THE POCKET

UNIVERSAL
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
William Lidwell Kritina Holden Jill Butler
Contents
001 3D Projection
002 80/20 Rule
003 Abbe
004 Accessibility
005 Aesthetic-Usability Effect
006 Affordance
007 Alignment
008 Anthropomorphism
009 Apparent Motion
010 Archetypes
011 Area Alignment
012 Attractiveness Bias
013 Baby-Face Bias
014 Back-of-the-Dresser
015 Biophilia Effect
016 Black Effects
017 Blue Effects
018 Cathedral Effect
019 Chunking
020 Classical Conditioning
021 Closure
022 Cognitive Dissonance
023 Common Fate
024 Comparison
025 Confirmation
026 Confirmation Bias
027 Consistency
028 Constancy
029 Constraint
030 Contour Bias
031 Control
032 Convergence
033 Cost-Benefit
034 Crowd Intelligence
035 Defensible Space
036 Depth of Processing
037 Design by Committee
038 Desire Line
039 Development Cycle
040 Dunning-Kruger Effect
041 Entry Point
042 Errors
043 Expectation Effects
044 Face-ism Ratio
045 Factor of Safety
046 Feature Creep
047 Feedback Loop
048 Fibonacci Sequence
049 Figure-Ground
050 Fitts’ Law
051 Five Hat Racks
052 Flexibility Trade-Offs
053 Flow
054 Forgiveness
055 Form Follows Function
056 Framing
057 Freeze-Flight-Fight-Forfeit
058 Gamification
059 Garbage In-Garbage Out
060 Gloss Bias
061 Golden Ratio
062 Good Continuation
063 Green Effects
064 Gutenberg Diagram
065 Hanlon’s Razor
066 Hick’s Law
067 Hierarchy
068 Hierarchy of Needs
069 Highlighting
070 Horror Vacui
071 Hunter-Nurturer Bias
072 Iconic Representation
073 IKEA Effect
074 Inattentional Blindness
075 Interference Effects
076 Inverted Pyramid
077 Iteration
078 KISS
079 Law of Prägnanz
080 Layering
081 Left-Digit Effect
082 Legibility
083 Life Cycle
084 MAFA Effect
085 Magic Triangle
086 Mapping
087 MAYA
088 Mental Model
089 Mere-Exposure Effect
090 Mimicry
091 Mnemonic Device
092 Modularity
093 Normal Distribution
094 Not Invented Here
095 Nudge
096 Ockham’s Razor
097 Operant Conditioning
098 Orientation Sensitivity
099 Performance Load
100 Performance vs. Preference
101 Phonetic Symbolism
102 Picture Superiority Effect
103 Priming
104 Progressive Disclosure
105 Propositional Density
106 Prospect-Refuge
107 Prototyping
108 Proximity
109 Readability
110 Reciprocity
111 Recognition Over Recall
112 Red Effects
113 Redundancy
114 Root Cause
115 Rosetta Stone
116 Rule of Thirds
117 Saint-Venant’s Principle
118 Satisficing
119 Savanna Preference
120 Scaling Fallacy
121 Scarcity
122 Selection Bias
123 Self-Similarity
124 Serial Position Effects
125 Shaping
126 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
127 Similarity
128 Social Trap
129 Stickiness
130 Storytelling
131 Structural Forms
132 Sunk Cost Effect
133 Supernormal Stimulus
134 Symmetry
135 Threat Detection
136 Top-Down Lighting Bias
137 Uncanny Valley
138 Uncertainty Principle
139 Uniform Connectedness
140 Veblen Effect
141 Visibility
142 Visuospatial Resonance
143 von Restorff Effect
144 Wabi-Sabi
145 Waist-to-Hip Ratio
146 Wayfinding
147 Weakest Link
148 White Effects
149 Yellow Effects
150 Zeigarnik Effect
Author Favorites
Our Most Used Principles of Design

WILLIAM LIDWELL
002 80/20 Rule
006 Affordance
026 Confirmation Bias
038 Desire Line

052 Flexibility Trade-Offs

065 Hanlon’s Razor
078 KISS
114 Root Cause
122 Selection Bias

132 Sunk Cost Effect

KRITINA HOLDEN
019 Chunking

042 Errors
050 Fitts’ Law
054 Forgiveness

059 Garbage In-Garbage Out

066 Hick’s Law

086 Mapping
100 Performance vs. Preference
111 Recognition Over Recall

130 Storytelling
JILL BUTLER
011 Area Alignment
014 Back-of-the-Dresser
040 Dunning-Kruger Effect
051 Five Hat Racks
053 Flow
069 Highlighting
070 Horror Vacui
082 Legibility
088 Mental Model
126 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Less and More.
Dieter Rams
001 3D Projection A tendency to see things as
three-dimensional when certain visual cues
are present.
• People see two-dimensional things as three-dimensional when certain
visual cues are present.
• When items are relatively larger, lower, less dense in pattern, lighter,
clearer, or in front of other objects, they are perceived to be closer.
• When items are relatively smaller, higher, denser in pattern, bluer, blurrier,
or behind other objects, they are perceived to be farther away.
• Consider 3D projection in the depiction of three-dimensional elements and
environments. Strongest depth effects are achieved when the visual cues are
used in combination; therefore, use as many of the cues as possible to
achieve the strongest effect.
See Also Common Fate • Figure-Ground • Law of Prägnanz Top-Down
Lighting Bias • Visuospatial Resonance
Applying 3D projection in sidewalk art can create stunning three-dimensional effects on two-dimensional
surfaces.
002 80/20 Rule A high percentage of effects in
any large system is caused by a low
percentage of variables.
• Proposed by the economist Vilfredo Pareto, who observed that 20 percent
of the Italian people possessed 80 percent of the wealth.
• Applying the 80/20 rule means identifying and focusing resources on the
critical 20 percent. Focusing on aspects of a design beyond the critical 20
percent yields diminishing returns.
• For example, 80 percent of a product’s usage involves 20 percent of its
features; 80 percent of a product’s bugs are caused by 20 percent of its
components.
• Use the 80/20 rule to assess the relative value of elements, target areas of
redesign and optimization, and focus resources in an efficient manner. Note
that 80/20 is just an estimate. The actual percentages can be more or less
(e.g., 70/30, 90/10).
See Also Cost-Benefit • Feature Creep • Hanlon’s Razor Normal
Distribution • Ockham’s Razor
In 1979, most believed that a music player with no radio, no speakers, no recording function, and small
headphones was doomed to fail. Sony proved them wrong. The Walkman possessed the critical 20 percent of
what people wanted—portability and tape playback—enabling the rest to be cut.
003 Abbe Measure things as close to their
action as possible.
• Proposed by the German physicist Ernst Abbe.
• Abbe errors are angular errors that increase with distance. For example,
wobble from a bent axle increases with the length of the axle. The Abbe
principle prevents this type of error.
• The Abbe principle states that the best measurements are achieved when
taken as close to the action as possible. For example, placing a temperature
sensor near a heat source will result in more accurate measurements than a
sensor placed farther away.
• The principle also has implications for the design of mechanisms.
Actuators and bearings should be placed as close to lines of action as
possible.
• Consider the Abbe principle in measurement, and the design of mechanical
systems and structures. Locate measurement devices and components as
close to the areas of action as possible.
See Also Error • Redundancy • Saint-Venant’s Principle
A caliper that measures in its line of action (top) is more accurate than a caliper that measures away from its
line of action (bottom).
004 Accessibility Things should be designed to
be usable, without modification, by as many
people as possible.
• Historically, accessibility in design focused on accommodating people with
disabilities.
• Modern practice accepts that most accommodations can be designed to
benefit everyone.
• Make things perceptible by everyone. For example, position controls and
information so that seated and standing people can perceive them.
• Make things usable by everyone. For example, minimize repetitive actions
and the need for sustained physical effort.
• Make things learnable by everyone. For example, use redundant coding
methods (e.g., textual, iconic, and tactile) on controls and signage.
• Make the consequences of errors non-catastrophic, and reversible
whenever possible.
See Also Affordance • Forgiveness • Normal Distribution
Inventor Dean Kamen demonstrating the iBot, a Transformer-like wheelchair that makes a world designed
for those who can stand and walk accessible to wheelchair users.
005 Aesthetic-Usability Effect Aesthetic things
are perceived to be easier to use than ugly
things.
• Aesthetic things are often subjectively rated as easier to use, even when no
usability advantage can be objectively measured.
• Aesthetic things are more effective at fostering positive attitudes than ugly
things, making people more tolerant when problems are encountered.
• Aesthetic things are more likely to be tried, accepted, displayed, and
repeatedly used than ugly things.
• Aspire to create aesthetically pleasing designs. It is more than
ornamentation—it is an investment in user acceptance, forgiveness, and
satisfaction.
See Also Attractiveness Bias • Cognitive Dissonance Form Follows
Function • IKEA Effect
People display the HomeHero extinguisher on counters due to its striking aesthetic, making it more
accessible in emergencies.
006 Affordance The physical characteristics of
a thing influence its function and use.
• The form of a thing makes it better suited for some functions than others.
For example, wheels afford rolling, and negatively afford being stationary.
• The form of a thing makes it better suited for some interactions than others.
For example, buttons afford pushing, and negatively afford pulling.
• When affordances are good, things perform efficiently and are intuitive to
use. When affordances are bad, things perform poorly and are hard to use.
• Design things to afford proper use, and to negatively afford improper use.
When affordances are correctly applied, it will seem inconceivable that a
thing can function or be used otherwise.
See Also Constraint • Desire Line • Mapping • Nudge
The push action required to open the left door conflicts with the “pull” affordance of the handle. The sign is a
poor fix because it will usually be read after people pull the handle. By replacing the handle with a flat plate,
the conflict is eliminated and the sign becomes unnecessary. The “push” affordance of the plate eliminates
the possibility of error or confusion.
007 Alignment The placement of elements
such that edges line up along common rows or
columns, or their bodies along a common
center.
• Alignment among elements in a design creates a sense of unity and
cohesion.
• Left- and right-aligned text blocks provide better alignment cues than
center-aligned text blocks.
• Justified text provides more alignment cues than unjustified text, and
should be used in complex compositions with many elements.
• Treat the edges of the design medium (e.g., edge of a page) and the natural
positions on the medium (e.g., centerlines) as alignment elements.
• Align every element in your designs with one or more other elements. This
will improve the design’s perceived stability and overall aesthetic.
See Also Area Alignment • Mapping • Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The poor alignment between rows and punch-hole lines in the infamous Palm Beach County butterfly ballot
led to errors that awarded Pat Buchanan votes intended for Al Gore, costing Gore the U.S. presidential
election of 2000.
008 Anthropomorphism A preference for
things that appear humanlike or exhibit
humanlike characteristics.
• People tend to ascribe humanlike characteristics to things that look or act
like humans. This results in a preference for anthropomorphic forms.
• Anthropomorphic forms are evaluated more emotionally, and are less
sensitive to negative information in buying decisions. Non-anthropomorphic
forms are evaluated more analytically.
• Use contoured or hourglass proportions to elicit feminine and sexual
associations. Use round forms to elicit babylike associations. Use angular
forms to elicit masculine and aggressive associations.
• Consider anthropomorphic forms to attract attention and establish
emotional connections.
See Also Baby-Face Bias • Supernormal Stimulus Uncanny Valley • Waist-
to-Hip Ratio
Coca-Cola bottles have evolved over the last 100 years, but the more anthropomorphic bottles continue to
stand out in terms of their unique aesthetic and emotional appeal.
009 Apparent Motion An illusion of motion
created when images are displayed in rapid
succession.
