See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/333420619

Detection and culture feasibility of a soil nematode (Panagrellus redivivus), a

potential live feed for prawn larvae in Bangladesh

Preprint · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10578.20166

CITATIONS READS

0 97

4 authors, including:

Abul Farah Md. Hasanuzzaman Mohammad Alamgir Hossain

Khulna University Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences University
36 PUBLICATIONS   240 CITATIONS    47 PUBLICATIONS   95 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Schistosomiasis View project

Study on profitability of meat type birds in Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Mohammad Alamgir Hossain on 28 May 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 BJVAS, Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, July 2016

Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, July 2016

ISSN 2227-6416
Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
Journal home page: www.cvasu.ac.bd/journal/userlist

Research article
Detection and culture feasibility of a soil nematode (Panagrellus redivivus), a
potential live feed for prawn larvae in Bangladesh
Mostafa, M.*, Sarower, M.G., Al-Imran, Parvez, M.S. and A.F.M. Hasanuzzaman
Fisheries and Marine Resources Technology Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history : The free-living soil nematode, Panagrellus redivivus is recently known to be an
Received: 16/06/2016 inexpensive, standardized and permanently available food source for first feeding fish
Accepted: 22/08/2016 and crustacean larvae. The present study was aimed mainly at the development of a
suitable culture technique of the species P. redivivus so as to be used as live food for
Keywords : the prawn larvae. The study has got the species morphologically detected in the local
Panagrellus redivivus, detection, soil ground, which was found available under some specific environmental condition.
culture feasibility, live feed. About 30% of soil moisture, pH value of 7, 200C temperatures and 5 cm soil depth
were found better for higher availability and yield of the species. For culture
feasibility, the experiments were conducted using different culture media with a
* Corresponding Author : combination of different incubation temperatures (22, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 280C) and
E-mail: [email protected] incubation periods (8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 days). Five different media (oatmeal,
Cell : +88 01726036881 oatmeal with sunflower oil, cereal, raw potato and boiled potato) were used for the
mass production of this nematode where the local and cheap boiled potato media
was observed as the most successful and feasible one followed by the oatmeal
media. The mass production of the species was found most suitable at the
temperature of 260C on around 14th day of culture period. A good quantity,
1, 50, 032±9, 285 individuals of nematodes were harvested highest from 1 gm of
boiled potato media. This new technique for mass production of P. redivivus would
enable fish and prawn hatchery operators to an alternative live food item to the
highly expensive Artemia which is commonly used in Bangladesh.
To cite this paper : Mostafa, M., Sarower, M.G., Al-Imran, Parvez, M.S. and A.F.M. Hasanuzzaman. 2016. Detection and culture feasibility of a soil
nematode (Panagrellus redivivus), a potential live feed for prawn larvae in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, 4 : 31-37

1. INTRODUCTION and 140 shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and prawn

Fisheries sector in Bangladesh is very potential for food (Macrobrachium rogenbergii) hatcheries produce 7,150
safety and economical development of the nation. Fish million post larvae every year and it is increasing day by
provides 60% protein in the daily feeding of day (DoF, 2012). Freshwater prawn culture
Bangladeshi. According to the economic review of DoF development in Bangladesh has attracted substantial
(2012) fisheries sector contributes 4.43% in national attention for its export potential during the last two
GDP, 22.21% in Agriculture and 2.73% in export earning decades, where the prawn and shrimp sector as a
of Bangladesh. The prawn and shrimp aquaculture whole is the second largest export industry in the
have been expanding satisfyingly for the last couple of country (DoF, 2014). However, the prawn farming
years in Bangladesh based on wild seeds initially, but sector is encountering insufficient supply of larvae;
creating a long lasting adverse impact on nature mostly depending on the wild stock which is the
(Wahab, 2003; Das and Alam, 1995). Realizing this and potential carrier of various shellfish diseases (Wahab,
in order to meet the emerging demand and to ensure 2003; Deb, 1998). In such a situation, the hatchery
timely supply of seeds for culture, a considerable produced larvae is considered as an effective and
number of hatcheries have in the recent time been sustainable tool for the vertical and horizontal
established in the coastal region of Bangladesh. About expansion of the good quality prawn production.
921 fin fish hatcheries produce 629.175 tonnes fish fry But the prawn larvae production in Bangladesh is
31
 Detection and culture feasibility of a soil nematode

