Chapter 1

BJT Applications, Feedback

amplifiers and Oscillators

1.1 The BJT as an Amplifier

Amplification is a process of increasing the amplitude of an electrical signal. Figure
1.1shows the circuit diagram of an amplifer using bipolar junction transistor (BJT).
For a BJT to work as an amplifier, the emitter base junction should be forward biased
and the collector base junction is reverse biased.

Figure 1.1: Common Emitter Amplifer

An AC voltage Vs is applied at the input side of the transistor. The DC voltage

VBB is used to forward bias the emitter base junction and the DC voltage VCC is used
to reverse bias the collector base junction.
The AC input voltage produces an AC base current which results in much larger
AC current IC . This AC collector current produces a large AC voltage thus providing
an amplified voltage. The input and output waveforms are shown in the Figure 1.2
below

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 Chapter 1. BJT Applications, Feedback amplifiers and Oscillators

Figure 1.2: Input and Output waveforms

The forward biased emitter base junction offers a very less resistance to the AC
signal. The internal AC resistance is denoted by re0 . Thus we may write

Vb = Ie re0 (1.1)

The AC collector voltage Vc is equal to the AC coltage drop across resistor RC

Vc = Ic RC (1.2)

Since Ic ≈ Ie , the AC collector voltage Vc is now equal to

Vc = Ie RC (1.3)

Vb may be considered as the transistor AC input voltage and Vc may be considered

as the transistor AC output voltage. Since the voltage gain Av is defined as the ratio
of the AC output voltage to AC input voltage, we can write,

Vc Ie RC
Av = = (1.4)
Vb Ie re0

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 Chapter 1. BJT Applications, Feedback amplifiers and Oscillators

Cancelling Ie we get,
RC
Av = (1.5)
re0
Since RC is considerably larger than re0 , the voltage gain is greater than one and hence
the output voltage is greater than input voltage.

1.2 The BJT as a Switch

The second major application of BJT is that it it can be used as an electronic switch.
When used as a switch, a transistor is operated in cutoff mode and saturation mode.

BJT in cutoff mode

Figure 1.3: BJT in Cutoff Mode

When VB = 0, the emitter base junction is reverse biased. This makes IB = 0 and
hence IC = βIB = 0. When there is zero collector current the transistor acts as an
open switch as shown in Figure 1.3.
Under cutoff mode we have IC = 0. The VCE is calculated as follows:

VCC = IC RC + VCE

Since IC = 0, the above equation can be written as

VCE = VCC

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 Chapter 1. BJT Applications, Feedback amplifiers and Oscillators

BJT in saturation mode

Figure 1.4: BJT in Saturation Mode

Here VB = +V , the emitter base junction is forward biased. The base current
is made large enough to cause the collector current to reach its maximum value or
saturation value. Now the transistor acts as a closed switch as shown in Figure 1.4.
Under cutoff mode we have VCEsat = 0. The ICsat is given by ICsat = VCC /RC

1.3 Transistor switch circuit to switch On/OFF an

LED
Figure 1.5 shows the transistor switch circuit to turn the LED On and OFF. A square
wave is applied as the input to the transistor.
When the square wave is at 0 Volts, the emitter base junction is reverse biased
and the transistor is in cutoff state and acts an open switch. As a result no current
flows through the LED and the LED is OFF.
When the square wave is at +V Volts, the emitter base junction is forward biased
and the transistor is in saturation state and acts an closed switch. As a result sufficient
current flows through the LED and the LED is ON.

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 Chapter 1. BJT Applications, Feedback amplifiers and Oscillators

Figure 1.5: Transistor switch circuit

1.4 555 Timer

The 555 Timer is a popular IC used to generate pulses of required width and frequency.
The IC is available in a 8-pin package as shown below:

Figure 1.6: 555 Timer IC

The detailed circuitry is shown in Figure 1.7 and comprises of the following:

1. Voltage divider comprising of three 5K resistors

2. Op-amp voltage comparator 1 CMP1

3. Op-amp voltage comparator 2 CMP2

4. RS Filp FLop

5. npn transistor Q1

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 Chapter 1. BJT Applications, Feedback amplifiers and Oscillators