• Apparent motion occurs when still images are presented in rapid
succession at different positions and orientations, creating the illusion of
motion.
• Apparent motion can be created by changing the position or orientation of
objects across images, or by moving background elements around a fixed
object.
• The rate of image presentation can be as low as 10 images or frames per
second. The standard frame rate for television and movies is 24–30 frames
per second. Frame rates of 60+ frames per second are indistinguishable from
reality.
• Consider apparent motion when creating animations or videos. Maximize
frame rates to present the most natural motion possible.
See Also 3D Projection • Common Fate • Figure-Ground Inattentional
Blindness • Visuospatial Resonance
A motion study by Eadweard Muybridge. When the images are displayed in rapid succession, the illusion of
motion is created. Experience the effect by flipping the top-right page corners.
010 Archetypes Universal patterns of form,
social role, and story that have innate appeal.
• People are instinctively drawn to certain patterns. Such patterns are often
referred to as archetypes.
• Interest in archetypal patterns provided our early human ancestors with an
adaptive advantage. Modern humans have inherited this interest.
• Archetypal forms include faces, horns and canine teeth, snakes, spiders,
and sexual forms.
• Archetypal social roles include the hero, rebel, mentor, trickster, and
villain.
• Archetypal stories include the quest, tragedy, voyage and return, and
conquering the monster.
• Consider appropriate archetypes in your designs to capture and hold
attention.
See Also Affordance • Black Effects • Contour Bias Mimicry • Supernormal
Stimulus • Threat Detection
Explorations of archetypal forms as a way to tell people 10,000 years from now to “stay away” from a
nuclear waste repository.
011 Area Alignment Alignment based on the
area of elements versus the edges of elements.
• Asymmetrical elements often do not align properly using conventional
edge- or center-based methods.
• In such cases, align elements based on their areas or visual weights, not
based on their edges or rectangular centers.
• This technique must be applied using the designer’s eye and judgment,
balancing elements on the axis of alignment as if they had mass.
• The principle applies to ragged-edge text blocks as well as graphical
elements.
• Align based on area when elements are nonuniform and asymmetrical.
See Also Alignment • Closure • Good Continuation Orientation Sensitivity •
Uniform Connectedness
The left column is center-aligned using the rectangular centers of figures. The right column is center-aligned
using the areas of figures. Note the improvement achieved by area alignment.
012 Attractiveness Bias A tendency to view
attractive people as intelligent, competent,
moral, and sociable.
• Attractive people are perceived to possess positive intellectual and social
attributes.
• Attributes of attractiveness include symmetrical facial features, clear skin,
ideal waist-hip-ratios, indications of status, and signs of health and fertility.
• Women enhance their attractiveness to men by exaggerating fertility (e.g.,
lipstick for red lips).
• Men enhance their attractiveness to women by exaggerating status (e.g.,
expensive cars).
• Consider the attractiveness bias in contexts involving human interaction
and images of people, such as sales and advertising.
See Also Baby-Face Bias • Face-ism Ratio • Gloss Bias Red Effects • Waist-
to-Hip Ratio
Most radio listeners of the first Kennedy-Nixon debate believed Nixon won. Most television viewers
believed Kennedy won.
013 Baby-Face Bias A tendency to see things
with baby-faced features as having the
personality characteristics of babies.
• People and things with round features, large eyes, small noses, high
foreheads, short chins, and light hair and skin are perceived to be more
naïve, helpless, and honest than those with mature features.
• Large round heads and eyes appear to be the strongest facial cues
contributing to the bias.
• The bias applies to all anthropomorphic things, including people, animals,
and cartoon characters, and products such as bottles, appliances, and
vehicles.
• Consider the baby-face bias in the design of characters or products when
facelike features are prominent. In advertising, use mature-faced people
when conveying expertise and authority; use baby-faced people when
conveying innocence and honesty.
See Also Anthropomorphism • Contour Bias • Face-ism Ratio Mimicry •
Savanna Preference
Round products tend to elicit baby-face associations. Angular products tend to elicit mature and masculine
associations.
014 Back-of-the-Dresser All parts of a design
should be held to the same standard of
quality.
• Proposed informally by Steve Jobs, American entrepreneur and personal
computer pioneer.
• The principle asserts that the craftsmanship applied by designers and
developers to areas not ordinarily visible to customers is a good indicator of
product quality—it is proof whether they applied consistent craftsmanship to
all aspects of the product.
• Indications of craftsmanship include quality materials, precision fit,
uniformity of finish, internal consistency, and maker marks or signatures.
These elements reflect the passion and care (or lack thereof) of the creators.
• Apply excellent design and development to all aspects of products. Treat
invisible areas as if they were visible, and include them in testing and
evaluation. Light is the best disinfectant for shoddy craftsmanship.
See Also Aesthetic-Usability Effect • Consistency Feature Creep • Form
Follows Function • Framing
Brick fronts and HardiePlank backs lower costs, but raise suspicions about what other out-of-sight corners
were cut.
015 Biophilia Effect A state of reduced stress
and improved concentration resulting from
nature views.
• Exposure to natural environments replete with lush green flora and visible
water reduces stress and confers restorative cognitive and physical benefits.
• The effect is likely a vestigial response to ancestral habitats, related to the
savanna preference.
• Imagery of nature depicted in art and photographs, as well as interior
plants, can trigger the biophilia effect.
• The strength of the effect corresponds to the level of exposure. Office
environments with one plant are unlikely to trigger the effect. Office
environments with ample greenery are more likely to trigger the effect.
• Consider the biophilia effect in the design of all environments, but
especially environments in which learning, healing, and concentration are
paramount.
See Also Cathedral Effect • Green Effects • Prospect-Refuge Savanna
Preference • Self-Similarity
The High Line park of New York provides a beautiful biophilic retreat amidst the hustle and bustle of big
city life.
016 Black Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color black.
• Black is universally associated with evil and foreboding, likely due to an
evolved association with darkness and vulnerability to nocturnal predators.
• Black signals aggression, dominance, and dirtiness.
• Sports teams wearing predominately black uniforms are perceived to be
more aggressive and more likely to cheat than those wearing light colors.
Accordingly, they incur more penalties.
• Black products are generally perceived to be classy, high value, and
timeless.
• Use black to increase perceived value in products and perceived authority
in people. Consider using black to signal aggression and intimidate
adversaries.
See Also Archetypes • Red Effects • Supernormal Stimulus Threat Detection
• White Effects
Black effects make black dogs less adoptable than lighter-colored dogs. Animal shelters call this “black dog
syndrome”.
017 Blue Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color blue.
• Blue is the world’s most popular color, and is commonly associated with
water and purity—except in food contexts, where it is associated with
spoilage.
• Blue signals friendliness and peacefulness (e.g., color of the United
Nations).
• Blue fosters openness and creativity, and promotes aspirational thinking.
• Blue promotes alertness and well-being during the day, but can disrupt
sleep at night.
• Use blue when you need a generally popular color, though avoid blue in
food-related contexts. Consider blue to promote friendliness, open-
mindedness, and aspirational thinking. Use blue lighting to increase
alertness, but avoid it in sleep environments.
See Also Biophilia Effect • Gloss Bias • Green Effects Prospect-Refuge •
Savanna Preference
Blue works best for aspirational messages (e.g., white teeth). Red works best for risk-avoidance (e.g.,
preventing cavities).
018 Cathedral Effect High ceilings promote
abstract thinking. Low ceilings promote
detail-oriented thinking.
• Conspicuous ceiling height—that is, noticeably low or noticeably high
ceilings—promotes different types of cognition, with high ceilings
promoting abstract thinking and creativity, and low ceilings promoting
concrete and detail-oriented thinking. No effect is observed if the ceiling
height goes unnoticed.
• The effect may be due to priming, or a vestigial preference for high tree
canopies and open skies, as would have been common on the African
savannas.
• Favor large rooms with high ceilings for tasks requiring creativity and out-
of-the-box thinking. Favor small rooms with low ceilings for tasks requiring
detail-oriented work (e.g., surgical operating room). Favor high ceilings to
extend the time in which visitors remain on site (e.g., casino) and low
ceilings to minimize loitering (e.g., fast-food restaurant).
See Also Priming • Prospect-Refuge • Savanna Preference
High ceilings promote abstract and creative thinking. Low ceilings promote concrete and detail-oriented
thinking.
019 Chunking Grouping units of information
to make them easier to process and
remember.
• The term chunk refers to a unit of information in short-term memory—a
word, or a series of numbers. Information that is chunked is easier to
remember.
• For example, most people cannot remember a ten-digit number for more
than 30 seconds. However, by breaking the number into three chunks (i.e.,
such as a phone number) recall performance is equivalent to recalling one 5-
digit number.
• The original estimate of the maximum number of chunks that can be
efficiently processed and recalled was 7±2. The modern estimate is 4±1
chunks.
• Chunk information when people are required to recall and retain
information. In high-stress environments, chunk critical controls and
information in anticipation of diminished cognitive performance.
See Also Mnemonic Device • Performance Load Recognition Over Recall •
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
This book uses multiple levels of chunking to make design principles easier to read, understand, and
remember.
020 Classical Conditioning A method of
influencing how people react to a particular
thing by repeatedly presenting it with other
things they either like or dislike.
• The influence occurs at an unconscious level, and results in a physical or
emotional reaction.
• Classical conditioning is commonly employed in animal training, behavior
modification, and advertising.
• For example, presenting images of attractive people with a product creates
positive feelings for that product. Conversely, presenting disturbing images
of extreme violence or injury with a product creates negative feelings for
that product.
• The stronger the reaction to a thing, the easier it will be to generalize that
reaction to other things.
• Use classical conditioning to influence emotional appeal. Pair designs with
appropriate stimuli to promote positive or negative associations.
See Also Aesthetic-Usability Effect • Mere-Exposure Effect Operant
Conditioning • Shaping
This poster uses before and after images of a drunk driving victim to condition negative feelings about drunk
driving.
021 Closure A tendency to complete
incomplete or interrupted forms and patterns.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• Patterns that require closure for completion grab attention and are
considered more interesting.
• Closure likely evolved as a form of threat detection, enabling human
ancestors to reflexively detect partially obscured threats, like snakes in the
grass.
• Closure is strongest when patterns are simple and elements are located near
one another.
• Use closure to reduce complexity and increase the interestingness of
designs. When designs involve simple and recognizable patterns, consider
removing areas to trigger closure in viewers.
See Also Flow • Threat Detection • Zeigarnik Effect
Engaging people to complete or “close” logos is an effective means of grabbing and holding attention.
022 Cognitive Dissonance A state of mental
discomfort due to incompatible attitudes,
thoughts, and beliefs.
• Cognitive dissonance is a state of mental stress due to conflicting thoughts
or values. It also occurs when new information conflicts with existing
thoughts or values.
• When a person is in a state of cognitive dissonance, they seek to make their
incompatible thoughts or values compatible with one another.
• For example, diamond sellers urge consumers to demonstrate their love by
buying diamonds, creating cognitive dissonance in consumers—i.e.,
dissonance between the love that they have for another, and the pressure to
prove that love by buying diamonds.
• Consider cognitive dissonance in persuasion contexts. Alleviate cognitive
dissonance by reducing the importance of conflicting thoughts, adding new
confirmatory thoughts, or changing the conflicting thoughts to appear
compatible.
See Also Expectation Effects • Framing • Sunk Cost Effect
Benjamin Franklin was a formidable social engineer. He once asked a rival legislator to lend him a rare book,
which he did. The rival greatly disliked Franklin, but had done him this favor. How to alleviate the conflict?
The two became lifelong friends.
