CSEC BIOLOGY

Section A: Living Organisms In theEnvironment

Part 1: Objectives 1.1-2.3
Classification, Ecosystem Study & Soil

Miss Victoria Mohess

 Specific Objectives

At the end of this section you should be able to:

1.1. Group living organisms found in a named habitat based on

observed similarities and differences

1.2 Classify organisms into taxonomic groups based on physical

similarities
 Introduction
Characteristics of Living Organisms
All living organisms are made of cells and have seven characteristics in common:

1. Nutrition
2. Respiration
3. Excretion
4. Growth
5. Irritability (sensitivity)
6. Movement
7. Reproduction
 Characteristics of Living Organisms
1. Nutrition: ability to make own food or obtain food from other organisms.

2. Respiration: the release of energy from the breakdown of food.

3. Excretion: the removal of waste products of metabolism.

4. Movement: the change in position of a whole organism or parts of an organism.

5. Irritability/Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment.

6. Growth: a permanent increase in size and complexity.

7. Reproduction: forming new organisms from one or two parents.

MJBenskin
 ❖ Which one is living?

1. What characteristics do they have in common?

2. What characteristics does the baby have that the

car doesn’t have?

MJBenskin
 Living or Non-Living?
Similarities & Differences

Characteristics The Car (non-living) The Baby (living)

Made of cells NO! Multicellular (has many cells)
Nutrition Needs fuel to move, but doesn’t contain Needs to eat food for nutrients
nutrients
Respiration Combustion- burns fuel to release energy Food broken down to release energy
Excretion Removes wastethrough exhaust Removes metabolic waste
Movement Drives from one place to another Crawls, rolls, stretches, kicks
Irritability/ Some have GPS navigation that may respond to Responds to touch, light and other
Sensitivity driver’s voice; responds to driver’s steering; but no stimuli
real feelings
Cries when hungry, when diaper is
full or when scared
Laughs when happy
Growth NO! Increases in size from baby to
toddler to child to teenager to adult
Reproduction NO! Capable of reproducing after
adolescence MJB
Classification of Living Organisms
• Biologists divide organisms into groups according to similar
characteristics making it easier to study and compare them for their
usefulness or threats.

• They observe and study organisms in their natural habitat to groupthem

according to:

1. Physical appearance (colour, pattern, shape, hairiness, number of

legs, body segmentation, presence of wings)

2. Behavioral traits e.g. movement (fly, swim, walk, crawl), mating patterns,
sounds
❖ What characteristics may have been used to
group these beetles?
❖ Put these organisms into groups based on similarities.
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM: FIVE KINGDOMS OF LIFE
KINGDOM MAIN FEATURES EXAMPLES
PROTISTS Animal-like microbes, Have a nucleus; amoeba, paramecium
(Protoctista) Presence of arm-like projections; contractile
vacuoles
PROKARYOTES Microbes; No membrane bound organelles; bacteria
(Monera) no nucleus, various shapes
FUNGI Microscopic (single-celled) and macroscopic yeast, mold, mushroom
(multicellular) plant-like organisms; many have
hyphae(root-like structures)
PLANTS Photosynthetic multicellular organisms with algae, grass, shrubs,
(Plantae) chlorophyll; most have roots, stems, leaves flowers, trees

ANIMALS Complex multicellular organisms with specialized Birds, fish, mammals,

(Animalia) cells reptiles, amphibians
Classification system according to Robert Whittaker (1969)
 Levels Of Classification
Example: Classification of Humans
To help you
remember: LEVEL
• Kingdom Animal
Kids Prefer • Phylum Chordata
Candy • Class Mammals
Over Fried • Order Primates
Green
• Family Hominidae
Spinach
• Genus Homo
• Species sapiens

Organisms are given names according to binomial nomenclature- two part Latinnaming system
consisting of the genus and species.
E.g. Humans= Homo sapiens
FYI- Classification Of the
Animal Kingdom
 Phylum: Sponges (Porifera)
Tube sponge

Orange “bread” sponge

• Stationary organisms lacking tissues or organs

• Simple body contains single cavity with many pores
• Usually cylindrical and hollow with calcareous tissue
• Live in the sea and freshwater
 Phylum: Cnidaria
sea anemone

