Physical Chemistry

Revision Booklet

Year 1 Chemistry
(Atomic Structure, Structure and
Bonding, Amount of Substance)

-1-
Atomic Structure:
The atom is composed of the following sub-
atomic particles. Complete the table with their
following properties.

Relative
Name Relative Mass
Charge

Proton

-1

Neutron

In an electric field both protons and

________ would be deflected but _________
would not be.

The Atomic Number is defined as the

number of _______ in the nucleus. In an atom
this is also the number of ________.

-2-
Atomic Mass: Complete the following
definitions.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the _______ mass

of 1 ______ of atoms relative to 1/12 the mass
of 1 mole of ___________.

Relative Isotopic Mass: the mass of 1 _____

of an _______ relative to 1/12 the mass of 1
mole of ___________.

Relative Molecular Mass (RMM): the _______

mass of 1 mole of compound relative to 1/12 the
mass of 1 mole of ___________. It is the sum
of all the Relative ______ masses of its
constituent ______.

Molar Mass: is the ______ of one mole of the

substance (gmol-1)

The number of neutrons in an atom is:

No. of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number

-3-
 Complete the following table:
Protons Neutrons Electrons Atomic Atomic Symbol
Number Mass

A 7 14

B 16 15

C 10 8 16

D 35 36 79

E 30

F 27
Al3+

-4-
 Isotopes are atoms of the same ______
which have the same number of ______ but
different number of ______. The Relative
______ Mass must be calculated from the
_________ and Relative Isotopic Mass of
every isotope.

RAM = Sum of (Isotopic Mass x % Abundance)

100

Qu 1) For Boron there are two isotopes with

their abundances in the brackets. Calculate the
Relative Atomic Mass.

10.0 (18.7%) 11.0 (81.3%)

10.8

-5-
Time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOFMS) is
a method of mass spectrometry in which
an ion's ________ ratio is determined via a
time measurement.
a) Explain how the ions are created.

Ions are accelerated by an ______ field of

known strength. This acceleration results in an
ion having the same ______ energy as any
other ion that has the same _____. The
v______ of the ion depends on the _________
ratio. The time that it subsequently takes for
the particle to reach a d_______ at a known
d_______ is measured. This time will depend on
the ___________ ratio of the particle
(h______ particles reach l_____ speeds). This
is referred to as I____ d______. From this
time and the known experimental parameters
one can find the __________ ratio of the ion.

-6-
b) How are the ions detected

c) How does the abundance relate to

detection?

d) What species is responsible for a peak in

pure sulphur of 256

e) What species is responsible for a peak of

pure sulphur of 128

f) Write an equation to show the ionisation

of a Magensium atom.

-7-
Electron Configuration:

Successive ___________ Energies provide

evidence for the existence of quantum shells.
i.e. that ________ exist in energy levels with
distinct energy.
The variation in 1st Ionisation Energies
provide evidence for the existence of
characteristic energy levels consisting of s, p
and d orbitals.
An orbital is an area in which there is a high
probability of locating an electron. Each orbital
can hold a maximum of _____ electrons.

Below draw diagrams to represent the

shapes of:

a) an s orbital

b) a p orbital

-8-
Energy Level s p d Total electrons
1 1 2
2 1 3 8
3 1 3 5 18
4 1 3 8

The order of filling orbitals is in order of

energy.

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p

e.g. Calcium (20 electrons)

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

Complete the following:

1) Potassium

2) Carbon

3) Iron (NB 3d is written before 4s)

-9-
 The electronic configurations of Chromium
and Copper are unique because the 3d and 4s
orbitals are so close in ______ it is possible to
promote an electron to achieve a more ______
configuration. A half-full or full d orbital is
much more stable.

Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

The electronic configurations can also be

expressed using the electrons-in-boxes
notation. Complete the following table to show
the electronic configuration of Nitrogen (NB
electrons are unpaired where possible).

Orbital 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

N

The Periodic Table has three main areas

depending upon the energy sub-level in which
the outer electron is situated.