023 Common Fate Things that move in similar
directions are perceived to be related.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• Things that move together in common directions are perceived as a single
unit or chunk, and are interpreted to be more related than things that move at
different times or in different directions.
• Perceived relatedness is strongest when motion occurs at the same time,
velocity, and direction. As these factors vary, perceived relatedness
decreases.
• Common fate influences whether things are perceived as figures or ground:
moving elements are perceived as figures, and stationary elements as
ground.
• Consider common fate when displaying information with moving or
flickering elements. Related elements should move at the same time,
velocity, and direction, or flicker at the same time, frequency, and intensity.
See Also Chunking • Figure-Ground • Good Continuation Similarity •
Uniform Connectedness
In video games, making the names and controller icons move with the players groups them, simplifying
playability by making it clear who is being controlled and how to control them.
024 Comparison A method of highlighting
relationships by depicting information in
controlled ways.
• One of the most compelling ways to present evidence is to compare things
apples-to-apples, within one eyespan, and against familiar benchmarks.
• Comparing things apples-to-apples means comparing the same variables in
the same way.
• Comparing things within one eyespan means presenting data side by side
so that differences are easily detectable.
• Comparing things against benchmarks means providing context so that the
significance of differences can be understood.
• Use comparisons to highlight relationships and present evidence. Ensure
that the variables compared are apples-to-apples, presented within one
eyespan, and contextualized with appropriate benchmarks.
See Also Framing • Garbage In-Garbage Out • Layering Signal-to-Noise
Ratio • Visibility
Florence Nightingale’s Coxcomb graph used comparison to make the case that the predominant threat to
British troops was not the Russians, but cholera, dysentery, and typhus.
025 Confirmation A technique for preventing
errors by requiring verification before actions
are performed.
• A technique used to verify critical actions, inputs, or commands.
Confirmations provide a means for verifying that actions and inputs are
intentional and correct before they are executed.
• There are two basic confirmation types: dialogs and two-step operations.
• Dialogs ask if an action was intended, indicate the consequences of the
action, and then provide a means to either verify or cancel the action. Two-
step operations involve a preliminary step that must occur prior to the actual
action or input.
• Use confirmations to minimize errors. Avoid using too many
confirmations, else they will be ignored. Allow noncritical confirmations to
be disabled.
See Also Affordance • Constraint • Errors • Forgiveness Garbage In-Garbage
Out • Redundancy
This industrial paper-cutting machine requires a two-step confirmation: both hands must depress safety
releases (ensuring that they are not in harm’s way) before the foot press is unlocked to cut the paper.
026 Confirmation Bias A tendency to favor
information that confirms pre-existing views.
• The confirmation bias is a tendency to focus on information that supports
pre-existing views, and to ignore information that contradicts pre-existing
views.
• Effects of the bias include overconfidence, selective memory, poor decision
making, and resistance to change in light of contrary evidence.
• For example, a person who believes the moon landing was faked seeks out
information that confirms this belief, and ignores evidence to the contrary.
• The bias is strongest for beliefs in which there has been significant
emotional investment.
• Consider the confirmation bias when conducting research and
development. Recognition of the bias is the best antidote. Expose yourself to
contrary opinions and independent critiques. Beware exploitation of the
confirmation bias by those with political agendas.
See Also Cognitive Dissonance • Selection Bias
The long-term trend clearly indicates rising global temperatures, which is why denialists tend to focus on the
short-term trend.
027 Consistency Usability and learnability
improve when similar things have similar
meanings and functions.
• Consistency enables people to efficiently transfer knowledge to new
contexts, learn new things quickly, and focus attention on the relevant
aspects of a task.
• Make things aesthetically consistent to enhance recognition and
communicate membership.
• Make things functionally consistent to leverage existing knowledge about
functionality and use.
• Make things internally consistent to improve usability, and to signal that a
thing has been well designed and not cobbled together.
• Make things externally consistent to extend the benefits of internal
consistency to other things.
• Use consistency in all aspects of design. When design standards exist,
generally follow them—but remember: “A foolish consistency is the
hobgoblin of little minds.”
See Also Back-of-the-Dresser • Feature Creep • Mimicry Recognition Over
Recall • Similarity
Consistency enables international travelers to understand traffic signs even when they don’t speak the local
language.
028 Constancy A tendency to perceive objects
as unchanging despite visual cues to the
contrary.
• People tend to perceive familiar objects as constant and unchanging,
despite changes in perspective, lighting, color, or size.
• This indicates that perception involves more than simply receiving sensory
inputs; rather, it is a process of continuously reconciling sensory inputs with
memories about the properties of things in the world.
• For example, people viewed at a distance look smaller than the same
people viewed up close, but the perception of their size is constant. Other
types of constancy include brightness, shape, and loudness.
• Consider constancy when presenting information in atypical contexts, such
as 3D images on 2D displays. Use recognizable objects and distance cues to
provide size and shape references for unfamiliar objects.
See Also 3D Projection • Comparison • Rosetta Stone
The penny in this picture appears oversized, but we know its size is constant, making it a useful size
reference for the frog.
029 Constraint Limiting the actions that can
be performed to simplify use and prevent
error.
• There are two types of constraints: physical and psychological.
• Physical constraints limit the range of possible actions by redirecting
physical motion. The three kinds of physical constraints are paths, axes, and
barriers.
• Psychological constraints limit the range of possible actions by leveraging
the way people perceive and think. The three kinds of psychological
constraints are symbols, conventions, and mappings.
• Use constraints to minimize errors. Use physical constraints to reduce
unintentional inputs and prevent dangerous actions. Use psychological
constraints to improve the clarity and intuitiveness of a design.
See Also Affordance • Confirmation • Control • Errors Forgiveness •
Mapping • Nudge
Common examples of physical and psychological constraints.
030 Contour Bias A tendency to favor objects
with contours over objects with sharp angles
or points.
• Things that possess sharp angles or pointed features activate a region of the
brain associated with fear.
• The bias likely evolved as a form of threat detection, enabling human
ancestors to reflexively detect dangerous plants, animals, and objects.
• In neutral contexts, people prefer round, curvy objects to sharp, angular
objects, but the latter is more effective at getting and holding attention.
• The degree of fear activation in the brain is proportionate to the sharpness
of objects, and inversely related to object preference.
• Use angular and pointy features to attract and hold attention. Use contoured
features to make a positive first impression. In emotionally neutral contexts,
favor round, curvy forms over sharp, angular forms.
See Also Affordance • Archetypes • Baby-Face Bias Freeze-Flight-Fight-
Forfeit • Threat Detection
The angular kettles are more effective at grabbing attention. The contoured kettles are more emotionally
appealing.
031 Control The level of user control should
be related to the proficiency and experience of
the user.
• Novices perform best with less control, while experts perform best with
more control. Accordingly, a well-designed system should offer varying
levels of user control according to level of expertise.
• Novices benefit from structured interactions, minimal choices, prompts,
constraints, and access to help.
• Experts benefit from less structure, direct access to functions, and minimal
use of constraints and prompts.
• Since accommodating multiple methods increases complexity, the number
of methods should be limited to two: one for beginners and one for experts.
• Provide methods optimized for beginners and experts for frequent
operations. When systems are complex and frequently used, consider
designs that can be customized to user preference and levels of expertise.
See Also Constraint • Flexibility Trade-Offs • Visibility
The level of rider support decreases as expertise develops: from tricycle to training wheels to bicycle to
Cirque du Soleil.
032 Convergence A tendency for similar
characteristics to evolve independently in
similar environments.
• Environments influence which adaptive strategies are successful.
Analogous environments result in analogous solutions to problems.
• It is common for discoveries and inventions to be made independently and
simultaneously by multiple independent inventors and scientists.
• Stable environments promote convergence, favoring refinements to
existing solutions.
• Volatile environments obstruct convergence, favoring innovation and
experimentation.
• Consider convergence in innovation strategy, and as a reminder that others
are likely working on ideas similar to yours right now.
See Also Iteration • Mimicry • Most Advanced Yet Acceptable
Strategies for movement through a fluid have converged over millions of years. This suggests that new
systems will likely need to use one of these strategies to be competitive.
033 Cost-Benefit The value of a thing is a
function of its costs of acquisition and use
versus the benefits it provides.
• Cost-benefit does not just refer to finances. It refers to all costs and benefits
associated with a design, including physical costs (e.g., effort), emotional
costs (e.g., frustration), and social costs (e.g., status).
• If the costs associated with a design outweigh the benefits, the design is
poor. If the benefits outweigh the costs, the design is good.
• A common misconception is that adding features increases product value.
This is only correct when the benefits provided by new features outweigh the
costs of increased complexity. If they do not, adding features decreases
product value.
• Consider the cost-benefit principle in all aspects of design. Do not make
design decisions based on costs or benefits alone.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Feature Creep • IKEA Effect Performance Load •
Veblen Effect
The hassles (i.e., cost) of transporting a kayak are high, which reduces the popularity of kayaking. Making
the kayak more portable reduces this cost, making kayaking more appealing.
034 Crowd Intelligence An emergent
intelligence arising from the unwitting
collaboration of many people.
• Crowd intelligence means that the average responses of a group to a certain
class of problems are better than any individual response from that group. A
crowd is any group of people whose members contribute independently to
solving a problem.
• Crowd intelligence works best on problems that have definitive answers.
For example, crowd intelligence is effective at solving math problems, but
less effective at solving design problems.
• The highest crowd intelligence emerges from groups made up of diverse
opinions and beliefs. Strong authoritative or social influences within a group
undermines its crowd intelligence.
• Consider crowd intelligence as an alternative means of solving problems.
Limit its use to problems that can be simply expressed and with definitive
answers.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Normal Distribution • Selection Bias
Almost 800 people guessed the weight of an ox butchered and dressed. Statistician Francis Galton found that
the average of these guesses missed the weight by only one pound, which was closer than any individual
guess.
035 Defensible Space An environment
designed to deter crime through markers,
surveillance, and signs of ownership.
• There are three key features of defensible spaces: territoriality,
surveillance, and symbolic barriers.
• Territoriality refers to clearly defined spaces of ownership, like community
markers, gates, walls, hedges, and fences.
• Surveillance refers to features that promote being seen, like external
lighting, mailboxes located in well-trafficked areas, and well-maintained
courtyards.
• Symbolic barriers refer to things that indicate ownership, like swings,
flowers, and lawn furniture.
• Deter crime by marking territories to indicate ownership, increasing
opportunities for surveillance, reducing features that allow concealment, and
using symbolic barriers to indicate activity and use.
See Also Affordance • Archetypes • Prospect-Refuge
Deter neighborhood crime by adding territorial markers, surveillance opportunities, and symbolic barriers.
036 Depth of Processing Thinking hard about
a thing improves the likelihood that it can be
recalled.
• Information that is analyzed deeply is better recalled than information that
is analyzed superficially.
• Memorization results from two types of rehearsal: maintenance and
elaborative. Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information back to
yourself. Elaborative rehearsal involves deeper analysis, such as answering
questions and creating analogies.
• Elaborative rehearsal results in recall that is two to three times better than
maintenance rehearsal.
• The key factors determining recall are distinctiveness, relevance, and
degree of elaborative rehearsal.
• Consider depth of processing when recall and retention are important. Get
people to think hard about information by engaging them in different types
of analysis. Use case studies, examples, and similar devices to make
information interesting and relevant.
See Also Serial Position Effects • von Restorff Effect
Information presented in a highly legible typeface (top) is easier to read, but less memorable than the same
information in a less legible typeface (bottom). The reason? A typeface that is difficult to read makes readers
think harder about the content, making it more memorable.