Moon jellyfish
Portuguese man-o-war underwater

• Bag/umbrella shaped jelly-like body

(medusa) or polyps form
• Aquatic animals
• Have a ring of tentacles around mouth
• E.g. jellyfish, sea anemone
 Phylum: Nematodes

m outh with hooks

• Elongated, round unsegmented body with pointed ends

• Mostly parasitic with tubular digestive systems opening at both ends.
• E.g. hookworms
 Phylum: Flatworms

• Fairly long flat, some segmented, others unsegmented

• Some live in freshwater and many parasitic
• E.g. tapeworm, liver fluke
 Phylum: Annelids

Earthworm

leech

• Ringed/segmented worms, some with bristles on the body

• Most live in water, a few live in soil
• E.g. earthworms
 Phylum: Molluscs
snail

octopus
nautilus

• Soft, moist unsegmentedbodies;

• Many have shells for protection
• E.g. snail, slug, octopus
 Phylum: Echinoderms
Sea urchin

starfish

Sand dollar

• 5-part radial symmetry

• Body made of calcareous skeleton
• Usually have spiny surface
• E.g. sea urchins, starfish, sand dollar
 *Phylum: Arthropods
mosquito
crabs housefly
scorpion

centipede butterfl y barnacle

spider

• Divided into the four classes: insects, crustaceans, myriapods,

arachnids
• Have jointed legs
• Hard waterproof external skeleton made of chitin
 *Phylum: Arthropods
Class Main Characteristics
Insects ✓Three pairs of legs
✓Two pairs of wings (not all have wings) e.g. ants
✓One pair of antennae
✓One pair of compound eyes
✓Body divided into three parts- head, thorax, abdomen
✓Examples: mosquitoes, houseflies, ladybirds, cockroach, moth
Crustaceans ✓Several pairs of legs
✓Two pairs of antennae
✓Exoskeleton with calcium carbonate
✓Body divided into three parts: head, thorax, abdomen
✓Examples: lobster, crabs, shrimp, barnacles
Arachnids ✓Four pairs of legs
✓No antennae
✓Body divided into two parts.
✓Examples: spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites
Myriapods ✓Many pairs of legs
✓One pair of antennae
✓Elongated body divided into many segments
 Phylum: Chordata

• Divided into the five classes: Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
• Have well developed head with brain
• Have backbone (vertebrates)
• Internal skeleton of bone and cartilage
 Phylum: Chordata (Vertebrates)
Class Main Features
Fish ✓ Aquatic organisms with scaly skin
✓ Have gills for breathing and fins for swimming
✓ Lay eggs and develop in water
✓ Examples: tuna, shark, flying fish, barracuda
Amphibians ✓ Soft, moist, waterproof skin without scales
✓ Eggs laid in water
✓ Larva (tadpoles) live in water while adults live on land
✓ Larva have gills for breathing while adults have lungs
✓ Examples: frogs, newts, toads
Reptiles ✓ Have dry waterproof skin with scales and most live on land
✓ Have lungs for breathing
✓ Eggs have a leathery shell and are laid on land
✓ Examples: lizards, snakes, turtles
Birds ✓ Have feathers, wings and beak with no teeth
✓ Eggs have a hard shell and are laid in nests
✓ Warm blooded
✓ Examples: sparrow, wood dove, eagle
Mammals ✓ Waterproof skin with hair and sweat glands
✓ Young develop inside mother and feed on milk from breasts/nipples
✓ Different types of teeth to eat variety of foods
✓ Warm-blooded
✓ Examples: humans, dogs, cows, whale
 ❖ Assessment Point
1. Classification of organisms (grouping according to similarities)
 ❖ Assessment Point
2. Classification of organisms (grouping according to similarities)
 Specific Objectives(cont’d)
Carry out a simple ecological study using the most
appropriate collecting and sampling methods

Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:

(a) abiotic and biotic factors
(b) niche and habitat
(c) population and community
(d) species and population

Discuss the impact of the abiotic factors (soil, water,climate) on

living organisms
Ecological Study
• An ecological study involves observing and analyzing a population
of organisms rather than an individual.