exclusively dependent on costly live food "Brine involved in its mass production. Recently, large-scale
Shrimp", Artemia nauplii for their nutrition and production processes have been developed for
growth. This small crustacean has the advantage that entomopathogenic nematodes. It has an amino acid
its culture can be started from dried eggs (Sorgeloos profile that matches that of Artemia, while its EPA
and Persoone, 1975; Liao, 1992). These dormant cysts (Ecosa-pentanoic acid) and DHA (Docosa-hexaenoic
can be stored for longer periods in cans and, if needed, acid) content is nearly a third and almost the same or a
used as a convenient off-the-shelf live food (Lavens little higher of that of Artemia (Watanabe and Kiron,
and Sorgeloos, 2000). Although Artemia is particularly 1994). Again, any feed item must enter the mouth
convenient to use in hatcheries (Wickins and Lee, whole, i.e., feed particles have to be smaller than the
2002), it also has some prominent negative aspects. larva's mouth gape, and quickly accepted or rejected
The most common ones are: high costs, a highly on the basis of palatability (Fernandez- Diaz et
variable hatching rate, quick growth, the varying al.,1994; Bengtson, 2003). Considering those criteria,
nutritional quality and the consuming of algal feed and Kahan et al. (1980) suggested nematodes as a
therefore to compete with the cultured species for potential candidate for a live food organism in rearing
food (Biedenbach et al., 1989; Lavens and Sorgeloos, fish/prawn larvae. Wilkenfeld et al. (1984) stated that
1996 and Lavens and Sorgeloos, 2000). Moreover, the the nematodes were able to substitute Artemia in
prawn hatchery sector is at stake because of the penaeid larval rearing diets. Their experiments showed
availability of poor quality Artemia cyst in the market the capability of Farfantepenaeus aztecus, Litopenaeus
that results higher mortality of larvae in the hatcheries setiferus and Litopenaeus vannamei to be consumed
(Curnow et al., 2006; Vega- Orellana et al., 2006; and keep survive on the P. redivivus as the only food
Hamza et al., 2007; Rosenlund and Halldorsson, 2007). source from the Protozoea 1 (PZ-1) stage. Experiments
Thus, the lack of potential alternatives to Artemia may of Biedenbach et al. (1989) with P. redivivus in the
become an obstacle to a further increase of larval rearing of L. vannamei further confirmed these
aquaculture production especially in developing results. The lack of a proper mass production
countries like Bangladesh. Owing to the obvious technology for nematodes was the most limiting factor
limitations of Artemia, other live organisms have been to commercial application (Fisher and Fletcher, 1995)
examined for their use in Penaeid shrimp larviculture; and further investigation on such techniques was
copepods, rotifers, daphnia, moina and nematodes recommended (Biedenbach et al., 1989).
have been suggested by various authors (Wilkenfeld et The suitable size of P. redivivus, its high nutritional
al., 1984; Lavens and Sorgeloos, 1996; Guillaume et al., values and possible mass cultivation on cheap growth
2001 and Lee et al., 2005). Therefore, searching of an medium promised the species to be a valuable live
alternative live feed and coping of that particular feed feed for various prawn and shrimp larvae which also
for the larvae in the hatcheries could be a very good could be a potential alternative to the highly expensive
plausible solution in order to keep the growing prawn Artemia (Biedenbach et al., 1989; Kumlu and Fletcher,
industry in good survives. 1997 and Lee et al., 2005). It is ecologically and
The free-living soil nematode, Panagrellus redivivus is logically believed that the nematode Panagrellus sp.
known to many aquarium enthusiasts and fish keepers could be found available in Bangladesh soil, and a local
as the microworm which has been popular in many success of a mass culture of the species could deliver a
countries as an alternative live feed for first feeding permanent available live food throughout the larval
fish and prawn larvae (Lavens and Sorgeloos, 1996; rearing period of the prawns. As the growing prawn
Guillaume et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2005). The species is and shrimp industries have been confronting from the
easy to rear in large quantities by using suitable problem of low quality and high priced live feed,
culture media (Ricci et al., 2003). It is a tiny nematode culture of P. redivivus and its use as live feed in
of about 0.5 to 2.0 mm in length and 0.05 mm in hatcheries would provide a breakthrough in the prawn
diameter which is suitable for prawn/fish larvae to be and shrimp culture sector. The main objectives of the
feed on. They reproduce sexually and are livebearers; present study were to detect the nematode,
releasing 10~40 young every 5~7 days for a 26~36 day Panagrellus redivivus locally as well as to establish a
life span. The young reach sexually maturity in feasible culture technique of the species for ensuring
approximately three days (Biedenbach et al., 1989). its mass production and use as an inexpensive live feed
According to Stock and Nedler, (2006) Panagrellus sp. in prawn hatchery.
has a worldwide distribution.
Although several studies proved that the free-living 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
nematode P. redivivus is a suitable food for fish and 2.1. Searching of P. redivivus and its habitat
crustacean larvae (Kahan et al. 1980; Biedenbach et al. During the period of October-November 2011, ten
1989; Kumlu and Fletcher 1997; Kumlu et al. 1998), sites of soil ground in different areas of Khulna
however, the species could not used in the University campus, Bangladesh were selected
aquaculture industry earlier due to the problems randomly to search the availability of the species and
32
 Mostafa et al. BJVAS, Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, July 2016