037 Design by Committee A design process
based on consensus building, group decision
making, and extensive iteration.
• Design by committee is preferred when requirements are complex,
consequences of error are serious, and stakeholder buy-in is important.
• Successful design committees are small and diverse, and equipped with the
method to facilitate decision making and prevent deadlocks.
• Use design by committee when error mitigation and stakeholder
acceptance are primary factors, and there is time for iteration. Use design by
dictator when an aggressive time line is the primary concern.
• Autocracy is fast, but risky. Democracy is slow, but careful. Both models
have their place depending on the circumstances.
See Also Dunning-Kruger Effect • Feature Creep • Iteration Not Invented
Here • Prototyping
Design by committee averages out idiosyncrasies, as seen in the evolution (left to right) of One World Trade
Center. The final design is less visually interesting, but overall it is superior because it better addresses all
stakeholder requirements.
038 Desire Line Traces of use or wear that
indicate preferred methods of interaction.
• Desire lines generally refer to worn paths where people walk, but can be
applied to any signs or traces left by user activity.
• Desire lines represent a noninvasive and unbiased measure of how people
use things. For example, wear on computer keys indicates their frequency of
use.
• Desire lines can be artificially created and studied using technologies such
as video cameras, GPS, and website heat maps.
• Pay attention to desire lines. They indicate strong and unbiased user
preferences, and represent opportunities for improvement.
See Also Affordance • Cost-Benefit • Gamification Performance Load •
Root Cause
Desire lines are often seen branching off of designated paths, indicating a strong pedestrian preference for
alternate routes.
039 Development Cycle The stages of product
creation: analysis, design, development, and
testing.
• Analysis identifies and documents needs, resulting in a requirements
document. Needs are discovered through research, customer feedback, focus
groups, and direct experience with the problem.
• Design transforms the requirements into visual form, which becomes the
specification. Design involves user research, ideation, prototyping, and
testing.
• Development is where the design specification is transformed into an
actual product.
• Testing ensures that a product meets both the requirements and design
specification.
• Establish iterative development cycles, meaning that there is back and forth
between groups at each stage. Work together to modify requirements and
specifications as needed.
See Also Design by Committee • Hierarchy of Needs • Iteration KISS • Life
Cycle • Prototyping
The ideal development cycle fosters iteration between adjacent stages in the cycle—and, as needed,
nonadjacent stages.
040 Dunning-Kruger Effect A tendency for
unskilled people to overestimate their
competence and performance.
• Incompetent people lack the knowledge and experience to recognize their
own incompetence, as well as the competence of others.
• This creates a vicious cycle: An incompetent person can’t perceive their
own incompetence because they are incompetent; and overcoming
incompetence requires the ability to distinguish skill levels, which is an
ability they lack.
• Conversely, highly competent people tend to underestimate their abilities
and performance, and overestimate the skills of others.
• Combat the Dunning-Kruger effect by teaching the inexperienced how to
discern competence from incompetence. Provide regular feedback and
critiques to promote the development of self-assessment skills.
See Also Crowd Intelligence • Design by Committee Hanlon’s Razor • Not
Invented Here
The least competent tend to be the most confident, and then the roller coaster ride of reality begins.
041 Entry Point A point of physical or
attentional entry that sets the emotional tone
for subsequent interactions.
• Good entry points feature three elements: minimal barriers, points of
prospect, and progressive lures.
• Barriers should not encumber entry points. Examples include highly
trafficked parking lots, noisy displays, and salespeople standing at the doors.
• Entry points enable people to survey available options. Examples include
entrances that provide a clear view of store layout, and web pages that
provide orientation cues and visible navigation options.
• Progressive lures pull people through the entry point. Examples include
jumplines in newspapers and compelling displays just beyond the entry of a
store.
• Optimize entry points by reducing barriers, establishing clear points of
prospect, and using progressive lures.
See Also Desire Lines • Prospect-Refuge • Wayfinding
Apple retail stores have redefined the retail experience, in part due to their exceptional entry-point
experience design.
042 Errors An action or omission of action
yielding an unintended result.
• There are three categories of error: slips, mistakes, and lapses.
• Slips occur when an action is not what was intended; for example, when a
person intends to press one button but accidentally presses another.
• Mistakes occur when an intention is incorrect; for example, when a nurse
interprets an alarm incorrectly and then administers the wrong medicine.
• Lapses occur when an action is forgotten for example, when a pilot forgets
to lower landing gear for landing.
• Minimize slips using affordances, confirmations, and constraints. Minimize
mistakes using clear feedback, mappings, and training. Minimize lapses
using alarms, checklists, and visibility.
See Also Affordance • Confirmation • Constraint • Visibility
043 Expectation Effects Changes in perception
or behavior resulting from personal
expectations or expectations of others.
• When people have expectations about something, it influences how they
perceive and react to that thing.
• For example, students perform better or worse based on the expressed
expectations of their teachers. And patients experience treatment effects
based on their belief that a treatment will or will not work.
• These effects create challenges for direct measurement techniques, such as
focus groups, interviews, and surveys.
• Consider expectation effects when conducting research, interviews, and
testing. Favor blinded experiments and noninvasive research such as field
observation over invasive methods. In persuasion contexts, set expectations
in a credible fashion versus letting people form their own unbiased
conclusions.
See Also Affordance • Confirmation Bias • Framing Mere-Exposure Effect •
Uncertainty Principle
A taste test between two wines: an inexpensive wine in cheap packaging and an expensive wine in fancy
packaging. People rate the expensive wine as tasting better—even when the wines are the same.
044 Face-ism Ratio The ratio of face to body
in an image that influences how the person is
perceived.
• The face-ism ratio is calculated by dividing the head height by the total
visible body height.
• Images depicting a person with a high face-ism ratio—i.e., the face takes
up most of the image—focus attention on the person’s intellect and
personality.
• Images depicting a person with a low face-ism ratio—i.e., the body takes
up most of the image—focus attention on the person’s body and sexuality.
• When a design requires a thoughtful response, use images of people with
high face-ism ratios. When a design requires an emotional response, use
images with low-face-ism ratios.
See Also Attractiveness Bias • Baby-Face Bias Classical Conditioning • Law
of Prägnanz
The high face-ism ratio image emphasizes attributes like intelligence and ambition. The lower face-ism ratio
images emphasize attributes like sexuality and physical attractiveness.
045 Factor of Safety The design of a system
beyond expected loads to offset the effects of
unknown variables and prevent failure.
• Increasing the factor of safety of a design is a reliable method of
preventing catastrophic failure.
• The size of the factor of safety should correspond to the level of
uncertainty in the design parameters. High uncertainty requires a high factor
of safety.
• New designs use high factors of safety because uncertainty is high. The
focus is on survivability.
• Tried-and-true designs use low factors of safety because more is known.
The focus shifts to cost.
• Use factors of safety in proportion to your knowledge of the design
parameters and the severity of the consequences of failure.
See Also Design by Committee • Errors • Modularity Structural Forms •
Weakest Link
The O-rings of Challenger’s solid rocket boosters had a factor of safety of three—inadequate for low
temperature conditions. Catastrophic failure occurred shortly after launch in 1986.
046 Feature Creep A continuous expansion or
addition of new product features.
• Feature creep is one of the most common causes of cost and schedule
overruns. This occurs because features are easy or convenient to add,
accumulate over multiple generations of a product, or are added to appease
internal project stakeholders.
• The key driver is the perception that more is better, and therefore features
are continuously added and rarely taken away. But adding features adds
complexity, and complexity is expensive.
• Beware feature creep in design and development. Ensure features are
linked to customer needs, and are not added out of convenience or
appeasement. Create a milestone to formally freeze the product
specification, and shout “feature creeper” at any person attempting to add
features beyond that point.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Design by Committee • KISS
On its maiden voyage in 1628, the Swedish warship Vasa sank after going less than one mile. The cause?
Extra guns, decks, and carvings added during construction compromised its stability. Feature creep literally
sank the ship.
047 Feedback Loop A cycle in which output
feeds back into a system as input, changing
subsequent output.
• A feedback loop is a cause-and-effect chain that forms a loop. There are
two types of feedback loops: positive and negative.
• Positive feedback loops amplify output, resulting in accelerated growth or
decline. Therefore, positive feedback can be useful for creating rapid
change, but perilous because it is difficult to arrest.
• Negative feedback loops dampen output, resulting in equilibrium around a
point. Therefore, negative feedback can be useful for stabilization, but
perilous because it can be difficult to change.
• Use positive feedback to create change, but include negative feedback to
prevent runaway effects. Use negative feedback to resist change, but note
that too much negative feedback leads to stagnation.
See Also Iteration • Root Cause • Shaping • Social Trap
Bridges resist dynamic loads using structures and materials that create negative feedback. But the negative
feedback built into the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge was no match for the positive feedback between the
bridge’s deflection and the wind. The bridge collapsed five months after it opened.
048 Fibonacci Sequence A sequence of
numbers that form patterns commonly found
in nature.
• A Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each number is
the sum of the two preceding numbers (e.g., 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13…).
• Patterns exhibiting the sequence are commonly found in nature, such as
flower petals, spirals of galaxies, and bones in the human hand, and as such,
are conjectured to represent proportions with universal appeal.
• The division of any two adjacent numbers in a Fibonacci sequence yields
an approximation of the golden ratio. Approximations are rough for early
numbers in the sequence but increasingly accurate as the sequence
progresses.
• Consider Fibonacci sequences when developing compositions, geometric
patterns, and organic motifs, especially when they involve rhythms and
harmonies among multiple elements.
See Also Golden Ratio • Self-Similarity • Wabi-Sabi
Le Corbusier derived two Fibonacci sequences based on key features of the human form to create the
Modulor, a model used to optimize spaces for humans.
049 Figure-Ground Elements are perceived as
either figures (objects of focus) or ground (the
rest of the perceptual field).
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• The human perceptual system separates stimuli into figure elements or
ground elements. Figure elements receive more attention and are better
remembered than ground elements.
• Elements below a horizon line or in the lower regions of a design are more
likely to be perceived as figures.
• Elements above a horizon line or in the upper region are more likely to be
perceived as ground.
• Increase the recall of key elements by making them figures in a
composition. Clearly differentiate between figure and ground elements to
focus attention and minimize perceptual confusion.
See Also 3D Projection • Closure • Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Placing elements below a horizon line or at the bottom of a page makes them figures, which makes them
more memorable.
050 Fitts’ Law The time required to touch a
target is a function of the target size and the
distance to the target.
• Proposed by American psychologist Paul Fitts.
• Used to model pointing to an object or computer screen using your finger
or pointing device.
• The law is predictive over a wide variety of conditions, devices, and
people.
• The primary implication of Fitts’ law is that close, large targets can be
accessed more quickly and with fewer errors than distant, small targets.
• Constraints can effectively increase target size. For example, a dropdown
menu located at the top of a computer display effectively has infinite height
because the screen edge stops the cursor.
• Consider Fitts’ Law when designing controls and control layouts. Keep
controls close and large when speed or accuracy is important.
See Also Constraints • Errors • Hick’s Law • Performance Load
The time and error rate involved in whacking a mole is a function of the distance between the whacker and
the mole.
051 Five Hat Racks A metaphor representing
the five ways information can be organized.
• Information can be organized by category, time, location, alphabet, and
continuum.
• Category refers to organization by similarity or relatedness; for example, a
store organizing products by aisle or a library organizing books by subject.
• Time refers to organization by chronological order; for example, timelines
and TV guide schedules.
• Location refers to organization by geographical or spatial reference; for
example, emergency exit maps and travel guides.
• Alphabet refers to organization by alphabetical sequence; for example,
dictionaries and this book.