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 The chemical properties of an element are
governed by the ________ configuration and in
particular the number of outer electrons. Those
elements with similar __________ (i.e. in the
same group of the Periodic Table) will form
compounds with similar _______.

Transition metals first lose the ___

electrons before the ___ electrons. Because of
the close proximity in energy of the energy
levels it is possible for the transition metals to
form a number of different ions (i.e. they can
have ions with more than one valency).

1) What is the electron configuration of the

following?

a) Ni2+

b) Cu2+

c) Fe3+

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Ionisation Energies:

First Ionisation Energy: The _______

change when 1 m____ of electrons is removed
from 1 m_____ of atoms in the
________state.

X(g) → X+(g) + e-
Second Ionisation Energy: The _______
change when 1 m____ of electrons is removed
from 1 m_____ of singly charged p________
ions in the ________state.

X+(g) → X2+(g) + e-

Qu 3) Write an equation to show the following:

a) 1st I.E. of Mg

b) 2nd I.E. of Mg

Trends:

- 12 -
 1) Across a Period the Ionisation Energy
________ as the nuclear charge ________.
The electrons are in the same energy _____
and therefore the _________ to the outer
electron is _______ and more energy is
required to remove it. The outer electrons will
have the same s_________.

2) Down a group the Ionisation Energy

_______ as the outer electron is _______
from the nucleus. Although there is a greater
nuclear ______ the inner electron shells
_______ the valency electron and therefore
the attraction is _______ and less _______ is
required to remove it.

3) Successive Ionisation Energies are

always greater than the previous as there are
fewer ________ and therefore greater
________. A very large jump in the value
indicates the electron is being removed from an
______ shell.
Exceptions to the general rule are:

- 13 -
 Al < Mg This is because the electron is
removed from a _______ energy sub-level.
Therefore less energy is required to promote
the electron to the i_________ energy level.

N<O This is because the ________

between the paired electrons in a p-orbital
makes it _______ to remove one of them.

Amount of Substance

- 14 -
Atomic Mass: Complete the following
definitions.

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar): the _______ mass

of 1 ______ of atoms relative to 1/12 the mass
of 1 mole carbon-12 _____.

Relative Isotopic Mass: the mass of 1 _____

of an _______ relative to 1/12 the mass of 1
mole carbon-12 atom.

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): the _______

mass of 1 mole of compound relative to 1/12 the
mass of 1 mole of _______-12 atoms. It is the
sum of all the Relative ______ Masses of its
constituent ______.

The term Relative Formula Mass (Mr) is used

for Ionic Compounds.

Molar Mass: is the ______ of one mole of the

substance (gmol-1)
The Mole:

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This is the number of particles in 12g of
Carbon-12. (Avogadro’s number)

The number of particles is _________ and is

called _________ Number.

The number of particles in any given substance

can be calculated by:

No of Particles = No. of Moles x _________

Number

Calculate the number of particles in the

following:

1) 0.5 moles of magnesium

2) 0.1 moles of sulphur

3) 0.125 moles of oxygen

Ideal Gas Equation:

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An ideal gas is one in which the particles are
considered to be perfect ________.

pV = nRT

p = Pressure (Pa)
V = Volume ( m3)
n = number of moles
R = Gas Constant (given in the question)
T = Temperature (K)

First you must convert your units if required.

p: Often given in kPa therefore multiply by 1000

V: if given in cm3 then divide by 1000000
V: if given in dm3 then divide by 1000
T: if given in oC then add 273

Convert the following:

a) 25 oC
b) 101kPa
c) 150cm3
Calculate the following:

- 17 -
 1) Calculate the volume of 1 mole of an ideal
gas at 0oC and 101325 Pa?

2) Calculate the number of moles in 20 cm3

of O2 at a pressure of 101 kPa and 25oC?

Empirical and Molecular Formulae:

- 18 -
The Empirical Formula is the ________ ratio of
elements in a compound:

The Molecular Formula is the ________ ratio

of elements in a compound:

e.g. Benzene:
Molecular Formulae: C6H6
Empirical Formulae: CH

To calculate the Empirical Formula you either

need the ________ reacted or the
___________ masses.