thus to trace out the habitat characteristics of the cereal (used paste of baby cereal), raw potato (used
species. The characteristics of the species habitats (soil blended paste of peeled raw potato) and boiled potato
moisture; pH; temperature and soil depth) were (used blended paste of boiled potato) based media. In
recorded. preparing all of those media the guideline describe by
Soil moisture was measured by using gravimetric Ricci et al. (2003) was followed. The efficiency of the
method (Evans et al., 1996). Five gram of soil sample media was observed (through estimating the
was taken from the desired (5-15cm) depth by using abundance of the produced species) primarily with
an electronic balance (Model: SHIMADZU AUY220); magnifying glass and then under light microscope. For
then the sample was dried through a dry procedure each experiment (with a specific media) three
using a dry oven (Model: Memert, Schutzart DIN replications were used.
40050-IP 20) for 24 hours at 220 degree Fahrenheit;
and then the soil sample was reweighted to determine 2.4. Culture of the starter species
the amount of water loss from soil. The moisture was The collected P. redivivus was placed (at a rate of
calculated using the following equation: around 1 ml volume) on the culture media kept in
Wet weight - Dry weight plastic containers. The containers were then placed in
Moisture % = x 100 incubator (Model: VS-8480SL) at different
Wet weight
temperatures (22, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 280C). Three
Soil pH, temperature and depth were recorded replications were done for each of the temperature
consequently by using soil pH meter (SPHMT-A1025 by tests. A gm of old culture media was used every time
Hanna), lab thermometer and centimeter scale to start a new culture.
respectively.
2.5. Harvest and counting of the cultured species
2.2. Collection and detection of the species The P. redivivus was harvested from the inner wall of
Based on the suggestions of Ricci et al. (2003), 12 raw the culture container with scalpel. The live P. redivivus
potatoes were placed in each of the sites at the depths move very frequently and difficult to handle it. Hence,
of 5, 10 and 15 cm, setting 4 in each of the depths of it was fixed with 10% formaldehyde for 5 minutes in
soil ground randomly and checked for the species after order to fix them (Ted Pella, Inc., 2010). For counting,
7 to 14 days maintaining a 2 days interval. Thus, the the harvested nematode fixed with 10% formaldehyde
checking was done on the 8th, 10th 12th and 14th day was used to obtain a 10 ml solution. Then another two
collecting 1 potato from each of the depths (5, 10 and serial dilutions were done with 9 ml distilled water
15 cm) of all the sites. The rotten potatoes collected each with 1 ml pre-diluted solution to reduce the high
from the ground sites were taken to the laboratory density of the cultured nematodes and thus to make
immediately and checked the presence of the species easy count. Finally 1 ml water solution from the last 10
using high resolution microscope (Model: Carl Zeiss ml was considered for the counting. The number of
Micro imaging GmbH). The starters were then the cultured species was counted by using "rafter cell"
separated from the potato through a soft wash. The under light microscope.
nematode P. redivivus detection was done following
the morphological characteristics as described by 2.6. Data analysis
Stock and Nadler (2006), using a high resolution light Recorded data were analyzed by using Microsoft Office
microscope (Model: Carl Zeiss Micro imaging GmbH) at Excel 2007.
40x and 100x zoom.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
2.3. Preparation of the culture media 3.1 Detection of P. redivivus
The starter culture media was prepared with white oat For the detection of the species, the collected samples
and baker's yeast (which is also known as oatmeal were studied carefully under light microscope. An
media) as described by Ricci et al. (2003). The oat- adult was observed with a clear layer of cuticle and
based media was prepared by mixing 10 gm of oat flagella like tail. Male tail was found short while the
with 20 ml warm water in a plastic container to get a female had comparatively long and spiky (Figure 1, 2).
paste form. The mixer was then cooled in room Mouth was located at the front of the body tip (Figure
temperature (26 ± 10C). When it cooled, a pinch of 3). The intestine was observed straight and ends
baker's yeasts was spread over the paste. The mixture shortly before the end. In male nematode there was
was incubated for 24 hours at 37 0C temperature, and an opening just before the end of the body and
then used as starter media for the P. redivivus in room common body output for digestive and reproductive
temperature. After getting the starter culture the key organs (Figure 5). For female, new young birth canal
experiments were started by replacing with oatmeal, and excretory opening observed separate. On the edge
oatmeal with sunflower oil (added 5% sunflower oil), of the opening, in two pockets two hook-like