• To conduct an ecological study:

1. Choose an area for study. E.g. garden, orchard, pond
2. Observe and note outstanding features e.g. climate, soil (abiotic
factors) and common species of plants & animals (biotic factors)
3. Make measurementsand sketch of area.
4. Collect samples using appropriate methods to find out estimates othe
f
numbers, types and distribution of species.
 Habitat Investigation
• Choose a habitat
1. Aquatic (water) e.g. pond, ocean
2. Terrestrial (land) e.g. garden, forest

• Observe organisms living in the habitat

- Both plants and animals

• Put organisms into groups

Group according to similarities in structure and behavior

• Observe physical factors/conditions in the habitat

 Terrestrial Habitats

Garden

Organisms to expect:

Plants: trees, bush, weeds, flowers Animals:

birds, earthworms, lizards,

millipedes, butterflies, ants, other insects etc.

Forest
 Aquatic
Habitats

Ocean

Pond

Organisms to expect:

Plants: water lilies, algae, sea weed

Animals: tadpoles, fish, frogs, ducks, coral reef etc.

 Sampling Methods
• Ecologists use a variety of sampling methods to obtain data about thespecies
type, estimated quantity and distribution of organisms in a specific habitat.
• Gives a representation of the entire habitat, since it is time consuming
to collect data on every single organism in the habitat.
 Sampling Methods

SIMPLE OBSERVATION QUADRAT METHOD

Gathering information about Square frame placed on the ground throughout
ecosystem using your eyes alone or with ecosystem to record numbers of
the aid of viewing apparatus. e.g. stationary/slow-moving organisms. Used to obtain
binoculars, cameras species density (average no. of individuals of each
species per meters squared)
 Sampling Methods(cont’d)

LINE TRANSECT BELT TRANSECT

A horizontal line made of string/rope placed Two line transects placed parallel to each other to
across an area of the ecosystem tostudy study distribution of organisms within them
habitat /species changes.

BOTH METHODS CAN BE USED WITH QUADRAT SAMPLING

QUADRAT AND LINE TRANSECT SAMPLING
 ❖ Using Quadrats
A study area consists of three different species of organisms. Using the quadrat method,
estimate the species density of the study area.

Species density= Total number of individuals of a species

Number of quadrats x quadrat size

Species frequency= % no. of quadrats in which species was found

QUADRAT NUMBER QUADRAT SIZE:1m²

SPECIES (No. ofindividuals)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total in Freq Density

Quadrats .%
A 5 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 13 60 1.3

B 6 9 6 8 2 3 3 2 1 0

C 2 3 3 4 3 5 2 2 0 0
 ❖ Using Quadrats (Answers)
CALCULATION: For species A

Species density= Total number of individuals of a species 13

Number of quadrats x quadrat size 10 X1m2
= 1.3/m2
Species frequency= % no. of quadrats in which species was found (6/10) x 100%
= 60 %

QUADRAT NUMBER QUADRAT SIZE:1m²

SPECIES (No. ofindividuals)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total in Freq Density

Quadrats .%
A 5 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 0 0 13 60 1.3

B 6 9 6 8 2 3 3 2 1 0 40 90 4.0

C 2 3 3 4 3 5 2 2 0 0 24 80 2.4
 Sampling Methods (cont’d)

SWEEPER NETS: To catch flying

insects. E.g. dragonflies,
butterflies

POOTERS: To collect small insects (e.g. beetles) bysucking

them into a jar or bottle.
 Sampling methods(cont’d)

TULLGREN FUNNEL: To collect small organisms from

soil or leaf litter e.g. woodlice
Other Sampling/Collection Methods

• Buckets/containers
• Jars/bottles
• Plant pots
• Plastic bags
• Sieves
 Mark/Capture-Recapture Method

• To estimate population sizes of organisms which move. E.g.

snails, lizards

• First visit: Collect organisms, count and mark them.

• Release organisms back into their habitat.
• Return to site and search for both marked and unmarked
organisms and collect them.
Calculation:
Estimate Population size=
No. of organisms(1st sample) x No. of organisms (2nd sample)No. of
marked organisms recaptured
 ❖ Mark-Recapture Example

Estimate Population size=

(No. in 1st sample) x (No. in 2nd sample) No.

of marked organisms recaptured

Let’s say the first sample collected=25 cockroaches we marked yellow And we
return and get a second sample= Total 43 cockroaches Marked
organisms recaptured = 18

What is the estimated population size? __

 ❖ Ecological Study Report Format
• Aim: To study the biotic factors of the ecosystem.