Follow the same steps every time to calculate

the empirical formula.

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 1 Write down the mass of each element.
2 Divide the mass by the relative atomic mass
of the element.
3 Divide numbers by the smallest number to get
the ratio of elements.
4 These numbers give the empirical formula.

A compound has 24 g of carbon and 64 g of

oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

Element Symbol C O
Mass of element 24 64
Mass ÷ Relative ÷ 12 ÷ 16
Atomic Mass
2 4
Divide by the
÷2 ÷2
smaller number
1 2
Ratio

The empirical formula of this compound is CO2.

1. A compound is made from 72 g of

carbon and 12 g of hydrogen. Work out
its empirical formula.

- 20 -
2. A common salt is analysed and is found
to have 52.9 g of sodium and 81.7 g of
chlorine. What is its empirical formula?

3. Aluminium ore may consist of 156 g of

aluminium and 278 g of oxygen. Is its
empirical formula AlO2 or AlO3?

- 21 -
4. A commercial paint thinner has the following
composition: carbon 25.2 g; hydrogen 8.5 g;
oxygen 33.7 g. What is its empirical
formula?

- 22 -
Molecular Formulae:

Once you have found the Empirical Forumla e.g CH 2

then you can find the Molecular Formula using the M r
of the compound.

Er is like Mr but for the Empirical Formula

Mr / Er – this should be a whole number

Molecular Formula = Mr / Er x Empirical Formula

e.g. 42/14 x CH2 = C3H6

a) Calculate the empirical formula of the compound

found to contain 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and
53.3% oxygen.

b) Find its molecular formula given that its M r is

180.

- 23 -
2. a) Work out the molecular formula of the
following compounds given the information
below?
i) empirical formula = P2O5 Mr = 284

ii) empirical formula = CH2 Mr = 56

- 24 -
Writing equations:
It is important when writing equations to do it
methodically:

1. Write a word equation

2. Write the formulas for each of the species.
3. Balance the equation.

A full equation shows the full formulae of the

species involved.

An ionic equation shows only those ions/molecules

that change in the reaction.

Write full equations for the following reactions:

a) sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide

b) aluminium + chlorine → aluminium chloride

Write an ionic equation for the following reaction

c) calcium + hydrochloric acid → calcium chloride

+ hydrogen

Concentration, Volume and Moles:

- 25 -
In solutions the number of moles is often quoted as
the concentration either in mol/dm3 or M.

Number of moles = Concentration x Volume

n = c x v

NB Volume is often quoted in cm 3 and must first be

changed into dm3 by dividing by 1000.

Calculate the following:

a) Number of moles in 2 dm3 of 0.05 mol dm-3

HCl

b) Concentration in 0.400 moles of HCl in 2.00

litres of solution

c) Volume of 0.00500 moles of NaOH from

0.100 mol dm-3 solution.

Reacting Masses Calculations:

- 26 -
In order to calculate the mass of a reactant needed
or product formed, volumes of products or perhaps a
titration calculation you might need more than one
step.

The MRA approach:

1. Moles:
Calculate the initial number of moles of
one of the species using either:

n=m/Mr (solids)
n=c x v (solutions)
Pv = nRT (gases)

2. Ratio:
Calculate the number of moles of the other
species using the ratio from the equation:

3. Answer:
Calculate your answer now that you have the
number of moles of the species required.

The reaction below is known as the Thermitt reaction, which

is used to form molten iron to mould train tracks

- 27 -
together. What mass of aluminium powder is needed to
react with 8.00 g of iron (III) oxide?

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + 2Fe

25.0 cm3 of 0.0400 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution

reacted with 20.75 cm3 of sulphuric acid in a titration. Find
the concentration of the sulphuric acid.

Percentage Yield:

% yield = mass of product obtained x 100

- 28 -
 ______________________________________________________________

maximum theoretical mass of product

The theoretical maximum mass of product must first

be calculated using the reacting masses method:

Titanium can be extracted from titanium chloride by the

following reaction. TiCl4 + 2 Mg → Ti + 2 MgCl2

a) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of titanium

that can be extracted from 100 g of titanium
chloride .

b) In the reaction, only 20 g of titanium was made.