33
 Detection and culture feasibility of a soil nematode

structures (spicula) were present in the male (Figure shelter to developing nematodes; thereby helps to
5). The vagina found oriented by muscular sheath and produce young nematodes (Figure 4). These results
this genital opening was located at the middle part of were similar to the findings of Stock and Nadler (2006)
body (Figure 6). The organ is then extended into a sex and Kumlu and Fletcher (1997) that confirmed the
tube in which the fertilized eggs develop and provides morphological detection of the species.

Figure 1: Tail of Male P. redivivus Figure 1: Tail of Male P. redivivus

Figure 3: Mouth opening of P. redivivus Figure 4: Fertilized egg in female P. redivivus

Figure 5: Genital organ of male P. redivivus Figure 6: Genital organ of female P. redivivus

34
 Mostafa et al. BJVAS, Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, July 2016

3.2 Habitat of P. redivivus potato media was 1,50,032±9,285 while the number
It was revealed that P. redivivus resides under some was 1,24,622±6,722 from the oatmeal media. However,
specific condition of the environment. The locally available boiled potato media was considered as
environmental parameters found in the habitats of the the most feasible one for P. redivivus culture as it
species in the local area are presented in the Table 1. produced the highest number of individuals as well as
This information would obviously provide a fruitful due to its low preparation costs in comparison to the
way to those who will be searching the species to start oatmeal media. Ricci et al. (2003) produced about
a culture or to do a further study. Habitats with 3,00,000 nematodes/gm of media while 5,00,000
around 30% of soil moisture, pH value of 7, 200C nematodes/gm was produced by Bedding (1981).
temperatures and 5 cm soil depth were found suitable Schlechtriem et al. (2004) produced about 729 million
for higher availability and yield of the species. These from 200 gm oatmeal based media enriched with
results of habitat parameters are supported by sunflower oil and 390 million nematodes from oatmeal
Bedding et al. (1991); Kumlu et al. (1998) and Lavens based media. Although the production in this study is
and Sorgeloos (2000) who observed more or less comparatively low, there might have scope to increase
similar results in their studies. the production improving the revealed technique that
needs a further detailed research.
Table 1. Soil parameters found suitable for the
nematode, Pangrellus redivivus 3.4 Suitable temperature and time-length for the
Soil Species Species culture
parameters found available found few To find out the suitable incubation temperature and
incubation period for the culture, six different
Moisture 30±6% 16-24% temperature regimes were tested separately at 22, 24,
pH 7±0.5 >7.5 25, 26, 27 and 28 0C, together with different incubation
Temperature 20±20C >240C periods viz., 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 days. Figure 7
Depth in soil 5±1cm >6cm represents the number of P. redivivus individuals
produced with regard to temperature regimes and
3.3 Suitable culture media for the species incubation periods. The highest production was found
In this experiment five different types of media such as, at 26 0C temperature with the incubation period of
oatmeal, sunflower oil enriched oatmeal, baby cereal, around 14th day that ensured the maximum harvest in
raw potato and boiled potato paste were used for this study; although, from the day 7 the newly grown
culturing the species. Out of these five media, oatmeal species found started to climb up the container wall
and boiled potato paste were found better for culturing which were even ready to harvest. The result showed
the species. The efficiency of different media for P. that a 5 gm weighted boiled potato can produce
redivivus culture is summarized in the Table 2. approximately 0.75 million of nematodes (Figure 7).
There are several studies on the culture and use of
Table 2. Efficiency of different media used for mass-produced P. redivivus in the rearing of first
Panagrellus sp. culture feeding fish/prawn larvae (Fisher and Fletcher, 1995;
Santiago et al., 2004; Schlechtriem et al., 2004;
Types of culture media Species produced available
Schlechtriem et al., 2005). They found optimum
Oatmeal +++ incubation temperature for mass culture at around
Sunflower oil enriched oatmeal + 230C with the incubation period of 10 to 12 days that
Cereal + differs a bit with the findings of the present study. This
Raw potato paste - may be due to an effect of the difference in
Boiled potato paste ++++ geographical location as well as genetic variation within
The "+" sign indicates the intensity of production and/or between species populations.
observed under light microscope while the "-" sign There is a dearth of information on the culture and
indicates very few or no production. culture feasibility of P. redivivus in Bangladesh.
Although the production has been observed
The primarily identified suitable media, boiled potato comparatively low in this study still this could easily be
paste and oatmeal media were tested further for mass considered for use, perhaps to overcome the
culturing of the species, and the performance of the unavailability of an alternative live food for larvae in
media was observed with the view to find out the best hatcheries. Besides, as an initiation in this local area,
one for the mass culture. It was observed that both of the production of P. redivivus found in this study could
the media had a closer efficiency in producing the be say satisfying. Thus, this boiled potato media
species. The calculated number of the produced P. technique which costs very low as well can be used for
redivivus individuals obtained from per gm of boiled the production of P. redivivus. Sautter et al. (2007)

35
 Detection and culture feasibility of a soil nematode

studied the feeding rate of fish larvae and stated that ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
the feeding frequency of the fish larvae is about 5,000 We express our gratefulness to the Ministry of
nematode larvae-1 day 1 which is very impressive. The Education for funding this research as a part of the
present study revealed that approximately 15 million project "Feasibility of Nematode (Panagrellus sp.)
nematodes can be produced just from 100 gm of boiled culture in Bangladesh and its suitability as live feed
potato media in small scale basis that is enough to use for larval rearing of giant prawn, Macrobrachium
as food for at least 3000 larvae in a day. rosenbergii, 2011-2014".