• Continuum refers to organization by magnitude; for example, baseball
batting averages and search results.
See Also Framing • Hierarchy • Layering • Similarity
Six breeds of dog organized using the five hat racks. Note how the method of organization influences the
story the data tell.
052 Flexibility Trade-Offs As the flexibility of
a design increases, the usability and
performance of the design decreases.
• Accommodating flexibility entails satisfying a larger set of design
requirements, which invariably means more compromises and complexity in
design.
• Increasing complexity generally decreases performance and usability.
• For example, the Swiss Army knife has many tools that increase its
flexibility, but the tools are less efficient and less usable than their
standalone equivalents. Performance and usability are traded for flexibility.
• Specialized things outperform flexible things when their requirements are
stable. Flexible things outperform specialized things when their
requirements are volatile.
• When flexibility is key, prepare to compromise performance and usability.
When performance or usability is key, prepare to compromise flexibility.
See Also Cost-Benefit • Feature Creep • Hick’s Law
The Swiss Army knife is a prime example of flexibility trade-offs. It is the proverbial “Jack of all trades,
master of none”.
053 Flow A state of immersion so intense that
awareness of the real world is lost.
• When people are not challenged, they become bored. When they are
challenged too much, they become frustrated. Flow occurs when people are
challenged at or near their maximum skill level.
• People in a state of flow lose track of time and experience feelings of joy
and satisfaction.
• Tasks that create flow experiences have achievable goals, require
continuous engagement, provide clear and immediate feedback, and are able
to maintain a balance between difficulty and skill level.
• Incorporate elements of flow in activities that seek to engage the attention
of people over time—e.g., instruction, games, and music. Designing tasks to
achieve flow is more art than science; therefore, leave ample time for
experimentation and tuning.
See Also Control • Gamification • Performance Load Progressive Disclosure
• Zeigarnik Effect
Flow is attained when high difficulty matches high skill level.
054 Forgiveness Designs should help people
avoid errors, and protect them from harm
when they do occur.
• Forgiving design prevents errors through constraints and good affordances.
• Forgiving design warns of potential dangers, and asks for confirmation
when choices may cause harm.
• Forgiving design allows actions to be reversible when errors do occur (e.g.,
undo function).
• Forgiving design provides safety nets to prevent harm resulting from errors
or catastrophic failures.
• Make all designs forgiving. Best to prevent errors, then to warn of potential
errors, then to reverse errors when they occur, and then when all else fails to
have safety nets in place. To err is human, to forgive, design.
See Also Affordance • Confirmation • Constraint • Errors Factor of Safety •
Weakest Link
When all else fails, what pilot and crew wouldn’t want this ballistic recovery system as a safety net of last
resort?
055 Form Follows Function Aesthetic
considerations should be secondary to
functional considerations.
• A maxim derived from the architect Louis Sullivan, who wrote that, in
nature, “form ever follows function”.
• The motto became a guiding principle for modernists who emphasized
function over ornamentation.
• The prescriptive interpretation means that designers should focus on
function first, form second. The descriptive interpretation means that beauty
arises from purity of function.
• Though the maxim is often considered oversimple and cliché, most great
designers abide by the principle.
• Consider form follows function a strong guideline in design. While it does
not apply to all cases all of the time, it generally leads to superior design.
See Also 80/20 Rule • KISS • MAYA • Ockham’s Razor
The Jeep is the embodiment of form follows function. General Eisenhower identified it as one of three tools
that won WWII.
056 Framing A method of presenting choices
in specific ways to influence decision making
and judgment.
• Framing is the structuring of words and images to influence how people
think and feel about something, typically to influence a decision or
judgment.
• For example, a frozen yogurt that is advertised to be “95% fat-free” elicits
a positive emotional response, whereas a frozen yogurt advertised to be “5%
fat” elicits a negative emotional response, even though the two statements
are logically equivalent.
• Frames that emphasize benefits are most effective for audiences focused on
aspiration and pleasure seeking. Frames that emphasize losses are most
effective for audiences focused on security and pain avoidance.
• Consider framing to influence decision making and judgment. Use the
appropriate type of framing for an audience, ensuring that frames do not
conflict.
See Also Expectation Effects • Mere-Exposure Effect
The Ohio Dry Campaign of 1918 is a case study in framing: Are you for the defenders of freedom, or are you
for the booze?
057 Freeze-Flight-Fight-Forfeit The ordered,
instinctive response to acute stress.
• When people are exposed to stressful or threatening situations, their
instinctive responses are to freeze, flee, fight, and forfeit, in that order.
• When a threat is suspected, the instinctive response is to freeze—to stop,
look, and listen for threats.
• When a threat is detected, the instinctive response is to flee—to escape
from the threat.
• When unable to escape from a threat, the instinctive response is to fight—
to neutralize the threat.
• When unable to neutralize the threat, the instinctive response is to forfeit—
to surrender to the threat.
• Consider freeze-flight-fight-forfeit in the design of systems that involve
performance under extreme stress. It is critical to design systems and
training to address each stage of the stress response differently versus a one-
strategy-fits-all approach.
See Also Classical Conditioning • Threat Detection
People respond to extreme stress in four ways. It is important to design systems and training to address each
of them.
058 Gamification Using gaming strategies in
nongame contexts to enhance experience and
modify behavior.
• Gamification involves rewarding desired behaviors, providing frequent
feedback, and illustrating achievements in highly visible ways.
• Key gamification principles include clearly defined goals, scorekeeping
and scorecards, frequent feedback, free choice, and ample coaching.
• One model for determining rewards is called SAPS: status, access, power,
and stuff. The model was proposed by Gabe Zichermann, and purports to list
in order the things people most desire.
• Measure behaviors you want to increase and provide immediate visual
feedback about that behavior. Consider the SAPS model in the design of
rewards systems. Allow people to fail, then support the failure with coaching
and instructional feedback.
See Also Operant Conditioning • Shaping • Zeigarnik Effect
How do you get people to start taking the stairs in Sweden? Convert the stairs into a piano that plays music
with each step.
059 Garbage In-Garbage Out The quality of
system output is largely dependent on the
quality of system input.
• The “garbage in” metaphor refers to two categories of input problems: type
and quality.
• Problems of type occur when the wrong type of input is provided; for
example, entering a phone number into a credit card number field.
• Problems of quality occur when the correct type of input is provided, but
with defects; for example, entering a phone number into a phone number
field, but entering it incorrectly.
• Avoid garbage-out by preventing garbage-in. Use affordances and
constraints to minimize problems of type. Use previews and confirmations to
minimize problems of quality.
See Also Affordance • Confirmation • Constraint • Errors Feedback Loop •
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The Mars Climate Orbiter disintegrated in the Martian atmosphere in 1999. The cause? Garbage in-garbage
out. Trajectory corrections were entered in English units versus the required metric units, dooming the craft.
060 Gloss Bias A preference for glossy versus
dull objects.
• People find glossy objects more interesting and appealing than dull objects.
• For example, people generally prefer glossy lipsticks, jewelry, paper, and
paints to their matte counterparts. Young children presented with glossy
objects lick them significantly more than dull objects.
• The preference is likely an evolutionary artifact. The ability to find water
sources provided early human ancestors with an adaptive advantage. Glossy
surfaces suggested nearby water sources.
• Consider the gloss bias when selecting finishes. The bias applies to all
objects and images of objects. The bias is stronger in general audiences, and
weaker in audiences with experience with different finishes.
See Also Archetypes • Biophilia Effect • Savanna Preference Scarcity •
Supernormal Stimulus
Humans have evolved to find glossy things appealing. You might even say we thirst for them.
061 Golden Ratio A ratio within the elements
of a form, such as height to width,
approximating 0.618.
• The golden ratio is commonly believed to be an aesthetically pleasing
proportion, primarily due to its unique mathematical properties, prevalence
in nature, and use in great artistic and architectural works.
• The prevalence of golden proportions over other proportions may,
however, be illusory—a result of cherry-picked evidence and confirmation
bias.
• Psychological evidence supporting a preference for golden proportions
over other proportions is weak. If a preference exists, it is small.
• Explore golden ratio proportions in your designs, but not at the expense of
other design objectives.
See Also Confirmation Bias • Fibonacci Sequence Rule of Thirds • Selection
Bias • Waist-to-Hip Ratio
In each of these classic forms, the ratio between the blue and red segments approximates the Golden ratio.
062 Good Continuation The tendency to
perceive lines as continuing their established
directions.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• Things arranged in a straight line or a smooth curve are perceived as a unit,
making them easier to visually process and remember. The line is perceived
to continue in its established direction.
• When sections of a line or shape are hidden from view, good continuation
leads the eye to continue along the visible segments. If extensions of these
segments intersect with minimal disruption, the elements along the line are
perceived to be related. As the angle of disruption becomes more acute, the
elements are perceived to be less related.
• Use good continuation to indicate relatedness between elements in a
design. Arrange elements in graphs and displays such that end points of
elements form continuous, rather than abrupt lines.
See Also Alignment • Area Alignment • Chunking • Closure Similarity •
Uniform Connectedness
The first graph is easier to read than the second because the end points of its bars form a line that is more
continuous.
063 Green Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color green.
• Green is universally associated with safety and security, perhaps a vestige
of our arboreal ancestry, and the reason that green traffic lights around the
globe mean “go”. Additionally, green is associated with nature and
sustainability.
• Green environments reduce stress and mental fatigue, and promote
problem solving and creativity.
• Green apparel tends to negatively impact physical attractiveness. For
example, a person in green is rated less attractive than all other colors except
yellow.
• Use green to promote associations with nature and sustainability. Use green
when creating signage and controls to indicate safe passage. Consider green
interiors to reduce stress and promote creativity.
See Also Biophilia Effect • Gloss Bias • Prospect-Refuge Savanna
Preference • Yellow Effects
A hospital hall redesigned with ample greenery to comfort patients as they move from the lobby to their
destination.
064 Gutenberg Diagram A diagram that
describes the pattern followed by the eyes
when looking at a page of information.
• Western cultures read displays from top-left to bottom-right, sweeping
from left to right as they progress. The tendency to follow this path is
described as “reading gravity”.
• Layouts that follow the diagram and work in harmony with reading gravity
purportedly improve reading rhythm and comprehension, though there is
little empirical evidence to support this.
• The Gutenberg diagram is only predictive of eye movement for
homogeneous displays of information.
• Consider the Gutenberg diagram in layout and composition when elements
are evenly distributed. Otherwise, use the weight and composition of
elements to lead the eye.
See Also Alignment • Entry Point • Progressive Disclosure Readability •
Serial Position Effects
Compositions that follow the Gutenberg diagram position key elements diagonally from top-left to bottom-
right.
065 Hanlon’s Razor Never attribute to malice
what can be adequately explained by
incompetence.
• Proposed both by Robert Hanlon and science fiction author Robert
Heinlein.
• A variant of Ockham’s razor, Hanlon’s razor asserts that when bad things
happen that are human-caused, it is far more likely to be the result of
ignorance or bureaucracy than conspiracy or malice.
• For example, when Apple’s Siri search was unable to find abortion clinics,
many claimed Apple purposefully excluded them from the search results.
The more likely explanation is that Siri was incomplete or buggy.
• Keep Hanlon’s razor in mind when bad things happen. The principle does
not exclude the possibility of malice—sometimes bad things are, in fact,
caused by bad people—but malice is generally less probable.
See Also Affordance • Black Effects • Contour Bias Mimicry • Supernormal
Stimulus • Threat Detection
What caused the post-Katrina New Orleans levees to fail? Inadequate engineering is more likely than
government conspiracy—though, the government did blow up the levees in 1927 under similar
circumstances.