Calculate the percentage yield.

Pecrentage Atom Economy:

% atom economy = mass of desired product

x100
_____________________________________________

- 29 -
 total mass of reactants

1) Calculate the atom economy to make sodium from sodium

chloride. 2NaCl → 2Na + Cl2

2) Calculate the atom economy to make hydrogen from the

reaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid.
Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

3) Calculate the atom economy to make iron from iron oxide

in the Blast Furnace.
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Bonding:
Types of Bond:
1) Ionic

- 30 -
 This is the _________
attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
Cation:- ________ ion due to
the loss of electrons
Anion:- _______ ion due to the
gain of electrons
2) Covalent
This is the _______ of a pair of
electrons in which both species
donate ____ electron.
3) Dative Covalent
This is the ______ of a pair of
electrons in which _____
electrons come from the same
species
4) Metallic Bond
The attraction between
_______ ions and the sea of
_________ electrons.
Ions:

i) Cations have a radius ______ than

their atomic radius. The greater the

- 31 -
 number of electrons _____ the
smaller the radius.
ii) Anions have a radius ______ than
their atomic radius. The ionic radius
increases down the group.
iii) Cations with a _____ radius and/or
_____ charge have a ______ charge
density, and so are very ________.
Anions with a ________ radius are
very polarisable. If either the cation
is very polarising or the anion is very
polarisable, the outer ________ in
the anion will be pulled towards the
______ and the bond will have some
______ character.

Electronegativity:

- 32 -
 The electronegativity of an element is a
measure of the attraction its atoms have for a
pair of ________ in a covalent bond.
Metals usually have _____
electronegativities. Non-metals have _____
electronegativities.
If there is a very ______ difference in
electronegativity then the bond will be more
_____ than covalent but all ionic bonds show
some _______ character.
If a covalent bond is formed between two
different elements then there will be an
_______ sharing of the electrons. Therefore a
_____ bond is formed.

However due to the

_______ of some molecules they do not have a
________ dipole because the
polar bonds cancel.
e.g. No overall dipole.

- 33 -
There are various types of intermolecular bond
that occur because of the attraction between
dipoles.

i) Van der Waals: This _____ attraction

occurs between an ________ dipole in
one molecule and an ______ dipole in an
adjacent molecule.

ii) Permanent Dipole: This attraction

occurs between two molecules that have
a permanent dipole. Are _______ than
Van der Waals for molecules with
similar mass.
iii) Hydrogen Bond: This is a fairly ______
interaction that occurs between two
molecules that have a permanent
______ involving ________ (non-metal
with the lowest
electronegativity)

- 34 -
Properties:
The properties of a substance depend upon the
structure and bonding of a substance.

a) Ionic:
1. Have a very regular three-
dimensional arrangement of ions
(ionic _______). The crystals are
very _______.

2. Have very high _______ points due

to the strong attraction.

3. Conduct electricity when ______

or in aqueous solution because they
have _____ that are free to move.

4. Most ionic solids are water-soluble

because the ______ required to
separate the ______ is
compensated for by the exothermic
nature of hydration. The strong
ionic bonds are replaced by ______
to the polar water molecules.

- 35 -
b) Covalent:

Covalent compounds vary and can be separated

into four distinct groups:
i) giant atomic e.g. diamond, graphite,
quartz (SiO2)
a. Have very high _______
points because they have a
______ number of
covalent bonds and this
requires a lot of ______
to break them.
b. Diamond and quartz are
______ structures due to
the ________ of the
covalent bond.
c. Graphite can _____
electricity due to the
presence of delocalised
_______.
d.Graphite is a good
_______ because the
layers can easily slide over
each other.