REFERENCES
Bedding, R. A. 1981. Low Cost in Vitro Mass Production
of Neoplectana and Heterorhabditis Species
(Nematoda) For Field Control of Insect Pests.
Nematologica, 27: 109-114.
Bedding, R. A., Stanfield, M. A. and Crompton, G.
V. 1991. Apparatus and Methods For Rearing
Nematodes, Fungi, Tissue Cultures and the
Like, and For Harvesting Nematodes. Patent,
International application number, PCT/AU91/
00136.
Figure 7. Production of P. redivivus at different
Bengtson, D. A. 2003. Status of Marine Aquaculture in
temperature on boiled potato based media.
Relation to Live Prey: Past, Present and Future.
Live Feeds in Marine Aquaculture (ed. by J.G.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Støttrup and L.A. McEvoy), pp.1-16. Blackwell
Availability of live food is one of the major bottlenecks
publishing, Oxford, UK.
for the raising hatchery sector worldwide. It has
Biedenbach, J. M., Smith L. L., Thomson, T. K. and
already been well proven that the nematodes are a
Lawrence, A. L. 1989. Use of Nematode Pangrellus
promising food source for the first feeding fish and
crustacean larvae. Thus, the nematode species, redivivus as an Artemia Replacement in a Larval
Panagrellus redivivous recently used as an inexpensive Penaeid diet. Journal of World Aquaculture
live feed in prawn hatchery industry in some countries Society, 20: 61-71.
is assumed to be a very potential one in Bangladesh as Curnow, J., King, J., Partridge, G. and Kolkovski, S.
well. This required revealing a suitable mass culture 2006. Effects of Two Commercial Microdiets on
technique of the species in captive condition. The Growth and Survival of Barramundi (Lates
present study was successful in developing a suitable calcarifer Bloch) Larvae within Various Early
and cost effective culture technique of P. redivivus. Weaning Protocols. Aquaculture Nutrition, 12:
The results of this study clearly dictate that mass- 247-255.
production of nematodes in boiled potato media Das, N. G. and Alam, M. M. 1995. Shrimp fry fishing
would hopefully be feasible in a large scale basis. If along the coast of Cox's Bazar-Technaf and its
the large scale production of nematodes can be possible effect on fishery resources. In:
initiated, it would bring a breakthrough for the proceedings of the workshop on Coastal
hatchery sector. However, further research is needed Aquaculture and Environmental Management,
for the development of the culture media to increase Mahmood, N. (Ed), 25-28 April, Cox's Bazar,
more the production and nutritional value of the Bangladesh, 46-51 pp.
nematodes; comparative study of P. redivivus with Deb, A. K. 1998. Fake blue revolution: Environmental
Artemia on the factor of feeding rate, survivability, and socio-economic impacts of shrimp culture in
growth and nutritional value of larvae. Moreover, it is the coastal areas of Bangladesh. Marine Affairs
not yet known whether these nematodes might Programme, University of Dalhousie, 28 pp.
harmful anyway for the larvae; their possibility to DoF. 2012. National Fish Week 2012 Compendium (In
work as a vector in environment should also be kept Bengali). Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
into consideration. If this nematode does not pose any Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh, 144 pp.
threat to larvae then P. redivivus will be a potential DoF. 2014. Fisheries Statistical Report of Bangladesh
candidate species as live food for the larvae of many 2012-13. Department of Fisheries, Ministry of
fisheries species instead of expensive Artemia. The Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh.
fisheries sector, on the other hand, will enter into a Evans, R., Cassel, D. K. and Sneed, R. E. 1996. Measuring
new domain specially in case of shrimp and prawn Soil Water for Irrigation Scheduling: Monitoring
hatchery; it would also be a plausible source for Methods and Devices. North Carolina Cooperative
betterment of feed industries. Extension Service Publication (AG 452-2).

