an infinite
loop using while and do... while as follows.

Infinite loop using while:

 while(true)

// your code goes here

Infinite loop using do... while:

do{

// your code goes here

} while(true);

8.4. Break & Continue Keyword

The break keyword is used to stop the entire loop. Using break we can leave a loop even if
the condition for its end is not fulfilled. It can be used to end an infinite loop, or to force it to
end before its natural end.

Syntax:

break;

Example: Write a program to print a list of numbers until 3 is encountered

Program:
Output:
x is 1
x is 2
Break the loop
Exit

In the above example if the value of x is 3 then the control enters into the loop and
when break statement is encountered, it comes out of the for loop and executes the first
statement after the for loop. The break statement can be used in terminating all three loops
for, while and do...while.

Working of break statement:

The continue keyword can be used in any of the loop control structures. Continue
statement skips the current iteration of a for, while or do while loop. It causes the loop to
immediately jump to the next iteration of the loop.

In a for loop, the continue keyword causes flow of control to immediately jump to the
increment/decrement statement.
In a while loop or do/while loop, flow of control immediately jumps to the condition.

Syntax:

continue;

Example: Write a program to print numbers between 1 to 5 except 3.

Output:
x is 1
x is 2
Continue the loop
x is 4
x is 5
Exit

In the above example if the value of x is 3 then the control enters into the loop and
when continue statement is encountered, it jumps to the next iteration without executing the
rest of the statements within the loop.

Working of continue statement: