SURVEYING – ESCI 104

LESSON 1 – INTRO TO SURVEYING and complex machinery, and in other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required.
Surveying 7. Mine Surveys
-the art and science of determining measurements to establish the form • determine the positions of all underground excavations and
and relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of surface mine structures, fix boundaries of mining claims,
the earth and other extra-terrestrial bodies. (La Putt, 1987) determine geological formations, calculate excavated
volumes and other related mining works
Purpose of Surveying 8. Route Surveys
1. Establishing Property Boundary • surveys for planning, design, and construction of railroads,
2. Determining Distance, Elevation, Angles highways, canals and other linear projects.
3. Construction of Maps, Profile and Cross Sections 9. Topographic Surveys
• survey to determine the shape of the ground, and the
Importance of Surveying location and elevation of its features.
1. Map the Earth above and below sea level
2. Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea. Types of Surveying According to Equipment Used
3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands. 1. Chain Survey
4. Develop data bank of land-use and natural resource information • It is the branch of surveying in which only linear
5. which aid in managing our environment. measurements are made in the field. This is suitable for the
6. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is
the Earth. fairly flat.
• It derives its name from the fact that the principle
Important role in any branches of engineering equipment commonly used is the chain.
1. To plan, construct, and maintain highways, railroads, rapid- 2. Theodolite Survey
transit systems, buildings, bridges, etc. • The system of surveying in which the angles are measured
2. Employed in laying out industrial assembly lines and jigs. with the help of a theodolite.
3. Guiding the fabrication of large equipment such as airplanes and 3. Tacheometric Survey
ships where separate pieces that have been assembled at • It is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal
different locations must ultimately be connected as a unit. and vertical distances are obtained by optical means as
General Classification of Surveying opposed to the ordinary process of chain and tape.
1. Plane Surveying • This is done with the help of two special type of instruments-
–the earth is considered to be a flat transit theodolite and stadia rod.
surface 4. Plane Table Survey
–the exact shape of the earth is • It is one of the fastest and easiest methods of surveying.
disregarded.
• Plotting of plans and field observations can be done at the
–Low accuracy
same time in plane table surveying.
–Small area <250km
5. Photogrammetric Survey
2. Geodetic Surveying
• use of specially designed cameras to capture an aerial shot
–The earth is considered as curve
from an aircraft.
surface.
–the spheroidal shape of the earth is
Surveying Instruments
taken into account
1. Measuring Tape
–High accuracy
• used to measure distances, made of steel, coated linen or
–Larger area >250km
synthetic material
2. Measuring Wheel
Types of Surveying According to Application
• designed to be pushed along by surveyors to measure
1. Cadastral Surveys
specific distances
- usually closed surveys to define property lines, boundaries,
3. Plumb Bob
corners and areas.
2. City Surveys • used to check if objects are vertical
4. Range Poles
• surveys in and near a city for land use planning, fixing
reference monuments, determining physical features, and • used to mark areas and to set out straight lines on the field;
mapping. to mark points which must be seen from a distance, with a
3. Construction Surveys flag attached to improve the visibility
5. Theodolite
• undertaken at a construction site to determine grade,
reference lines, dimensions, ground configurations, location • a precision instrument for measuring angles in the
and elevation. horizontal and vertical planes; used to determine horizontal
4. Forestry Surveys distances and elevations
6. Tripod
• executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest • provides strong, balanced location on which to place certain
lands. types of survey tools.
5. Hydrographic Surveys 7. Stadia Rod
• Used to map shorelines, chart the shape of areas underlying • measure distance between two points in conjunction with
water surfaces and measure flow of streams. other survey tools
6. Industrial Surveys 8. Compass
• use of surveying techniques in ship building, construction • determines the direction of a line; points to the magnetic
and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy north pole
9. Global Positioning System (GPS)
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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
• measure electronic distances; picks up satellite signals to
determine coordinates of points
10. Chains
• are used to measure horizontal distances.
• Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel
wire called links. The ends of each link are bent into a loop
hand connected together by means of three oval rings which
afford flexibility to the chain

Measurement
• process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a
quantity to a given standard.
Types of Measurement Significant Figures
1. Direct • digits necessary to express the results of a measurement to
• result is obtained by the actual measurement itself. the precision with which it was made.
2. Indirect
• result is obtained by determining its relationship to some
other values.
Meter
• International unit of linear: 1/10,000,000 of the
• earth’s meridional quadrant (1789)
• Iron meter bar standardized in Paris (1799)

International System of Units

• 1960 by General Conference of Weights and Measures
under the treaty of the meter
• a system of physical units (SI units) based on the meter,
kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole,
together with a set of prefixes to indicate multiplication or
division by a power of ten.

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1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements

Length: kilometer, meter, centimeter, millimeter
Area: Square meter, square centimeters, ares (100 sq m),
hectare (10 000 sq m or 100 ares).
Volume: cubic meter, cubic centimeter, liter, milliliter.
2. Angular Measurements
Radian - for plane angles, 2𝜋 rad = 360°
1° = 60 minutes
Steridian – supplementary unit of a solid angle
a. Sexagesimal Units – degree, minute, second
b. Centesimal Units – grad (angular unit), circumference
of a circle is divided into 400 grads; grad is divided into
100 centesimal units or 0.9 °

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
Examples: • graphical solutions using accurately scaled drawings can be
used; should be clear and orderly that will be easily
understood by others
5. Computation of the Above
• Table of contents must be included in the beginning of the
field notebook
• Fieldwork report shall be submitted based on those written
in the field notebook
Rounding off numbers
• Process of dropping one or more of the final digits so that Field notes should include:
the value contains only the significant figures required for 1. Fieldwork No.
further computation or for portraying the final results. 2. Fieldwork Title
Rules in Rounding off number 3. Date and Time
1. n < 5 4. Weather Condition
• the number is written without the digit. 5. Survey Party
• Ex. 24.2444 to the nearest hundredth = 24.24 6. Instruments Used
2. n = 5. 7. Sketch
• nearest even number is used for the preceding digit. 8. Results (Tabular Values/Computations)
• Ex. 26.175 to the nearest hundredth = 26.18;
• 156.285 is equal to 156.28 Survey Party Members:
3. n > 5 1. Chief of Party
• the number is written with the preceding digit • overall direction, supervision, and operational control.
• increased by 1. 2. Assistant Chief of Party
• Ex. 226.277 to the nearest hundredth = 226.28 • assistance to the COP.
3. Instrument man/ Technician
• setting up, leveling and operation of instruments
4. Recorder
• keeps records of survey data and sketches
5. Computer
• performs all computation during and after the survey
6. Head Tapeman
• responsible in the taping operation
7. Rear Tapeman
• assistance to the HTM
8. Flagman
• holds the range pole at selected points for taping activity.
Surveying Field Notes 9. Rodman
• the only reliable and permanent record of actual work done • holds the stadia rod at selected points for instrument
in the field; readings
• the quality of field work is reflected directly in the manner 10. Pacer
the field record is kept; • checks linear measurements made by the tapemen.
• official record of the survey; 11. Axeman/Lineman
• before any survey is made, the necessary data to be • the person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees,
collected should be considered carefully and in the field all bushes, and other obstructions; security and safety of the
such required data should be obtained. members
Field Notebook 12. Aidman
• must be complete, legible, concise and comprehensive, and • provides first aid treatment to members
logically arranged according to recognized practice should 13. Utility Men
be intelligible to others without verbal explanations • assistance to the survey party
• field work observations should be recorded directly in the Sample problems
notebook at the time observations are made.
Types of Notes
1. Sketches
- drawn freehand and of liberal size
2. Tabulations
- best show a series of numerical values observed in the field;
prevents mistakes, allows checking, saves time, makes
calculations legible to others, and simplifies the work of the
person checking the field notes
3. Explanatory Notes
• provide a written description of what has been done in the
field; usually placed on the right-hand page in the same line
with the numerical data; if sketches are used, they should
be placed closely to that which they explain
4. Computations

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
Precision – refers to the degree of refinement and consistency of
LESSON 2 – ERRORS AND MISTAKES measurement. And indicates how close measurements to each other.

Errors Probability
-difference b/w true value and a measured value of a quantity. - Number of times something will probably occur over the range of possible
-deviation of an observation or calculation from the true value occurrences
- Refers only to accidental errors and that all mistakes and systematic errors
Error = True Value – Measured Value have been eliminated

Mistakes Most Probable Value (mpv) - average of a series of measurements made

-inaccuracies in measurements because of carelessness, inattention, poor under similar conditions.
judgment, and improper execution ∑𝒙
𝒎𝒑𝒗 =
-Sometimes called gross errors 𝒏
Residual - deviation; difference between any measured
TYPES OF ERRORS quantity and its most probable value.
v = x − mpv
1. Systematic errors Probable error – quantity which, when added to and subtracted from mpv,
- will always have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions defines a range within which there is a 50% chance that the true value of
remain constant and unchanged. the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits set.
- also called cumulative error; will repeat itself in other measurements ∑ 𝑅2
Ex. Making measurement with a 30 m tape which is 5 cm too short 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√
𝑛−1
2. Accidental errors ∑ 𝑅2
- occurrence is a matter of chance and are likely to be 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
both positive and negative and may tend to compensate
Relative (Error) Precision-expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of
for each other.
the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in
- caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor and
the denominator
are present in all surveying measurements
Example:
Ex. Failure to exert correct amount of pull on the tape
𝑃𝐸𝑠 0.10 𝑚 0.10 𝑚 0.10 1
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = = = × = 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 1: 2355
𝑚𝑝𝑣 235.50 𝑚 235.50 𝑚 0.10 23.55
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental Errors
Weighted Observations or Weighted Measurements - Where: X =
- due to imperfections of the instruments, either from fault in their
Measurement; W = Weight, N = # of observations
construction or improper adjustment.
∑𝑃 ∑(𝑋 × 𝑊)
ex. -Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length. 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑥̅𝑤 = =
-Using a rod with painted graduation not perfectly spaced. ∑𝑁 ∑𝑁
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
-Sighting on a rod which is warped.
1. Summation of Errors - If several measured quantities are added,
-Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
each of which is affected by accidental errors, the probable error
2. Natural Errors
of the sum is given by the squares of the separate probable errors
- caused by nature and beyond the control of man. However, it can be
arising from several sources.
corrected.
Ex. -Effects of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape. 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ±√𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛2
- Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature
2. Product of Errors - For a measured quantity which is determined
and atmospheric refraction.
as the product of two independently measured quantities such
- Error’s in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sideways
as Q1 and Q2, the probable error of the product is given by
by a strong wind.
3. Personal Errors 𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 )2
- caused by human limitations.
Ex. -Error in the reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.
-Marking an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a
steel tape during measurement.
-Erroneous recording of observation.

Accuracy – indicates how close a given measurement to the absolute or the

true value. ----------------------------------------
Accuracy = True value − Most probable value WARNING: this contains series of questions that may cause stress,
headaches, hair loss, etc. hehe jk

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
COMPUTATIONS ∑𝒙 2. Relative precision
1. Determining the MPV 𝒎𝒑𝒗 =
𝒏
Example 1. The ff. values were determined in a series of tape measurement
Example 1. Measuring distance between 2 points. of a line. 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, & 1000.46.
Given: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50 & 251.22 m a. MPV of the measured length
𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 +𝑋 b. 𝑃𝐸𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸𝑚
Formula: 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 1 2 3 𝑛 4 5 6
c. Final Expression for the MPV
Solution:
250.25+ 250.15+249.90+251.04+ 250.50 +251.22 d. Relative Precision of the measurement
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎 Answers:
6
∑𝑥 6002.7
a. 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥̅ = = = 1000.45
Example 2. Determine the mpv each angle. 𝑛 6
∑ 𝑅2 ∑ 𝑅2
Given: 130°15’20”, 142°37’30”, 87°07’40” b. 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√ 𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√𝑛(𝑛−1)
• ∑ 𝑅2 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∗ 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∗
Step 1: Add
𝑥 𝑅 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ 𝑅2
130°15’20” = 𝑥 − 1000.45
+ 142°37’30” 1000.58 0.13 0.0169
87°07’40” 1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
360°00’30” 1000.38 -0.07 0.0049
1000.48 0.03 0.0009
1000.40 -0.05 0.0025
1000.46 0.01 0.0001
∑ 𝑅 2 = 0.0278
Step 2: Subtract:
∑ 𝑅2 0.0278
360°00′ 00′′ -360° 00' 30′′ = − 0°00′30′′ 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745√ = ±0.05
𝑛−1 6−1

Step 3: Determine the MPV by dividing it by n: ∑ 𝑅2 0.0278

𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745√ = ±0.02
−0°00′30′′ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 6(6 − 1)
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = = −0°00′10°′′
3
c. 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = 1000.45 ± 0.02
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = 1000.45 ± 0.05
Step 4: Add the MPV to the given d.
𝑃𝐸 0.05
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐸𝑠 = 𝑚𝑝𝑣𝑠 = 1000.45 = 20009 𝑜𝑟 1: 20009
1

130°15’20” + (−0°00′ 10°′′ ) = 130 15’10” 𝑃𝐸𝑚 0.02 0.02 1

142°37’30” + (−0°00′ 10°′′ ) = 142 37’20” 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = = ÷
𝑚𝑝𝑣 1000.45 0.02 50022
= 𝑜𝑟 1: 50022
87°07’40” + (−0°00′ 10°′′ ) = 87 07’30”
3. Weighted Observations
Example 3. Determine the discrepancy and the MPV for each angle.
Example 1. Four measurements of a distance were recorded. 284.18,
284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 m and given weights of 1, 3, 2, 4 respectively.
Determine the weighted mean.

𝑥 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 𝑥 × 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠
Given: A = 35°14’37”, B = 96°30’09”, and C = 48°15’05”
284.18 1 284.18
Solution:
Step 1 Add: 284.19 3 852.57
35°14’37” + 96°30’09” + 48°15’05” = 179°59’51” 284.22 2 568.44
Step 2 Subtract: 284.20 4 1136.80
180°00′00" − 179°59’51” = 0°00′09" ∑ 𝑁 = 10 ∑(𝑋 × 𝑊) = 2841.99
Step 3 Determine the MPV by dividing it by n
0°00′09" ∑(𝑋×𝑊) 2841.99
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = = 𝟎°𝟎𝟎′𝟎𝟑" Answer: 𝑥̅𝑤 = = = 284.199 𝑚
3 ∑𝑁 10
Step 4 Add the MPV Example 2. It is desired to determine the mpv of an angle which has been
35°14’37” + 0°00′03" = 35°14’40” measured at different times by different observers with equal care. The
96°30’09” + 0°00′03" = 96°30’12” values are 74° 39’ 45” (in 2 measurements), 74°39’ 27” (in 4 measurements)
48°15’05” + 0°00′03" = 48°15’08” and 74°39’ 35” (in 6 measurements

Example 4. Measurement of three horizontal angles about a point 𝑥 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 𝑥 × 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠

74° 39’ 45” 2 149° 19’ 30”
Given: 74°39’ 27” 4 298° 37’ 48”
APB=12°31’50”, BPC=37°29’20”, and CPD = 47°36’30”.
74°39’ 35” 6 447° 57’ 30”
If the measurement of the single angle APD = 97°37’00”
∑ 𝑁 = 12 ∑ 𝑃 = 895° 54′ 48"

Step 1: 12°31’50” + 37°29’20” + 47°36’30” = 97° 37′ 40" ∑(𝑋×𝑊) ′

895° 54 48
Answer: 𝑥̅𝑤 = = = 74° 39′ 34"
Step 2: 97°37′00" − 97° 37′ 40” = −0°00′40" ∑𝑁 12
0°00′40"
Step 3: 𝑚𝑝𝑣 = = −0°00′10"
4
Step 4: APB = 12°31’50” + (−0°00′10") = 12° 31′ 40"
BPC = 37°29’20” + (−0°00′10") = 37°29’10”
CPD = 47°36’30” + (−0°00′10") = 47°36’20”
APD = 97°37’00” + (0°00′10") = 96°37’10”

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 SURVEYING – ESCI 104
Example 3. Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over
four different routes. The observed elevations of the point with probable
errors are given below. Determine the most probable value of the elevation
of the point.

1
Line Elevation Probable 𝑬𝟐 W =𝐸 2
Relative
Weight (RW)
𝑷 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣
Error × 𝑅𝑊
1 219.832 m ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔 0.000036 27777.78 16 3517.312
2 219.930 m ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 0.000144 6944.44 4 879.72
3 219.701 m ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖 0.000324 3086.42 2 439.402
4 220.021 m ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟒 0.000576 1736.11 1 220.021
∑ 𝑹𝑾 ∑𝑷
= 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟔. 𝟒𝟓𝟓
∑𝑷 5056.455
𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑹𝑾
= = 219.85
23

Example 4. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on three different

occasions and the probable error of each mean value is computed with the
following results. Determine the weighted mean of the 3 sets of
measurements.
1st Set of measurements =1201.50 ± 0.02 𝑚
2nd Set of measurements =1201.45 ± 0.04 𝑚
3rd Set of measurements =1201.62 ± 0.05 𝑚

Measurement Measured Probable 𝐸2 1

W =𝐸 2
Relative Weight
𝑾
𝑷
Value Error (RW) = 𝑾 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣
𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕
× 𝑅𝑊
A 1201.50 0.02 0.0004 2500 6 72.09
B 1201.45 0.04 0.0016 625 2 2402.9
C 1201.62 0.05 0.0025 400 1 1201.62
∑ 𝑹𝑾 = 𝟗 ∑𝑷
= 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟑. 𝟓𝟐
∑𝑷 10813.52
𝑥̅ = = = 1201.50 𝑚
∑ 𝑹𝑾 9

4. Interrelationships of Errors

Example 1. Addition. The 3 sides of a triangular shaped tract of land is given

by the following measurements and corresponding probable errors.
Determine the probable error of the sum and the mpv of the perimeter.

a = 162.54 ± 0.03 𝑚
b = 234.26 ± 0.05 𝑚
𝑐 = 195.70 ± 0.04 𝑚.
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ±√0.032 + 0.052 + 0.042 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
Perimeter = a + b + c = 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70 = 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟓
Perimeter= 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟓 ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕

Example 2. Multiplication. The 2 sides of a rectangle lot were measured

with certain estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 𝑚
and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 𝑚. Determine the area of the lot and the probable
error in the resulting calculation.

W = 253.36 ± 0.06 𝑚
L = 624.15 ± 0.08 𝑚
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 )2
𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ±√(253.36 × 0.08)2 + (624.15 × 0.06)2 = ±𝟒𝟐. 𝟓𝟖
Area= L x W = 253.36 × 624.15 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟒
Area = 𝟏𝟓𝟖𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟔𝟒 ±𝟒𝟐. 𝟓𝟖

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
5. What is the relative precision of the measurement if after pacing
LESSON 3 - HORIZONTAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT the computed distance is 195.6 m and the taped distance is 197 m?
𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒−𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
There are several methods of determining distance. The choice may • 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑅𝑃) = 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
depend on the following: 197 𝑚−195.6 𝑚 1.4 1.4 1
• 𝑅𝑃 = = 197 ÷ 1.4 = 141
1. Purpose of the measurement 197 𝑚
2. Required precision 6. What is the relative precision of the measurements of Surveyor X after
3. Cost walking an average of 160.5 paces over a distance of 110.0 m? his PF is 0.68
m/pace.
𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒−𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1. DISTANCE BY PACING • 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑅𝑃) = 𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
-moving with measured steps; distance can be determined by 110 𝑚−(𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟×𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)
• 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑅𝑃) =
multiplying the number of steps with a pace factor. 0.68𝑚
110 𝑚
• For checking measurements taken by other methods • 𝑅𝑃 =
110 𝑚−(
𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
×160.5 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)
=
110 𝑚−109.14 𝑚
=
0.86 𝑚
• Low precision 0.86 𝑚
110 𝑚
0.86 𝑚 1 1
110 𝑚 110 𝑚