36
 Mostafa et al. BJVAS, Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, July 2016

Fisher, C. M. L. and Fletcher, D. J. 1995. Novel Feeds for on Growth, Survival, Feed Consumption and
Use in Aquaculture. Patent, International Carcass Composition of Bighead Carp Aristichtys
application number, A01K67/033, A23K1/18. nobilis (Richardson) Larvae. Journal of Applied
Fernandez-Diaz, C., Pascual, E. and Yufera, M. 1994. Ichthyology, 20: 22-27.
Feeding Behavior and Prey Size Selection of Sautter, J., Kaiser, H., Focken, U. and Becker, K. 2007.
Gilthead Seabream, Sparus Aurata, Larvae Fed on Panagrellus redivivus (Linne´) as a Live Food
Inert and Live Food. Marine Biology, 118: 323-328. Organism in the Early Rearing of the Cat Fish
Guillaume, J., Kaushik, S., Bergot, P. and Metailler, R. Synodontis petricola (Matthes). Aquaculture
2001. Nutrition and Feeding of Fish and Research, 38: 653-65.
Crustaceans. Springer Praxis, Chichester, Great Schlechtriem, C., Ricci, M., Focken, U. and Becker, K.
Britain, 408 pp. 2004. The Suitability of the Free Living Nematode
Hamza, N., Mhetli, M. and Kestemont, P. 2007. Effects Panagrellus Redivivus As Live Food for First-
of Weaning Age and Diets on Ontogeny of Feeding Fish Larvae. Journal of Applied
Digestive Activities and Structures of Pikeperch Ichthyology, 20: 161-168.
(Sander lucioperca) Larvae. Fish Physiology and Schlechtriem, C., Focken, U. and Becker, K. 2005.
Biochemistry, 33: 121-133. Digestion and Assimilation of the Free-Living
Kahan, D., Bar-El, T., Brandstein, Y., Rigbi, M. and Nematode Panagrellus Redivivus Fed to First
Oland, B. 1980. Free Living Nematodes as a Feeding Coregonid Larvae: Evidence from
Dietary Supplement in the Rearing of Fish Fry and Histological and Isotopic Studies. Journal of the
Hatcheries. General Fisheries Council for the World Aquaculture Society, 36: 24-31.
Mediterranean. Studies and Reviews, 57: 67-78. Sorgeloos, P. and Persoone, G. 1975. Technological
Kumlu, M. and Fletcher, D. J. 1997. The Nematode Improvements for the Cultivation of Invertebrates
Panagrellus redivivus as an Alternative Live Feed as Food for Fishes and Crustaceans II. Hatching
for Larval Penaeus indicus. Israel Journal of and Culturing Of the Brine Shrimp, Artemia Salina.
Aquaculture, 49: 12-18. Aquaculture, 6: 303-317.
Kumlu, M., Fletcher, D. J. and Fisher, C. M., 1998. Larval Stock, S. P. and Nadler, S. A. 2006. Morphological and
Pigmentation, Survival and Growth of Penaeus Molecular Characterisation of Panagrellus Spp.
indicus Fed the Nematode Panagrellus redivivus (Cephalobina: Panagrolaimidae): Taxonomic Status