Figure 1.7: 555 Timer Intenal Circuit

The supply voltage VCC is applied to one end of the voltage divider at terminal 8
and the other end is grounded. The voltage comparators compares voltages at their
inverting and non inverting inputs. The output of the comparator is HIGH(1) when
the non inverting input is higher than the inverting voltage.
The inverting input of CP1 is set at 2/3 VCC and the non inverting input of CP2
is set at 1/3 VCC by the voltage divider circuit. The RS flip flop is a digital circuit
which provides a HIGH output Q = 1 when S = 1 R = 0 and provides a LOW output
Q = 0 when S = 0 R = 1.
The Flip Flop output is applied to the inverting output stage which acts as a
voltage follower except that the output is inverted. Transistor Q1 is also controlled
by the flip flop output. A HIGH input at its base will drive the transistor to ON
state and acts as a closed switch . A LOW input at its base will drive the transistor
to OFF and acts as an open switch.
In Summary we have the table below:

Threshold Trigger CP1 CP2 S,R Q Output Discharge

>2/3 VCC >2/3 VCC 1 0 0,1 0 0 Short Path
<1/3 VCC <1/3 VCC 0 1 1,0 1 1 Open Path
HIGH MEANS 1 LOW MEANS 0

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1.5 Astable Operation

Figure 1.8: 555 Timer in astable mode

A common application of 555 timer is astable multi vibrator or clock generator

circuit. Figure 1.8 shows the circuit diagram of astable multi-vibrator.The circuit
diagram involves two resistors R1 and R2 and capacitor C with 555 timer IC. The
voltage across the capacitor is applied to pin 2 (Trigger)and pin 6 (Threshold). Hence
the capacitor voltage is equal to voltage at pin 2 and pin 6.
The capacitor begins to charge from the supply voltage VC C via R1 and R2 . When
the voltage of the pin 6 is increased beyond 2/3 VCC , the output at the pin number 3
goes LOW. At the same time, the Pin 7 (discharge) will act as a short circuit path.
Now the capacitor C will discharge through R2 and Pin 7. The discharge time is
given by τ2 = 0.693 R2 C.
As the capacitor voltage falls below 1/3 VCC , so also the voltage at pin 2. This
causes the output at the pin number 3 to go HIGH. At the same time the Pin 7
(discharge) will act as a open circuit path. Now the capacitor C stops discharging
and will start charging again via R1 and R2 . The charging time is given by τ1 =
0.693 (R1 + R2 )C.
From the Waveforms it can be observed that the time that the output is HIGH
is same as the charging time of capacitor τ1 and the time that the output is LOW is
equal to the discharge time of capacitor τ2 .

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Therefore the time period of the output is given by

T = τ1 + τ2 = 0.693 (R1 + R2 )C + 0.693 R2 C = 0.693(R1 + 2R2 )C

The frequency is given by

1 1.44
f= =
T (R1 + 2R2 )C
The duty cycle is given by

τ1 R1 + R2
Duty Cycle = = %
T R1 + 2R2

1.6 Feedback Amplifiers

The amplifier in which a part of the output is sampled and fed back to the output
is called as a feedback amplifier. Therefore at the input we have two signals: input
signal and the feedback signal. Both these signals may be in phase or out of phase.
When the input signal and the feedback signal are in phase, the feedback is called as
positive feedback. On the other hand, when they are out of phase, the feedback is
called as negative feedback.

Figure 1.9: Negative Feedback Amplifier

Figure 1.9 shows the block diagram of the negative feedback amplifier. The input
signal and the feedback signal are out of phase by 180 degrees. The negative feedback
reduces the overall gain of the amplifier but induces desirable modifications in the
circuit performance.

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When the feedback energy (voltage and current) is in phase with the input signal
and aid to it, the feedback is said to be positive. Figure 1.9 shows the block diagram
of the positive feedback amplifier. From the figure it can be seen that, the amplifier

Figure 1.10: Positive Feedback Amplifier

will introduces a 180 degree phase shift and the feedback network also introduces a
180 phase shift. As a result the phase of the feed back signal is in phase with the
input signal. The positive feedback increases the overall gain of the amplifier but
affects the circuit performance.