066 Hick’s Law The time it takes to make a
decision increases with the number of options.
• Proposed by British psychologist W.E. Hick.
• Hick’s Law applies to simple decisions with multiple options. For example,
if A happens, then push button 1; If B happens, then push button 2.
• Increasing the number of choices increases decision time logarithmically.
• Hick’s Law does not apply to complex decision making, or decisions
requiring reading, scanning, searching, or extended deliberation.
• Consider Hick’s Law in designs that involve simple decision making.
Reduce the number of options to reduce response times and errors.
See Also Chunking • Errors • Fitts’ Law • Interference Effects Signal-to-
Noise Ratio • Wayfinding
Hick’s law applies across a variety of contexts, including predators targeting prey, quick adjustments to
camera settings, pressing different buttons in response to a light, deciding which technique to use to block a
punch, and following traffic signs. The more options you have, the longer it takes to decide.
067 Hierarchy Hierarchies are the simplest
way to visualize and understand complex
information.
• There are three types of hierarchical structures: trees, nests, and stairs.
• Tree structures locate child elements below or to the right of parent
elements, forming a triangle. Trees are used to represent organizations and
high-level maps.
• Nest structures locate child elements within parent elements. Nest
structures are used to group information and represent logical relationships.
• Stair structures stack child elements vertically below parent elements, as in
an outline. Stairs are used to represent complex structures that change over
time.
• Use tree structures to represent hierarchies of moderate complexity. Use
nest structures to represent simple hierarchies and logical relationships. Use
stair structures to represent complex hierarchies.
See Also Alignment • Five Hat Racks • Layering • Modularity
This classic 1855 organizational chart of the New York and Erie Railroad uses a tree structure with elements
of stairs and nests.
068 Hierarchy of Needs The user-centered
goals that a design must satisfy in order to
achieve optimal success.
• The hierarchy of needs consists of five levels that are typically satisfied in
sequence: 1. Functionality: fosters satisfaction by meeting basic functional
needs.
2. Reliability: fosters trust through consistent and reliable performance
over time.
3. Usability: fosters fondness through ease of use.
4. Proficiency: fosters pride and status through increased productivity
and empowerment.
5. Creativity: fosters cultlike loyalty through innovation and personal
enrichment.
• Consider the hierarchy of needs in design strategy. Markets with products
low on the hierarchy are ripe for disruption; whereas markets with products
high on the hierarchy will be the most competitive.
See Also Aesthetic-Usability Effect • Form Follows Function
GoPro cameras were designed to be small and rugged, but who could have anticipated the creativity they
would unleash?
069 Highlighting A technique for focusing
attention on an area of text or image.
• Highlighting focuses attention by varying elements (e.g., capitalization) or
adding elements (e.g., color).
• Highlight no more than 10 percent of a visible display. When everything is
highlighted, nothing is highlighted.
• Use bold to highlight titles, labels, and short word sequences. Use italics
and uppercase text for more subtle highlighting. Use underlining sparingly, if
at all.
• Use color to highlight long word sequences. Ensure high contrast when
using color to highlight.
• Animation such as blinking is a powerful means of attracting attention.
Accordingly, it should only be used for alert-type information that requires
an immediate response. It is important to be able to turn off the animation
once it is acknowledged, as it distracts from other tasks.
See Also Interference Effects • Layering • von Restorff Effect
BOLD
Chapter 8
The Queen turned crimson with fury, and, after glaring at her for a moment like a wild beast, screamed “Off
with her head! Off —”
UPPERCASE AND ITALICS
CHAPTER 8
The Queen turned crimson with fury, and, after glaring at her for a moment like a wild beast, screamed “Off
with her head! Off —”
COLOR
Chapter 8
The Queen turned crimson with fury, and, after glaring at her for a moment like a wild beast, screamed “Off
with her head! Off —”
070 Horror Vacui A tendency to fill blank
spaces with things rather than leaving spaces
empty.
• A Latin expression meaning “fear of emptiness”.
• Though the term has varied meanings dating back to Aristotle, today it is
principally used to describe a style of art and design that leaves no empty
space.
• The style is commonly employed in commercial media such as
newspapers, comic books, and websites.
• As horror vacui increases, perceived value decreases.
• For example, the number of products in retail windows tends to be
inversely related to the average price of products and store brand prestige.
• Consider horror vacui in the design of commercial displays and
advertising. Favor minimalism to signal high-priced products. Favor horror
vacui to signal low-priced products.
See Also Inattentional Blindness • Left-Digit Effect Ockham’s Razor •
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The perceived value of a store’s merchandise in a storefront window is inversely related to its horror vacui.
071 Hunter-Nurturer Bias A tendency for
male children to be interested in hunting-
related things and female children to be
interested in nurturing-related things.
• Male children tend to engage in play that emulates hunting behaviors.
Female children tend to engage in play that emulates nurturing behaviors.
• Hunter bias is characterized by activities involving object movement and
location, weapons and tools, hunting and fighting, predators, and physical
play.
• Nurturer bias is characterized by activities involving form and colors,
facial expressions and interpersonal skills, caretaking, babies, and verbal
play.
• Consider hunter-nurturer bias when designing for children. Consider
hunting-related items and activities for male children, and nurturer-related
items and activities for female children.
See Also Archetypes • Baby-Face Bias • Contour Bias Supernormal
Stimulus • Threat Detection
Like their human cousins, female vervets prefer stereotypically female toys and male vervets prefer
stereotypically male toys.
072 Iconic Representation The use of pictorial
images to improve recognition and recall.
• There are four kinds of icons: resemblance, exemplar, symbolic, and
arbitrary.
• Resemblance icons look like the things they portray.
• Exemplar icons are examples of things.
• Symbolic icons make use of familiar symbols.
• Arbitrary icons are used to establish industry standards or international
communication.
• Consider iconic representation to aid recognition and recall, overcome
language barriers, and enhance the aesthetics of communication. Generally,
icons should be labeled and share a common visual motif for optimal
performance.
See Also Chunking • Performance Load Picture Superiority Effect • Rosetta
Stone
Iconic representation reduces performance load, conserves display area, and is more understandable across
cultures.
073 IKEA Effect The act of creating a thing
increases the perceived value of that thing to
the creator.
• Creating or partially creating a thing (e.g., assembling furniture) makes it
more valuable to the creator.
• People are willing to pay more for products they create than equivalent
preassembled products.
• People value things they personally create as much as if it had been created
by an expert.
• The level of effort invested in creation corresponds to its level of valuation:
high effort translates into high valuation, and low effort translates into low
valuation.
• The IKEA effect only holds when tasks are completed.
• Consider the IKEA effect in product strategy and user-experience design.
Engage users in the creation of products to increase their value perception.
See Also Closure • Cognitive Dissonance • Not Invented Here Sunk Cost
Effect • Zeigarnik Effect
The effort people expend when assembling IKEA furniture actually makes them value the furniture more.
074 Inattentional Blindness A failure to
perceive an unexpected stimulus presented in
clear view.
• When concentrating on tasks, people are blind to unrelated stimuli up to 50
percent of the time.
• For example, a shopper seeking a certain brand of soda will likely notice
other soda bottles, but not dishwasher soap bottles.
• Inattentional blindness is behind many of the tricks and misdirections
employed by magicians.
• Consider inattentional blindness in contexts where attention is key,
including security, safety, and advertising. Given the robustness of the effect,
the best strategy is to create or alter tasks to focus attention on desired
stimuli (e.g., receiving a coupon book prior to visiting a store can predefine
the shopping targets ahead of time).
See Also Flow • Interference Effects • Signal-to-Noise Ratio
When people were asked to count the number of times the team in the white shirts passed a basketball, half
failed to see the person in a gorilla costume casually stroll across the screen.
075 Interference Effects Things that trigger
conflicting thought processes reduce thinking
efficiency.
• Interference effects occur when nonessential mental processes interfere
with essential mental processes, increasing errors and slowing task
performance.
• Nonessential mental processes can be triggered by conflicting meanings,
distractions in the environment, and memories that are irrelevant to the task
at hand.
• For example, a green “stop” button triggers a mental process for “go”
because of the color green, and a mental process for “stop” because of the
label “stop”. The two mental processes interfere with one another.
• Minimize interference by eliminating elements that distract. Keep designs
simple. Abide by strong color and symbol conventions when they exist (e.g.,
red means stop, green means go).
See Also Errors • Inattentional Blindness • Performance Load
Arrows mean “go”, but red arrows mean “stop”. When traffic signs and signals create interference, accidents
increase.
076 Inverted Pyramid Information presented
in order of importance—from most important
to least important.
• In the pyramid metaphor, the base represents the most important
information, while the tip represents the least important information. To
invert the pyramid is to present the important information first, and the
background information last.
• The inverted pyramid has been a standard in journalism for over one
hundred years, and has found wide use in instructional design and technical
writing.
• The lead is the critical component of the inverted pyramid, as it is
presented first. It should be a terse summary of the what, where, when, who,
and why.
• Use the inverted pyramid when presentation efficiency is important. When
it is not possible to use the inverted pyramid (e.g., scientific writing),
consider an abstract or executive summary at the beginning to present the
key findings.
See Also Progressive Disclosure • Serial Position Effects
The report of President Lincoln’s assassination established the inverted pyramid style of writing in 1865.
077 Iteration Repeating a set of design and
development operations, with each repetition
building on the last, until the desired result is
achieved.
• Complexity does not emerge without iteration. In nature, iteration allows
complex structures to form by progressively building on simpler structures.
• Design iteration refers to repeating the basic steps of analysis, prototyping,
and testing until a desired result is achieved.
• With iterative design, there is no failure—just iterations with lessons
learned to apply to the next iteration. Accordingly, failure is not to be feared
but embraced.
• Iteration is the backbone of design and design thinking. Great design does
not happen without it.
• Embrace iteration in all aspects of design and development. Seek ways to
accelerate iteration to speed learning and progress. Fail fast. Fail early.
See Also Development Cycle • Feedback Loop • KISS Prototyping • Self-
Similarity
By focusing on designing a plane that could be rebuilt in hours versus months, engineer Paul MacCready
enabled his team to dramatically speed up iteration. Six months later, the Gossamer Condor flew over 2,000
meters, winning the first Kremer Prize.
078 KISS
Simple designs work better and are more reliable.
• The acronym KISS—“keep it simple stupid”—was proposed by Kelly
Johnson, lead engineer at the Lockheed Skunk Works.
• KISS asserts that simple systems typically work better than complex
systems. Accordingly, simplicity should be a key goal in design.
• Simplicity means minimal elements with the minimal interactions between
those elements.
• Simple designs are typically faster and cheaper to build, perform more
reliably, and are easier to troubleshoot and maintain.
• KISS is commonly employed in engineering and software development,
but is applicable to any field that makes things, from entrepreneurship to
writing.
• Keep it simple stupid.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Feature Creep • Form Follows Function Modularity •
Ockham’s Razor
A testament to Mikhail Kalashnikov’s dedication to KISS, the AK-47 is perhaps the least expensive and most
reliable assault rifle ever produced. It has only eight moving parts.
079 Law of Prägnanz A tendency to interpret
images as simple and complete versus
complex and incomplete.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• When people are presented with a set of elements that can be interpreted in
different ways, they tend to assume the simplest interpretation.
• For example, the characters :-) are interpreted as a smiling face versus
three separate characters.
• The law applies similarly to the way in which images are recalled from
memory. For example, people recall the positions of countries on maps as
more aligned and symmetrical than they are in reality.
• Generally, people are better able to interpret and remember simple figures
than complex figures.