- 36 -
ii) simple molecular e.g. I2 and many
other organic substance.
a. Usually have ___ boiling
points due to the ______
of the Van der Waals
forces.
b. As the molecule increases
in ____ the Van der Waals
forces become ______.

c. Iodine is a solid at room

temperature but ______
when heated as little
energy is needed to
overcome the forces.
d. Do not conduct _______
because the ________
are tightly held in the
covalent bond.
e. Do not _______ in polar
substances because their
molecules are not
attracted to the polar
molecules.

- 37 -
iii) hydrogen-bonded molecular e.g. Ice
and ethanol
a. Have unusually high
________ points because
of the fairly strong
_________ Bonds
between molecules.
b. Can _______ in polar
solvents because of the
attraction between
molecules.
c. Ice has a ______ density
than water because the
________ bonds in solid
ice, which hold the
molecules together, are in
_______ positions and
lead to an open structure.
In water the hydrogen
bonds are constantly being
______ and re-made.

- 38 -
iv) non-crystalline e.g. polymers like
polyethene.
a. Are generally ________
with high melting points
because of the strong Van
der Waals forces between
the molecules.

b. Some polymers form

cross-links between the
strands and therefore
cannot be _________.

- 39 -
Melting Point:

 When a solid is heated from room

temperature until ______.

 The particles (ions, molecules or atoms)

_______ more.

 As the temperature rises the vibrations

________ until they become so great that
the _______ between the particles are
overcome, and the regular arrangement in
the lattice breaks up.

 The substance is then a ______.

 The ________ the forces between the

particles the ________ the amount of
energy required and therefore the
_______ the melting point.

- 40 -
Boiling Point Trends:

i) Noble Gases:
The boiling point ________ down the group. As
the number of electrons ________ the Van der
Waals forces increase in _______ therefore
more energy is required.

ii) Group 5,6 and 7 Hydrides:

The first member of the series has a higher

than usual _______ point due to the presence
of _________ bonding. After the drop to the
second member there is a steady _______ as
the number of _______ increases and so
therefore does the _______ of the Van der
Waals force.

- 41 -
Molecular Shapes:

These are explained by the Valence Shell

Electron Pair Repulsion Theory:

i) The _______ pairs arrange

themselves as far apart from each
other as possible in order to
_______ the repulsion.
ii) The repulsion between ____ pairs
is greater than that between a
lone pair and a _____ pair, which
is greater than that between two
_____ pairs.

lp-lp > lp-bp > bp-bp

iii) The number of  bond pairs of

electrons and lone pairs in the
molecule should be counted.
iv) Any  bond pairs should be ignored
when working out the shape of a
molecule.

- 42 -
The structures are based upon the following.

2 Bond pairs

Linear
Bond Angle
180

3 bond pairs

Triangular
Planar
Bond Angle
120

4 Bond Pairs
Tetrahedral
Bond Angle
109.5

- 43 -
5 Bond Pairs
Trigonal
Bipyramidal
Bond Angle
90 and 120

6 Bond Pairs
Octahedral
Bond Angle
90

However the shape will differ if any of the

pairs are lone pairs because of the greater
repulsion.

- 44 -
e.g. Ammonia
(Bond Angle 107)

Pyramidal

Water
(Bond Angle 104.5)

Non-linear

To work out the shape of the molecule or ion

then you should do the following:

- 45 -
1. Number of electrons in the outer shell of
the central atom:
2. Number of electrons donated by the
bonding elements:
3. Charge (if positive minus, negative add)
4. Add 1,2 and 3 to calculate the total
number of outer electrons
5. Divide 4 by 2. This will give you the
number of electron pairs and therefore
the basic shape:
6. Calculate 5 – 2 to give you the number of
lone pairs and bonding pairs.

You should be able to draw shapes of the

following:

i) HCl

- 46 -
 ii) NH4+

iii) SO2

Metallic Bonding:

- 47 -
 The metallic bond is the _________
between the regularly arranged positive
_______ and the sea of _________ electrons.

Metals are very good __________ of

electricity because of the mobility of their
delocalised ________.

Metals have _____ melting points and boiling

points due to the _____ attraction. The
greater the ______ on the cation the ______
the metallic bond and therefore the _______
the melting point.

- 48 -