• Small scale mapping, reconnaissance surveys • 𝑅𝑃 = ÷ 0.86 𝑚 = =

110 𝑚 127.9 130
• Good pacers have an RP of 1/200 and better
• For long distances, mechanical counters are used: 2. DISTANCE BY TAPING
pedometer = hand carried - the use of graduated tape to measure or layout horizontal distances
passometer = strapped to the leg RP is 1:1000 to 1:25000 or better for precision purposes
Pace – length of a step-in walking, heel to heel or toe to toe
Stride – equivalent to two paces or a double step Types of Measuring Tapes

1. Steel Tape - surveyor’s or engineer’s tape, made of ribbon or

steel 0.5 to 1.0 cm in width and weighs 0.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 m.
2. Metallic Tape - woven tapes, made of water -proof linen fabric
which are woven longitudinally small brass, copper, or bronze
wires to increase its strength and reduce stretching
3. Non-metallic Tape - type of tape woven from selected synthetic
materials with strong dimensional stability; turn coated with
plastic material
Formula:
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 4.Invar Tape - special tape made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and
• 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑃𝐹) = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟⁄𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 steel (65%) with very low coefficient of thermal expansion (1/30
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 to 1/60 of steel tape)
• 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 2 5. Lovar Tape - has properties and costs between those of conventional
𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒−𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑅𝑃) = steel tapes and invar tape
𝑇𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
6. Fiberglass Tape - made by weaving fiberglass in a longitudinal
SAMPLE PROBLEM and traverse pattern; strong and flexible and will not shrink or
stretch appreciably with changes in temperature and humidity.
1. A surveyor paced 3 times with the following number of steps: 101.50, 7. Wires Builder’s Tape - has smaller cross-section and lighter
102.75 and 100.25. What is his pace factor if the taped distance is 76 m? than engineer’s tape; graduated to suit commonly used
101.50+102.75+100.25 dimensions in building construction.
• 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = = 101.5 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
3
76 𝑚 8. Phosphor-Bronze Tape - rust-proof tape designed for use in
• 𝑃𝐹 = = 0.75 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 the vicinity of salt-water.
101.5 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
9. Nylon-coated steel tape - flexible crack-resistant steel core
2. A man with a pace factor of 0.65 walked a distance of 150 m. tape with coating of permanently bonded non-conducting nylon
What is the number of steps did he make?
150 𝑚
• 0.65 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑥 TAPING ACCESSORIES
150 𝑚
• 𝑥= = 230.76 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
0.65 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 1. Range Pole – known as flags or lining rods; used as
What is the number of strides did he make? temporary signals to indicate locations of points or
𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 230.75
• 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = = 2 = 115.38 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 directions of lines, and to mark
2
alignment
3. The head surveyor paced an unknown distance and made 3 trials. 2. Tape Clamping Handles – used to apply tension with a quick grip
The number of paces he made were 79, 77, and 80 paces. If his pace factor on any part of the steel tape without causing damage to the tape
is 0.69 m/pace, what could be the length of the unknown distance? or hands of the tapeman
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 3. Chaining Pins – surveyor’s arrows or taping pins; stuck in the
• 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑃𝐹) = 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
ground to mark the ends of measured tape lengths or partial tape
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• 0.69 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 79+77+80 lengths
𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
79+77+80
3
4. Tension Handle – spring scale; used at one end of a tape for
• 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 × 0.69 𝑚⁄𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 54.28 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 ensuring the application of the correct amount of pull on the
3
tape during measurement
4. A boy with a pace factor of 0.65 m/pace counted his steps from his house 5. Tape thermometer – 10 to 15 cm long, usually
to his school gate. If he counted 476 steps, how many strides did he make? graduated from -30 to +50 °C in 2 to 5 °C divisions;
𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 476
• 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 = = 2 = 238 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 fastened to tape by means of clips
2
6. Plumb bob - used for projecting tape ends to the ground when the
tape must be suspended above the measured line; 0.25 kg weight and
attached to 1.5 m long string or cord.

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
7. Wooden stakes or hub – 5 x 5 x 30 cm wood to mark points, SAMPLE PROBLEM IN TACHYMETRY:
corners or stations on the ground 1. The distance from A to B is to be determined by stadia method. After
8. Wire Hand Level and Clinometer- 15 cm long device leveling the instrument, the upper and lower stadia hair read 2.455 and
consisting of metal sighting tube with a level bubble 0.990 respectively. If K is 100 and the additive factor is 0, what is the
Clinometer- hand level adapted for measuring vertical distance between the 2 points?
angles. • 𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶
9. Tape Repair Kit - will allow emergency repairs to be made on • 𝐷 = 𝐾(𝑈𝑅 − 𝐿𝑅) + 𝐶
damaged or broken tapes • 𝐷 = 100(2.455 − 0.990) + 0 = 146.5 𝑚
10. Crayons– usually lumber crayons; 10 cm long and
hexagonal cross section; blue yellow and red in color; used 2. A stadia rod was placed 103 m away from a theodolite. If the Upper
for marking points, corners or stations by indicating cross stadia hair reading was 2.120, what should be the lower stadia hair
marks on paved roads, sidewalks or walls. reading? Stadia interval factor of the instrument is 100 and additive factor
is 0.
PROCEDURE OF TAPING • 𝐷 = 𝐾(𝑈𝑅 − 𝐿𝑅) + 𝐶
1. Aligning the tape. • 103 𝑚 = 100(2.120 − 𝐿𝑅) + 0
2. Stretching the tape – a steady and firm pull, around 4 to 7 kg, is applied • 103 𝑚 = 100(2.120 − 𝐿𝑅) + 0
at one end of the tape • 𝐿𝑅 = 1.090
“Tape too short” – tape is stretched less than the required standard pull
“Tape too long” – tape is stretched greater than the required standard pull 3. The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long subtense bar
3. Plumbing using a theodolite:
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths. a) 00°54’13’’ d) 10°16’00’’
5. Tallying Taped Measurements. b) 00°22’20’’ e) 20°03’10’’
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths. c) 00°32’06” f) 10°25’30’’
Compute for the horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position
Breaking tape - procedure of measuring shorter distances which are to of the bar.
total a full-length tape length. 1 1
a. 𝐷 = 𝜃 = 00°54’13’’ = 126.81 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
b. 𝐷= 𝜃 = 00°22’20’’ ’ = 307.86 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
c. 𝐷= 𝜃 = 00°32’06”’ = 214.19 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
d. 𝐷= 𝜃 = 10°16’00’’ = 11.13 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
e. 𝐷= 𝜃 = 20°03’10’’ = 5.66 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
f. 𝐷= 𝜃 = 10°25’30’’’ = 10.96 𝑚
Slope taping tan tan
2 2
4. A subtense bar 2.0 meters long is set up near the middle of a line PQ.
Using a theodolite set up at P, the angle subtended reads 00°20’14’’. When
the Theodolite is transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding subtended
angle was observed as 00°23’47’’. Determine the horizontal length of line
PQ.
1 1
• 𝐷1 = 𝜃 = 00°20’14’’ = 339.81 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
1 1
• 𝐷2 = 𝜃 = 00°23’47’’ = 289.09 𝑚
tan tan
2 2
• 𝐷 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2 = 628.89 𝑚
3. DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
-based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed 4. DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL & MATHEMATICAL METHODS
-an instrument is used to measure subtended intervals and angles from -Determination of distances by scaling from maps and aerial photographs.
which distances are computed by trigonometry -Before distances are determined, scale must be established
TWO METHODS: -Scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on the map and the
1. Stadia Method -Precision is 1/300 to 1/1000 corresponding distance on the ground.
-Used in topographic survey and reconnaissance survey and for checking -Practical to employ in long distances and inaccessible terrain.
measurements - 1:1000 and 1:5000; 1cm :1000 m
• D = Ks + C
where: SAMPLE PROBLEM:
k is stadia interval factor 1. A local map of Subdivision X has a scale of 1:1000. Using a ruler, the
s is the stadia interval distance between the Subdivision infirmary and Mr. B house is 0.235 m.
s = UR – LR (upper reading- lower reading) a. What is the actual distance between the two buildings?
1 0.235 𝑚
C is the additive Factor • = 𝑥
1000
• 𝑥 = 1000 × 0.235 𝑚 = 235 𝑚
2. Subtense bar Method- uses a bar precisely 2 meters long Theodolite is b. using the ruler again, the distance between house A and house B is 12.7
used to measure the angle subtended by the distance between the ends of cm. What is the actual distance between the two houses in m?
the bar. 1 12.7 𝑐𝑚
• = 𝑥
𝜃 1 1000
• 𝐷 = cot 2 = 0.01 𝑚
tan
𝜃
2–
• 𝑥 = 12700 𝑐𝑚 ( 1 𝑐𝑚 ) = 127 𝑚
• RP of 1/3000

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
5. DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES Classification
1. Odometer a. Electro-Optical Instruments
– device that can be attached to a wheel and -Transmit wavelengths within or slightly beyond the visible region of the
can register its number of revolutions. It spectrum; newer models use modulated laser or infrared lights
measures only surface distances and the result
must be reduced to the horizontal distance. b. Microwave Instruments
- RP is 1/200 for fairly level terrain -Transmits microwaves corresponding to wavelengths of about 1.0 to 8.6
-For route location surveys mm; measuring range is long and can operate even during frizzle or fog
-low precision surveys
𝐷 = (2𝜋𝑟) × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑣.
2. Measuring Wheel
- same as the odometer but has a built-in calibrated recorder
that automatically gives readings for distances.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. A measuring wheel is used to measure the distance between A and B and
the wheel diameter is 0.15 m. The wheel had 380 complete revolutions
between the points.
a. If the ground is even, what is the distance between A
and B?
• 𝐷 = (2𝜋𝑟) × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑣.
0.15
• 𝐷 = (2𝜋 2 ) × 380 = 179.07 𝑚
b. If the slope of the ground is 20%, what is the distance
between A and B?

𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒
• 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑟𝑢𝑛 × 100
• 𝐷 = (179 × 0.20) + 179 = 214.8 𝑚
c. What is the difference in elevation between the two
points?
ℎ
• 20 % = 179
• ℎ = 35.8 𝑚

2. After covering the distance from the gate to the NSB Building, the
odometer registered 560 complete revolutions. If the wheel has a diameter
of 0.2 m,
a. how far is the NSB building from the gate? Assume that the ground is flat
and fairly level.
• 𝐷 = (2𝜋𝑟) × 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑣.
0.2
• 𝐷 = (2𝜋 2 ) × 560 = 351.86 𝑚
b. what is the difference in elevation between the gate and the building?
ℎ
• 10 % = 351.86 𝑚 = 35.186 m

Optical Range finder - Distance is determined by focusing the device. The

operator looks through the eyepiece and sights an object. When the split
image is brought into coincidence, the distance is then read on the scale of
the rangefinder.

6. DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY

- Measurement of images on a photograph taken from aircraft with the axis

of the camera pointed vertically towards the terrain photographed.
-Rp 1/3000 to 1/5000 using precise cameras and photogrammetric
equipment.

7. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Basic Principle
- Distance is obtained by measuring the time required for a radio or light
wave to travel from one point to another and using the time data and the
speed of the wave on computations.
- RP can reach 1/200,000

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
2. CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE
LESSON 4- CORRECTIONS IN TAPING & SURVEYS WITH TAPE Where:
s – measured sloped distance between A and B
PURPOSES OF TAPING: h – difference in elevation between A and B
-To determine unknown length d – equivalent horizontal distance AC
-To layout a required length 𝐶ℎ - slope correction or the difference between the slope length and the
horizontal distance
CORRECTION RULES
Gentle slopes (Less than 20%): ℎ2
1. measured - “too long”, add. • 𝐶ℎ = 2𝑠
2. measured - “too short”, subtract Steep slopes (Between 20% to 30%): ℎ2 ℎ4
3. laying out - “too long”, subtract • 𝐶ℎ = 2𝑠 + 8𝑠3
4. laying out - “too short”, add Very steep slopes (greater than 30%): • 𝐶ℎ = 𝑠(1 − cos 𝜃)

The 3 rules could be summed up by the following: SAMPLE PROBLEM

“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the
reverse when laying out.”

1. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = |𝑇𝐿 − 𝑁𝐿| 1. Slope distances AB and BC measure 330.49 m and 660.97 m, respectively.
This discrepancy is assumed to be distributed throughout the tape The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B, and 10.85 for
𝑀𝐿
• 𝐶𝐼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 ( 𝑁𝐿 ) points B and C. Using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle
• 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶1 slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB
Where: has a rising slope and BC a falling slope.
Corr – correction for 1 tape length Given:
TL – true or actual length of tape • 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐵 = 330.49 𝑚
NL- nominal length of tape • 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐵𝐶 = 660.97 𝑚
ML – measured length • 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐵 = 12.22 𝑚
CI - Total correction to be applied • 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵𝐶 = 10.85 𝑚
CL – corrected length of the line Solution:
ℎ2
• 𝐶ℎ1 = 2𝑠
SAMPLE PROBLEM (12.22)2
1. The length of the line AB measured with a 50-m tape is 465.285 m. when • 𝐶ℎ1 = 2(330.49 𝑚) = 0.2259
the tape is compared with a standardized tape, it is found to be 0.016 m ℎ2
• 𝐶ℎ2 = 2𝑠
too long. Determine the correct length of line AB.
(10.85)2
Given: • 𝐶ℎ2 = 2(660.97 𝑚) = 0.08905
• 𝑀𝐿 = 465.285 m
• 𝑁𝐿 = 50 m tape • 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (𝐴𝐵 − 𝐶ℎ1 ) + (𝐵𝐶 − 𝐶ℎ2 )
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.016 𝑚 (𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔) • 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝐶 = (330.49 − 0.2259) + (660.97 𝑚 − 0.08905)
Solution: • 𝐷𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 991.145 𝑚
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = |𝑇𝐿 − 𝑁𝐿|
• 𝑇𝐿 = 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 + 𝑁𝐿 3. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE
• 𝑇𝐿 = 0.016 + 50 𝑚 = 50.016 𝑚 𝑪𝑻 = 𝑪𝑳(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
𝑀𝐿
• 𝐶𝐼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 ( ) Where:
𝑁𝐿
465.285 m 𝐶𝑇 = correction due to temperature
• 𝐶𝐼 = 0.016 ( ) = 0.149
50 m C = Coefficient of linear expansion (m/°C) =0.0000116/°C
• 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶1 L = length of tape or of line measured
• 𝐶𝐿 = 465.285 m + 0.149 = 465.434 𝑚 T = observed temperature of tape at the time of measurement
𝑇𝑠 = temperature at which the tape is standardized (usually taken as 20 °C)
2. A 60-m tape will be used to layout a length of 100 m. During
standardization, it was found out that the actual length of the tape was SAMPLE PROBLEM
60.05 m. Determine the length that should be laid out to attain the correct 1. A steel tape with a coefficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/°C is
length. known to be 50 m long at 20 °C. The tape was used to measure a line which
Given: was found to be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was 35 °C.
• 𝑀𝐿 = 100 m Determine the following:
• 𝑁𝐿 = 60 m tape a. Temperature correction per tape length
• 𝑇𝐿 = 60.05 𝑚 • 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝐿(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
Solution: • 𝐶𝑇 =
0.0000116
× 50 𝑚 (35°C − 20°C) = 0.0087
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = |60.05 − 60| °C
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 0.05 𝑚 (𝑡𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔)
𝑀𝐿 • 𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶𝐿(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
• 𝐶𝐼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 ( ) 0.0000116
𝑁𝐿 • 𝐶𝑇 = × 532.28 𝑚 (35°C − 20°C) = 0.0926
100 m °C
• 𝐶𝐼 = 0.05 ( 60 m ) = 0.0833 c. Correct length of the line
• 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿 ± 𝐶1 • 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 532.28 m − 0.0926 𝑚 = 531 𝑚
• 𝐶𝐿 = 100 m − 0.0833 = 99.917 𝑚

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4. CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION b. 3:4:5 Method
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃 ⁄𝐴
• 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑒 ⁄𝐿
(𝑃 −𝑃 )𝐿
• 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑚𝐴𝐸 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿′ = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑝
Where:
𝐶𝑝 = total elongation in tape due to pull or correction due to incorrect pull
applied (m)
𝑃𝑚 = pull applied to tape during measurement (kg)
𝑃𝑠 = standard pull for the tape (kg)
L = measured length of line (m)
A = cross sectional area of the tape (cm2) 2. Measuring Angles with tape
If equal length is laid out:
E = modulus of elasticity of tape (kg/cm2) = 𝐸 = 2.0 × 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
L′= corrected length of measured line (m)

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. A heavy 50 − m tape having a cross sectional are of 0.05 cm2, has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2, determine the
elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.
Given:
𝑑⁄
• 𝐿 = 50 𝑚 •
𝜃
sin 2 = 2
• 𝑃𝑚 = 12 𝑘𝑔 𝐿
5⁄
𝜃
• 𝑃𝑠 = 5.5 𝑘𝑔 • sin 2 = 2
4
• 𝐴 = 0.05 𝑐𝑚2 •
𝜃
sin 2 = 0.625
• 𝐸 = 2.0 × 106 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 𝜃
Solution: • = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 0.625
2
• 𝐶𝑃 =
(𝑃𝑚 −𝑃𝑠 )𝐿
• 𝜃 = 38.68 × 2 = 77.36°
𝐴𝐸
(12 𝑘𝑔−5.5 𝑘𝑔)(50) 3. Laying off angles with tape
• 𝐶𝑃 = (0.05 𝑐𝑚2 )(2.0 ×106𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 ) = 0.00325 𝑚 a. Using principles of trigonometry:

5. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

𝑊2𝐿
• 𝐶𝑠 = 24𝑃2
• Since 𝑊 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 2 = 𝜔2 𝐿2 ;
𝜔2 𝐿3
• 𝐶𝑠 = 24𝑃2
Where:
𝐶𝑠 = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and b. By determination of chord length which will define the desired angle
the horizontal distance between supports (m)
ω = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

4. Determining Obstructed Distances

a. By Pythagorean Theorem

1. A 30 m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8 kg.
If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the correct
distance between the ends of the tape.
𝑊2𝐿
• 𝐶𝑠 = 24𝑃2
(0.91 kg )2 × 30 𝑚
• 𝐶𝑠 = = 0.016
24(8 𝑘𝑔)2
• 𝐷 = 30 𝑚 + 0.016 = 30.016 𝑚
SURVEYS WITH TAPE
1. Erecting Perpendicular to Line x
a. Chord-bisection method b. By Midpoint and Pythagorean Theorem

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SURVEYING – ESCI 104
c. By Similarity of Triangles j. By laying out a perpendicular line, locating its midpoint and creating a
similar triangle

d. By Tangent function of trigonometry

e. By using a point away from obstruction and extension of lines

D and E are established such that:

f. By establishing two perpendicular lines and by similarity of triangles

Lines BD and CE are laid out perpendicular to line ABC, with D and E lined
up with A.

g. By establishing an equal and parallel offset of the obstructed line

h. By midpoint method

i. By using equilateral triangle

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