• Consider the Law of Prägnanz when depicting and interpreting images.
Favor simplicity and symmetry to facilitate visual processing, and favor
complexity and asymmetry to impede visual processing.
See Also Closure • Depth of Processing • Good Continuation
Dazzle camouflage prevents simple interpretations of boat type and orientation, making it a difficult target
for submarines.
080 Layering Presenting information in
stacked layers to manage complexity and
foster insights.
• Layering is revealing and concealing planes of information, one on top of
the other, to recontextualize information and highlight relationships.
• Opaque layers are useful when additional information about a particular
item is desired without switching contexts (e.g., software pop-up help).
• Transparent layers are useful when overlays of information combine to
illustrate concepts or highlight relationships (e.g., weather maps).
• Consider layering to manage complexity, elaborate information, and
illustrate concepts without switching contexts. Use opaque layers when
presenting elaborative information. Use transparent layers when illustrating
concepts or highlighting relationships.
See Also Hierarchy • Modularity • Progressive Disclosure
Layering is effectively used in online maps, selectively revealing and concealing useful information like
traffic and restaurants.
081 Left-Digit Effect People overweigh the
left-most digits of prices in buying decisions.
• When viewing a price, people have an emotional reaction to the first digit
in the sequence and overweigh its value.
• In cultures that read from left to right, this reaction is based on the left-
most digit in prices.
• Given two prices, $29.99 and $30.00, people react as if the difference is not
one cent, but one dollar. This reaction can increase sales up to 15 percent.
• Prices ending in 99s indicate low prices, but also lower quality. Prices
ending in round numbers indicate high prices, but also higher quality.
• Use the left-digit effect when price is more important than quality in
buying decisions.
See Also Framing • Priming • Serial Position Effects
Ending prices with nines is a good strategy when price drives buying behaviors, as with gasoline.
082 Legibility The visual clarity of text,
generally based on size, typeface, contrast,
line length, and spacing.
• Use 9- to 12-point type for high-resolution media such as print. Smaller
type is acceptable when limited to captions. Use larger type for low-
resolution media.
• Use clear typefaces that can be easily read. There is no performance
difference between serif and sans serif typefaces, so select based on aesthetic
preference.
• Favor dark text on a light background for optimal legibility. Avoid
patterned or textured backgrounds.
• Make line lengths 10–12 words per line, or 35–55 characters per line.
• Set leading (space between text lines, baseline to baseline) to the type size
plus 1–4 points. Favor proportionally spaced typefaces to monospaced.
See Also Chunking • Depth of Processing • Readability
083 Life Cycle The common stages of life for
products.
• There are four stages of life for products: introduction, growth, maturity,
and decline.
• Introduction: The official birth of a product.
• Growth: A stage of rapid expansion. The focus is to scale supply and
performance of the product to meet the growing demand, and provide the
level of support necessary to maintain customer satisfaction. This is where
most products fail.
• Maturity: The peak of the product life cycle. Product sales have begun to
diminish, and competition from competitors is strong. The focus is product
refinement to maximize customer retention.
• Decline: The end of the life cycle. Product sales continue to decline and
core market share is at risk. The focus is to minimize costs and develop
transition strategies to migrate customers to new products.
See Also Development Cycle • Hierarchy of Needs • Iteration
A product needs to evolve over the course of its life to maximize success. Failure to make the right changes
at the right time can shorten its life cycle.
084 MAFA Effect The average face of a local
population is generally more attractive than
any individual face.
• People find the most average facial appearance (MAFA) of a population
more attractive than faces that deviate from the average. Population refers to
the group in which a person lives or was raised.
• The effect may be due to the fact that evolution tends to select out
extremes. Therefore, a preference for averageness, which results in increased
symmetry, may have evolved as an indicator of fitness.
• Use composite images of faces from target populations to represent local
perceptions of beauty.
• Consider digital compositing and morphing software to create attractive
faces from common faces for advertising and marketing campaigns,
especially when real models are unavailable or budgets are limited.
See Also Attractiveness Bias • Baby-Face Bias • Symmetry
Two generations of composites of four males were sufficient to average out idiosyncratic features and
increase symmetry.
085 Magic Triangle A triangular relationship
between facial features that creates the
illusion of sentience.
• The magic triangle is a triangular relationship between the eyes, nose, and
mouth, developed by Don Sahlin, chief designer of the Muppets.
• In the triangle, pupils are slightly crossed, creating the illusion of focus—
like the character is looking at you.
• Smaller pupils make characters look older. Larger pupils make characters
look younger.
• Eye placement is considered the most important aspect of the magic
triangle. This is the feature that gives life to the character. It is always done
last.
• Consider the magic triangle in the design of physical and illustrated
characters. Set the eyes last, ensuring a point of focus. Align the size of the
eyes and pupils to the age of characters.
See Also Anthropomorphism • Uncanny Valley
The magic triangle brings character faces to life, creating the illusion of intelligence and self-awareness.
086 Mapping A correspondence in layout and
movement between controls and the things
they control.
• Good mapping occurs when there is a strong correspondence in layout and
movement between controls and the things they control. Good mapping
makes things intuitive to use.
• Bad mapping occurs when there is a weak correspondence in layout and
movement between controls and the things they control. Bad mapping makes
things counterintuitive to use.
• For example, pushing a switch up to move a car window up is good
mapping. Pushing a switch up to move a car window down is bad mapping.
• Ensure good mapping in your designs to minimize errors and make things
easy to use.
See Also Affordance • Constraint • Nudge • Proximity Similarity • Visibility
Which stove control turns on which burner? Bad mapping (top) makes it unclear. Good mapping (bottom)
makes it intuitive.
087 MAYA A strategy for determining the
most commercially viable aesthetic for a
design.
• The most advanced yet acceptable principle (MAYA) was proposed by
Raymond Loewy, the father of industrial design.
• MAYA asserts that aesthetic appeal is a balancing act between uniqueness
and familiarity—i.e., a product should stretch the definition of a product
category, but still be recognizable as a member of that category.
• The principle has been tested empirically, and it does appear that the most
novel design that is also somewhat familiar has the greatest aesthetic appeal.
• Consider MAYA when designing for general audiences. In contexts where
aesthetic assessments are made by design or art experts, MAYA does not
apply. In these cases, novelty is weighed more heavily than familiarity.
See Also Form Follows Function • IKEA Effect Mere-Exposure Effect • von
Restorff Effect
MAYA explorations by Raymond Loewy demonstrating how the ideal aesthetic form of common products
changes over time.
088 Mental Model A mental simulation of how
things work.
• People understand and interact with things by comparing their mental
models with the real world. People make errors when their mental models
disagree with how things really work.
• Mental models about how things work are called system models. Mental
models about how people interact with things are called interaction models.
• Engineers necessarily have strong system models, but typically have weak
interaction models. Users develop strong interaction models, but typically
have weak system models. Designers must develop strong system and
interaction models.
• Leverage existing mental models in design, referencing established
conventions and behaviors. Develop strong interaction models by personally
using products—i.e., “eating your own dog food”—and observing people
using the product.
See Also Affordance • Expectation Effects • Visibility
When an interaction model contradicts convention—as with anti-lock brakes—potential benefits can be slow
to materialize.
089 Mere-Exposure Effect The more people
are exposed to a stimulus, the more they like
it.
• Repeated exposure to a neutral or positive stimulus makes people like it
more. Repeated exposure to a negative stimulus makes people like it less.
• The mere-exposure effect is used in music, slogans, images,
advertisements, and political campaigns.
• The mere-exposure effect is strongest during the first 10–20 exposures.
Brief exposures are more effective than long exposures.
• Consider the mere-exposure effect to strengthen advertising and marketing
campaigns, enhance the credibility and aesthetic of designs, and improve the
way people think and feel about a message or product. Keep the exposures
brief, and separate them with periods of delay.
See Also Classical Conditioning • Cognitive Dissonance Framing • Priming
• Stickiness
The mere-exposure effect is commonly used to increase the likability and support of political leaders. Similar
techniques are used in marketing, advertising, and electoral campaigns.
090 Mimicry Copying properties from
familiar things in order to realize benefits of
those properties.
• In design, mimicry refers to copying pre-existing solutions to problems.
There are three kinds of mimicry: surface, behavioral, and functional.
• Surface Mimicry: copying the way things look (e.g., knock-offs of
expensive brands or products).
• Behavioral Mimicry: copying the way things act (e.g., robots simulating
human facial expressions).
• Functional Mimicry: copying the way things work (e.g., mimicking the
keypad of an adding machine in the design of a touch-tone telephone).
• Mimicry is perhaps the oldest and most efficient method for achieving
advances in design. Consider mimicry as one approach in solving problems,
considering the surface, behavioral, and functional properties of both natural
and man-made things.
See Also Anthropomorphism • Baby-Face Bias Savanna Preference •
Supernormal Stimulus
Scuba suits that mimic the black and white banding of the Indo-Pacific sea snake show promise as a shark
deterrent.
091 Mnemonic Device A technique for making
things easier to remember through patterns of
letters or associations.
• Types of mnemonic devices include the following: first-letter, keyword,
rhyme, and feature-name.
• First-Letter: The first letter of items to be recalled are used to form the first
letters in a meaningful phrase, or combined to form an acronym.
• Keyword: A word that is similar to a word or phrase that is linked to a
familiar bridging image.
• Rhyme: One or more words in a phrase are linked to other words through
rhyming schemes.
• Feature-Name: A word that is related to one or more features that is linked
to a familiar bridging image.
• Use mnemonic devices to increase memorability of logos, slogans, and rote
facts. Favor concrete words and images to leverage familiar concepts.
See Also Recognition Over Recall • Serial Position Effects Stickiness • von
Restorff Effect
Clever use of mnemonic devices can dramatically increase recall, as with this unforgettable dance studio
logo.
092 Modularity Managing system complexity
by dividing large systems into smaller, self-
contained systems.
• Modularity involves identifying groups of functions in systems, and then
transforming those groups into self-contained units or modules.
• Modular designs are easier to repair, scale, and upgrade, but are
significantly more complex to design than nonmodular systems.
• Most systems do not begin as modular systems. They are incrementally
transformed to be modular as function sets mature.
• Modular designs encourage innovation. They create opportunities for third
parties to participate in structured design and development.
• Consider modularity when designing complex systems. Design modules
that conceal their complexity and communicate with other modules through
simple, standard interfaces.
See Also Cost-Benefit • Flexibility Trade-Offs • Self-Similarity
Google’s Project Ara is reinventing the cell phone using modularity. This should reduce costs and open
innovation.
093 Normal Distribution A data set in which
many independently measured values of a
variable are plotted.
• A normal distribution is a data set in which most of the data are close to the
average, and the rest are equally distributed on either side of the average.
The result is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
• Normal distributions are found everywhere—annual temperature averages,
stock market fluctuations, student test scores—and are thus commonly used
to determine the parameters of a design.
• Do not design for the average person. For example, a shoe designed for the
average foot size would fit only about 68 percent of the population.
• Aspire to create designs that accommodate 98 percent of a population.
While it is sometimes possible to design for everyone, this generally results
in diminishing returns.
See Also Convergence • MAFA Effect • MAYA • Selection Bias
The measures of men and women are normally distributed. The wide range of measures across the
distribution illustrates the problem of simply designing for an average person.
094 Not Invented Here A tendency to oppose
ideas and innovations that originate outside of
your social group.
• The not-invented-here bias (NIH) is an organizational phenomenon in
which groups resist ideas and contributions from external sources, often
resulting in “reinventing the wheel”.
• Four social dynamics appear to underlie NIH: belief that internal
capabilities are superior to external capabilities, fear of losing control, desire
for credit and status, and significant emotional and financial investment in
internal initiatives.