Enriched With Astaxanthin and Various Lipids. and Phylogenetic Relationships. Nematology, 8:
Aquaculture Nutrition, 4: 193-200. 921-938.
Lavens, P. and Sorgeloos, P., 1996. Manual in the Ted Pella Inc. 2010. Handbook of Sample Preparation
Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture. for Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
FAO, Fisheries Technical Paper (361). FAO, Rome, Microanalysis. By Patrick Echlin, 2009. 330 pp.
Italy. Vega-Orellana, O. M., Fracalossi, D. M. and Sugai, J. K.
Lavens, P. and Sorgeloos, P., 2000. The History, Present 2006. Dourado (Salminus brasiliensis) Larviculture:
Status and Prospects of the Availability of Artemia Weaning and Ontogenetic Development of
Cysts for Aquaculture. Aquaculture, 181: 397-403. Digestive Proteinases. Aquaculture, 252: 484-493.
Lee, C. S., O'Bryen, P. J. and Marcus, N. H., (eds) 2005. Wahab, M. A. 2003. Environmental impacts of shrimp
Copepods in Aquaculture. Blackwell Publishing, farming in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. In:
Ames, IA, USA. Proceedings of the workshop on Environmental
Liao, I. C. 1992. Penaeid Larviculture: Taiwanese and Socioeconomic Impacts of Shrimp Farming in
Method. In: Marine Shrimp Culture: Principles and Bangladesh, Wahab, M. A. (ed), 5 March 2002,
Practices (ed. by A.W. Fast and L.J. Lester), 193- BRAC Centre Dhaka. Bangladesh Agricultural
215 pp. Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., University, Mymensingh. Pp. 19-32.
Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Wilkenfeld, J. S., Lawrence, A. L. and Kuban, F. D. 1984.
Ricci, M., Fifi, A. P., Ragni, A., Schlechtriem, C. and Survival, Metamorphosis and Growth of Penaeid
Focken, U. 2003. Development of a Low-cost Shrimp Larvae Reared on a Variety of Algal and
Technology for Mass Production of the Free-living Animal Foods. Journal of the World Maricultural
Nematode Panagrellus redivivus as an Alternative Society, 15: 31-49.
Live Food for First Feeding Fish Larvae. Applied Watanabe, T. and Kiron, V. 1994. Prospects in Larval
Microbiology and Biotechnology, 60: 556-559. Fish Dietetics. Aquaculture, 124: 223-251.
Rosenlund, G. and Halldorsson, O. 2007. Cod Juvenile Wickins, J. F. and Lee, D. O'C. 2002. Crustacean
Production: Research and Commercial Developments. Farming Ranching and Culture, 2nd edn. Blackwell
Aquaculture, 268: 188-194. Science, Oxford, 446 pp.
Santiago, C.B., Ricci, M. and Reyes-Lampa, A. 2004.
Effect of Nematode Panagrellus redivivus Density

37

View publication stats