1.6.1 Voltage Series Negative Feedback Amplifiers

Figure 1.11: Voltage Series Negative Feedback Amplifier

Consider a voltage series feedback amplifier as shown in the Figure 1.12. Let A
be the gain of the amplifier without feedback. Let B be the feedback fraction of the

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feedback network. The output voltage Vo is given by

vo = A vi

= A (vin − vf )

= A (vin − B vo )

Therefore the output voltage is given by

A
vo = vin
1 + AB
= Af vin (1.6)

Where Af is the gain of amplifier with feedback and is given by

A
Af = (1.7)
1 + AB

It can be shown that, the input impedance of amplifier with feedback Zif is given by

Zif = Zi (1 + AB) (1.8)

where Zi is the input impedance of amplifier without feedback. From the expression
it can be seen that the input impedance increases due to feedback.
Similarly the output impedance of amplifier with feedback Zof is given by

Zo
Zof = (1.9)
1 + AB

where Zo is the input impedance of amplifier without feedback. From the expression
it can be seen that the output impedance reduces with feedback.
If AB  1, then (1.7) becomes,

A 1
Af ≈ = (1.10)
AB B

From (1.10) it can be seen that, the gain of the feedback amplifier depends only on the
feedback fraction B . The feedback fraction is unaffected by change in temperature,

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variation in transistor parameters and frequency. Hence the gain of the feedback
amplifier is extremely stable.

Gain and Bandwidth of Feedback Amplifier

Figure 1.12: Gain and Bandwidth of Feedback Amplifier

Consider a frequency response (graph of gain versus frequency) of an amplifier

with and without feedback as shown in the Figure 1.12. It can be seen that the
bandwidth of the amplifier with feedback is large when compared with the amplifier
without feedback. The increase in bandwidth comes at the cost of reduction in gain.
Also it can be shown that the gain bandwidth product is constant for an amplifier
with and without feedback. That is

A (BW ) = Af (BWf )

Gain Stability with Feedback

From (1.7), the gain of the feedback amplifier is given by

A
Af =
1 + AB

Differentiating both sides w.r.t A we have,

dAf 1
=
dA (1 + AB)2

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The above equation can be written as

dAf 1 1
=
dA (1 + AB) (1 + AB)
1 Af
=
(1 + AB) A

On rearranging the terms,

dAf 1 dA
= (1.11)
Af (1 + AB) A
When AB  1, we have  
dAf 1 dA
= (1.12)
Af AB A
This shows that, the relative change in gain of the amplifier with feedback is reduced
by a factor AB.

1.6.2 Properties of Negative Feedback Amplifiers

1. Desensitize the gain: Negative feedback improves the stability of the ampli-
fier by making the gain less sensitive to all variations.

2. Reduces Distortion: Negative feedback makes the output proportional to the

input.

3. Reduces the effect of the noise: It minimizes the contributions of unwanted

signals.

4. Controls the input and output impedance: Negative feedback increases

the input impedance and decreases the output impedance.

5. Extends the bandwidth of the amplifier: By using the feedback, the band-
width can be increased.

1.6.3 Advantages of Negative Feedback Amplifiers

1. The amplifier gain stability

2. Significant extension of bandwidth

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3. Very less distortions

4. Decreased output impedance

5. Reduces noise and other interferences

Numerical Problem

Calculate the gain of a negative feedback amplifier having A=2000 if the feedback
factor is 20%
Given A = 2000 B = 20% = 0.2
The gain of the negative feedback amplifer is given by

A
Af =
1 + AB
2000
=
1 + 2000 × 0.2
= 4.98

Numerical Problem

An amplifier without feedback has voltage gain of 2000. If the voltage gain changes by
20% due to variations in temperature, find the change in gain of the feedback amplifier.
Given that the feedback factor B = 0.1
Given A = 2000 B = 0.1
The change in the voltage gain of the amplifier without feedback is

dA
= 20% = 0.2
A

From (1.11), the change in the voltage gain of the amplifier with feedback is
 
dAf 1 dA
=
Af AB A
1
= (0.2)
2000 × 0.1
= 0.0001

Thus the percentage change in the gain of the amplifier with feedback is 0.01%

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Numerical Problem

An amplifier has a bandwidth of 200 KHz and voltage gain of 1000.