• Describe ecosystem:

• Identify speciespresent:

• Sampling methods:

• Results & Observations:

• Species adaptations for survival:

 ❖ Assessment Point
Choose the best sampling methods for each group of organisms:

a) woodlice ____________

b) grasslands/woodland _ _ _

c) dragon flies _ _ _ __

d) African giant snails _____________

e) plants _ __

f) turtles ___________
 Ecological Terms
TERM DEFINITION

Ecology The study of living organisms, their relationships to each other andtheir
environment.

Ecosystem A biological community and the physical environment e.g. tropical

rainforest

Habitat The specific place where a group of organisms (different species) live in
an ecosystem e.g. tree

Community Populations of different species living together in a habitat e.g.birds,

insects, squirrels

Population A group of organisms of the same species living together in thesame

habitat at the same time e.g. woodpeckers

Species A group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile

offspring e.g. homo sapiens (humans)
Caribbean Ecosystems
• Tropical rainforests
• Mountain forests
• Tropical shrubs
• Grassland savannahs
• Mangrove swamps
• Coral reefs
Distinguish between:
• 1. Abiotic and 2. Biotic factors
1. Non-Living factors: water, soil, wind, temperature, sunlight, topography
2. All living organisms and their interactions

• 3. Niche and 4. Habitat

3. The role of each organism in its habitat
4. The place where organisms live

• 5. Population and 6. Community

5. Members of the same species living in one habitat
6. Members of various species living in the same habitat

• 7. Species and 8. Population

7. Group of organisms with similar characteristics that can interbreed toproduce
fertile offspring
8. Group of organisms of the same species living in a particular habitat
 Impact of Abiotic Factors on Living Organisms

Abiotic factors- All physical (non-living components) of the environment needed

by organisms to survive. These include:

• Climatic: temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, sunlight

• Edaphic: factors connected with soil. E.g. pH, mineral content

• Aquatic: factors connected with water e.g. salinity, currents, wave action,
oxygen content

• Physiographic: physical features of the earth’s surface i.e. topography (shape of

the land)
 Importance of Abiotic Factors
Sunlight- Energy from the sun used by green plants to make food.

Temperature- Most organisms can only survive in a narrow range of temperatures. Coldblooded
organisms are most affected by temperature changes.

Air/Wind- oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2)required by organisms to build
nutrients. E.g. carbohydrates, proteins; Wind affects survival of plant seeds (dispersal)

Soil & rocks- provides a home, nutrients and substrate for plant growth and animals;

Water- for hydration of cells, moisture, transport of substances in organisms; for aquatic
organisms, tides and speed of flow affects them

Humidity- level of moisture in air is important for the survival of many organisms

Salinity (salt content)- mineral ions required for essential biological processes; important in ocean.
Estuaries and mangrove swamps contain a balanced mix of salt and fresh water.
Climate And Vegetation
❖ Climate (temperature and rainfall)
influences distribution of natural
vegetation. E.g. tropical rainforests
(hot, rainy regions)

❖ Sunlight is needed for photosynthesis in

green plants.

❖ Wind cools and

increases transpiration in
plants.

❖ Water availability determines the

type and quantity of vegetation e.g. In
deserts there is little plant life except
for cacti and shrubs
 Aquatic Organisms:
Oxygen Content and Clarity In Water
Aquatic organisms obtain their oxygen for
respiration from the water.

✓ Oxygen is available from the air and

aquatic plants which give it off during
photosynthesis.

✓ Clear water allows more sunlight to

pass through and reach deeper layers inthe
ocean.

✓ Polluted waters have less oxygen

content due to increase growth of bacteria
which use up oxygen and less sunlight can
pass through cloudy waters.
 ❖ Edaphic Factors: All About Soil
• Soil is the thin top layer of the earth’s crust formed from the chemical
and physical weathering of rock.
• Plants and other small organisms inhabit the soil and contribute humus
when they die.

Chemical weathering:
Decomposition of rock by
processes that combine water and
minerals with gases e.g. CO2, H2 and
O2

Physical weathering: Breakdown of

rock into small pieces by wind, water
flow, freezing and thawing.
Components of Soil
What is the importance of the following
components of soil?