(i) What will be the new bandwidth and gain if 5% of negative feedback is employed.
(ii) What is the gain bandwidth product with and without feedback.
(iii) What must be the feedback factor required for the bandwidth to be 1MHz.
Given A = 1000 BW = 200 KHz
(i) The gain with 5% feedback is given by

A
Af =
1 + AB
1000
=
1 + 1000 × 0.05
= 19.6

The bandwidth can be calculated as follows:

A (BW ) = Af (BWf )

1000 × 200K = 19.6 × BWf

1000 × 200K
⇒ BWf = = 200 MHz
19.6
(ii) The gain bandwidth product without feedback is A (BW ) = 1000 × 200K =
200 MHz. From the theory the gain bandwidth product is same for amplifier with
and without feedback. Hence The gain bandwidth product with feedback is also
200 MHz
(iii) Given BWf = 1 MHz We have

A (BW ) = Af (BWf )
A
A (BW ) = (BWf )
1 + AB

⇒ BWf = (1 + AB) (BW )

1 MHz = (1 + 1000 × B) 200K

B = 0.004

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1.7 Oscillators
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a signal at the output of specific frequency
without the application of input signal. The oscillators are classified on the following
criteria:

1. Based on the operating principle

(a) Feedback oscillators

(b) Negative resistance effect oscillators

2. Based on the type of output waveform

(a) Sinusoidal oscillators

(b) Non sinusoidal oscillators

3. Based on the feedback circuit employed

(a) RC oscillators

(b) LC oscillators

4. Based on the frequency of the generated signals

(a) Audio frequency oscillators

(b) Radio frequency oscillators

(c) Very high frequency oscillators

(d) Ultra high frequency oscillators

(e) Microwave oscillators

1.7.1 Barkhausen’s Criteria for Oscillations

Consider the feedback amplifier with positive feedback as shown in the Figure 1.13.
The gain of the feedback amplifier with positive feedback is given by

A
Af =
1 − AB

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Figure 1.13: Oscillator Block Diagram

If the B is adjusted that

AB = 1 + j0

then we have |AB| = 1 and 6 AB = 0 or 360. Under this condition we have the
circuit will become self oscillatory and generate oscillations at a particular frequency.
This condition is called as Barkhausen’s Criteria. Thus Barkhausen’s Criteria for
oscillation is stated as follows:

1. The total phase shift around the loop, as the signal passes through the amplifer
and feedback network , is 0 degree or 360 degree.

2. The magnitude of product of amplifier gain A and feedback network B is unity.

1.7.2 RC Phase Shift Oscillator

An electronic device that generates oscillations of desired frequency is called as an

oscillator. Figure 1.14 shows the circuit diagram of RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
The RC phase shift oscillator consists of op-amp as an inverting amplifier. The
feedback network is an RC phase shift network consisting of three RC sections. The
amplifier provides the phase shift of 180 degree and the RC phase shift network
introduces a phase shift of 180 degree giving a total phase shift of 360 degree. The
circuit generates an oscillation with frequency given by

1
f= √
2πRC 6

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Figure 1.14: RC Phase Shift Oscillator

It can be shown that the feedback factor B to give a phase shift of 180 degree is
given by
1
B=
29
From the Barkhausen’s Criteria we have

1
AB = 1 ⇒ A = = 29
B

The amplifier used is an inverting op-amp amplifier and hence the gain is given by

Rf
A =
R
Rf
29 =
R

⇒ Rf = 29R

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1.7.3 Wein Bridge Oscillator

The wein bridge is an AC bridge that balances only at a particular frequency. In

Wein bridge oscillator, the series arm and the shunt arm of the Wein bridge circuit is
used as a feedback network as shown in the Figure 1.15. The op-amp together with
resistors R3 and R4 constitutes the non inverting amplifier. The feedback network is
made of components R1 , C1 , R2 and C2 .

Figure 1.15: Wein Bridge Oscillator

At the balance frequency of the Wein bridge, the phase shift introduced by the
feedback network is 0 degrees and the feedback factor achives a maximum value of
1
3
. The Barkhausen’s requirement of zero degree phase shift is thus fulfilled by the
amplifer and the feedback network both having zero phase shift. The frequency of
oscillations is given by
1
f= √
2π R1 C1 R2 C2
For simplicity we keep R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 . Then the frequency of oscillations is
given by
1
f=
2πR1 C1 R2 C2

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From the above discussion we came to know that the feedback factor B = 13 . Thus
as per Barkhausen’s criteria we have

1
AB = 1 ⇒ A = =3
B

The amplifier used is an non inverting op-amp amplifier and hence the gain is given
by

R3
A = 1+
R4
R3
3 = 1+
R4

⇒ R3 = 2R4

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