1. Inorganic rock particles classified by size

2. Water obtained by rainfall
3. Air present between spaces in soil
4. Mineral salts e.g. nitrates, phosphates
5. Humus formed from dead/decaying
organic matter
6. Soil Organisms e.g. plants, bacteria, fungi,
earthworms
 Soil Component Importance to Living Organisms
Inorganic (rock )particles: 1. Provides support and anchorage for plant roots
formed from weathering and 2. Provide shelter for soil organisms.
classified by size. 3. Provide surface for attachment for microorganisms
Water: obtained from rainfall and 1. Needed for photosynthesis and mineral salt absorption byplant
forms a thin film around soil roots.
particles. 2. Prevents desiccation of organisms with no waterproof
covering. E.g. earthworms
Air: present in spaces between soil 1. O2 is needed for respiration of plant roots and soil
particles. organisms.
2. N2 in air is important for nitrogen fixation by bacteria .
Mineral Salts: formed from Required for healthy plant growth. E.g. potassium, nitrates,
humus and dissolves in soil phosphates, sulphates
water
Humus: formed from excretory 1. Adds nutrients (e.g. mineral salts) to soil.
waste, dead/decaying organic 2. Binds soil particles together to form good crumb structure.
matter. 3. Absorbs and retains water & mineral salts
Soil Organisms: bacteria, 1. Decompose dead matter to form humus.
fungi, worms, plant roots 2. Improve aeration and drainage e.g. earthworms
 Soil layers
Soil Particles Size/mm

Stones/gravel more than 2

Coarse sand more than 0.2

Fine sand more than 0022

Silt more than 0.002

Clay less than 0.002

Heavy particles (gravel and sand) fall to bottom while lighter particles(silt andclay) rise to
the top. Humus is found floating on top of the water.
Type 1:

Damp clay soil; heavy; poor drainage & aeration

Dry clay soil with cracks; difficult to dig; roots

cannot penetrate easily MJBenskin
Type 2:

Dry sandy soil with no moisture; large

spaces that do not trap water; increased
drainage
 Chalky and Peaty Soils
Type 3: Type 4:

Chalky soils formed from Peaty soils contain an excess of

calcareous rock, containing a lot of peat formed from organic
lime making them alkaline. matter and are acidic.
Type 5: The Ideal Soil

Loamy soils contain about 50%

sand, 30 % clay, 12 % humus, 8 %
lime
and are ideal for farming.
 Comparison ofSoil Types
Property Clay Soils (heavy) Sandy Soils (light)
Particle size Very small Quite large
Aeration Poor aeration due to small Good aeration due to large air spaces
spaces between particles between particles
Water-holding Good water retention due to Poor water retention; soil dries out
capacity small spaces; keeps soil moist easily due to large spaces
Drainage Poor drainage and becomes Good drainage since water passes
easily waterlogged. through spaces easily.
Mineral ion High content due to slow Low content due to rapid leaching
content drainage. when water quickly drains.
Ease of Difficult to dig and plough when wet Easy to dig and plough
cultivation and also when dry it gets hard
and cracked
Plant root Hard for roots to penetrate since Easy roots to penetrate since
penetration particles stick together. particles don’t stick together
Investigating soil water holding capacity

• Three soil samples:

1. Clay soil
2. Silt soil
3. Sand soil

Which soil has the better

water holding capacity?
Why?
 Soil Improvement: Fertilizers
Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers
Origin Natural, derived from plants and Artificial, man-made synthetic
animals e.g. manure, peat, products e.g. usually contain N,
compost, treated sewage P, K
Cost Inexpensive Expensive
Application Difficult to use: bulky and sticky Easy to use: powders and
granules
Action Slow to act: need decomposing Quick to act: dissolves
first; long-lasting immediately; short-lasting
Effects on soil Improve crumb structure and Don’t improve crumb
water retention structure; harmful if used
frequently; can lead to
breakdown of soil crumbs
leadingto erosion

Effects on Encourage earthworms. Often harmful to earthworms.

earthworms
Ann Tindale : A Concise revision course
 ❖ Assessment Point
• Name FOUR abiotic factors that influence the distribution andsurvival
of living organisms.

• List FOUR reasons why soil is important to plants.

• Why are sandy soils better aerated than clay soils?

• What is humus and how does it get into the soil?

• List THREE advantages of having plenty of humus in a soil.

• What are the problems of trying to cultivate a clay soil?

• How may a sandy soil be improved?

❖ Exam Questions
❖ Exam Questions