• The primary ways to overcome NIH are educating the organization about
the bias, encouraging collaboration with outsiders, and increasing familiarity
with products from partners and competitors.
• Raise awareness of NIH and its underlying social dynamics in your
organization. Recognition is the first step to both recovery and prevention.
See Also Cognitive Dissonance • Design by Committee
In 1982, Timex licensed the Sinclair ZX-81 for resale in the U.S. Sales were strong. The not-invented-here
bias led Timex to make hardware changes, which created software compatibility problems. Timex dropped
out of the computer market in 1984.
095 Nudge A method of modifying behavior
without restricting options or changing
incentives.
• Nudges use the following methods to modify behavior: smart defaults,
clear feedback, aligned incentives, structured choices, and visible goals.
• Smart Defaults: Select defaults that do the least harm and most good versus
the most conservative defaults.
• Clear Feedback: Provide clear, visible, and immediate feedback for actions.
• Aligned Incentives: Align incentives to preferred behaviors, avoiding
incentive conflicts.
• Structured Choices: Provide the means to simplify and filter complexity to
facilitate decision making.
• Visible Goals: Make simple performance measures clearly visible so that
people can immediately assess their performance against goals.
See Also Constraint • Framing • Gamification • Hick’s Law
Why does etching an image of a fly into urinals reduce spillage by 80 percent? When people see a target,
they try to hit it.
096 Ockham’s Razor Simple designs should be
preferred.
• Named after William of Ockham, a fourteenth-century Franciscan friar and
logician who reputedly made abundant use of the principle.
• Given two functionally equivalent designs, the simpler design should be
preferred.
• Applying Ockham’s razor means cutting unnecessary elements from a
design.
• Proficient designers favor simplicity over ornamentation, supporting use of
Ockham’s razor.
• Apply Ockham’s razor to elements in your design. If the design is no worse
for their loss, apply it again.
See Also Form Follows Function • Horror Vacui • KISS Mapping • Signal-
to-Noise Ratio
The evolution of the iMac proves that no company wields Ockham’s razor with the skill and aggression of
Apple.
097 Operant Conditioning Using rewards and
punishments to modify behavior.
• A technique used to increase behavior by following it with rewards, or
decrease behavior by following it with punishment. Rewards and
punishments are most effective when administered right after a behavior.
• Commonly used in animal training, behavior modification, and incentive
systems.
• Over-rewarding can undermine intrinsic motivation. For example, lavishly
rewarding people to perform tasks they enjoy will diminish their enjoyment
of those tasks.
• Predictable reward schedules result in low performance that extinguishes
quickly if the rewards stop. Less predictable reward schedules result in high
performance that is resistant to extinction if rewards stop.
• Consider operant conditioning to change behaviors. Avoid over-rewarding
behaviors when intrinsic motivation exists. Favor unpredictable over
predictable reward schedules for peak performance.
See Also Classical Conditioning • Gamification • Shaping
Whether a lever-pressing rat or a slot-playing human, rewards delivered right after the behavior make it
addictive by design.
098 Orientation Sensitivity Certain line
orientations are more quickly and easily
processed and discriminated than others.
• People can accurately judge vertical and horizontal lines, but have
problems judging diagonal lines.
• Lines differing in orientation by more than 30 degrees from a background
of lines are easy to detect, and differing by less than 30 degrees difficult to
detect.
• Compositions where the primary elements have vertical or horizontal
orientations are considered more aesthetic than diagonal orientations.
• Consider orientation sensitivity in compositions requiring discrimination
between lines. Facilitate discrimination between lines by making their
orientation differ by more than 30 degrees. Use horizontal and vertical lines
as visual anchors to enhance aesthetics and maximize discrimination.
See Also Alignment • Figure-Ground • Good Continuation Highlighting •
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Harry Beck’s classic London Tube map is both aesthetically pleasing and easy to read because railway lines
are only represented in vertical, horizontal, and 45-degree orientations.
099 Performance Load The mental and
physical effort required to complete a task.
• There are two types of performance load: cognitive and kinematic.
• Cognitive load is the mental effort required to accomplish a goal (e.g.,
recalling a new phone number). Kinematic load is the physical effort
required to accomplish a goal (e.g., dialing a phone number).
• When performance load is high, time and errors increase. When
performance load is low, time and errors decrease.
• Minimize cognitive load by reducing information density, reducing the
mental effort required to perform tasks, and automating tasks when possible.
• Minimize kinematic load by reducing the number of steps in tasks,
reducing the physical effort required to perform tasks, and automating tasks
when possible.
See Also Accessibility • Cost-Benefit • Depth of Processing
Classic photo from a time-motion study conducted by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth to reduce time and effort to
perform tasks.
100 Performance vs. Preference Increasing
performance does not necessarily increase
desirability.
• People often believe that a functionally superior design—the proverbial
“better mousetrap”—is good design. This is not necessarily correct.
• The reasons people favor one design over another is a combination of
many factors, and may have nothing to do with performance, but with
preference.
• Preferences may be based on innate tendencies, cultural biases, aesthetic or
emotional considerations, or legacy practices and conventions.
• Success in design is multivariate. Consider both performance and
preference factors in design to maximize the probability of success. Beware
the trap of creating a superior product in one dimension, but having it fail
due to neglect of other dimensions.
See Also Aesthetic-Usability Effect • Control • Desire Lines Flexibility
Trade-Offs • Hierarchy of Needs
The performance advantages of the Dvorak keyboard are no match for the generations of users trained on
QWERTY.
101 Phonetic Symbolism The meaning
conveyed by the sounds of words.
• Certain letter sounds symbolize size, gender, and aggression, and reinforce
these meanings in words.
• Consonant sounds with a constant flow of air—such as the letters s , f , v , z
—are associated with smallness, femininity, and passivity. Consonant sounds
where the air is blocked—like the letters p , k , t , b , g , d , hard c —are
associated with largeness, masculinity, and aggression.
• Vowel sounds that widen the mouth, as with a smile—e (bee), i (sit), a
(hate), e (best)—are associated with smallness, femininity, and passivity.
Vowel sounds that bring the mouth into a circle—o (dome), o (caught), a
(can), u (food), u (put), u (luck), a (cot)—are associated with largeness,
masculinity, and aggression.
• Consider phonetic symbolism in naming and pricing. Ensure that the
phonetic symbolism of brands and important numbers are congruent with
their meanings.
See Also Affordance • Priming • Propositional Density
Phonetic symbolism makes these terms from Game of Thrones somewhat intelligible even though the
languages are fictional.
102 Picture Superiority Effect Pictures are
remembered better than words.
• Pictures are better recognized and recalled than words, although memory
for pictures and words together is superior to either one alone.
• When recall is measured immediately after the presentation of pictures or
words, recall for both is equal. When recall is measured more than thirty
seconds after presentation, pictures are recalled significantly better.
• The recall advantage increases when exposure is casual and time-limited.
For example, walking by an advertisement with a picture is more likely to be
recalled than an advertisement without a picture.
• Use the picture superiority effect to improve recognition and recall. Use
pictures and words together when possible, ensuring that they reinforce one
another for optimal effect.
See Also Iconic Representation • Inattentional Blindness Mere-Exposure
Effect • Recognition Over Recall
The authors know you are looking at the pictures in this book first, and then begrudgingly reading the text
when needed.
103 Priming Activating specific concepts in
memory to influence subsequent thoughts and
behaviors.
• Priming is the intentional activation of specific memories in an audience
for the purposes of influence.
• When we perceive the outside world, associated memories are
automatically activated. Once activated, these memories can influence
subsequent thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
• Priming will not induce people to act against their values, but it can
increase the probability of people of engaging in behaviors consistent with
their values.
• Consider priming in all aspects of design. First impressions and antecedent
events are opportunities to influence subsequent reactions and behaviors.
See Also Expectation Effects • Framing • Nudge Red Effects • Serial-
Position Effects
A poster that primes being watched versus a generic poster can significantly reduce malfeasant behavior.
104 Progressive Disclosure A method of
managing complexity, in which only necessary
or requested information is displayed.
• Progressive disclosure is used to prevent information overload and provide
step-by-step guidance. It involves separating information into layers, and
only presenting layers that are necessary or relevant.
• Progressive disclosure is used in user interfaces, instructional materials,
and the design of physical spaces. It can also be applied to differentially
support users of different skill levels; for example, displaying advanced
features to advanced users only.
• Use progressive disclosure to reduce information complexity. Consider
hiding infrequently used controls or information, but make them available
through simple requests, such as pressing a “More” button. When procedures
are sensitive to error, use progressive disclosure to lead novices through the
procedure step by step.
See Also Control • Errors • Layering • Performance Load
Theme parks progressively disclose lines so that only small segments of the line can be seen from any
particular point.
105 Propositional Density The relationship
between the elements of a design and the
meanings they convey.
• A proposition is a simple statement about a thing that cannot be made
simpler. Propositional density is the amount of information conveyed per
unit element.
• There are two types of propositions: surface and deep. Surface propositions
are visible elements. Deep propositions are the meanings they convey.
• Propositional density can be estimated by dividing the number of deep
propositions by the number of surface propositions. A propositional density
greater than one makes things engaging and memorable.
• Strive to achieve the highest propositional density possible, but make sure
the deep propositions are complementary. Contradictory deep propositions
confuse the message and nullify the benefits.
See Also Framing • Inverted Pyramid • Stickiness
Barack Obama’s 2008 campaign logo has a high propositional density, a key to its success. There are three
visible elements (e.g., blue circle), and approximately ten meanings (e.g., O for Obama, American flag, etc.).
PD = 10 / 3 = 3.33.
106 Prospect-Refuge A preference for
environments with unobstructed views, areas
of concealment, and paths of retreat.
• The design goal of prospect-refuge is to create spaces where people can see
without being seen.
• People prefer the edges versus middles of spaces, ceilings or covers
overhead, spaces with few access points, and spaces that provide
unobstructed views from multiple vantage points.
• Consider prospect-refuge in the creation of landscapes, residences, offices,
and communities.
• Create multiple vantage points within a space, so that the internal and
external areas can be easily surveyed.
• Make large, open areas more appealing by using screening elements to
create partial refuges.
See Also Biophilia Effect • Cathedral Effect Defensible Space • Savanna
Preference
The design of a cafe from the perspective of prospect-refuge.
107 Prototyping Rapidly building low-fidelity
models to explore ideas and deeply
understand problems.
• Prototyping is research, not development. The goal of prototyping is
understanding.
• Iterative prototyping—i.e., rapidly building a series of prototypes to find
solutions to problems—is the basis of “design thinking”.
• Prototypes should use simple software tools or readily available materials
and makeshift fabrication to accelerate construction. The rate of prototyping
is effectively the rate of learning.
• Discard prototypes once they serve their purpose. Prototypes should
generally not become products.
• Use prototyping to understand problems deeply and explore solutions
quickly. Prototype to the level of understanding: build basic prototypes when
understanding is basic, and build increasingly advanced prototypes as
understanding develops.
See Also Iteration • KISS • Satisficing • Scaling Fallacy
Problem-solving challenges involving many unknowns and time constraints are best solved through rapid
prototyping.
108 Proximity Things that are close together
are perceived to be more related than things
that are farther apart.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• Proximity is one of the most powerful means of indicating relatedness in
design, and will generally overwhelm competing visual cues.
• Degrees of proximity imply degrees of relatedness.
• Certain proximal layouts imply specific kinds of relationships. For
example, touching or overlapping elements are interpreted as sharing one or
more attributes; whereas proximal but nontouching elements are interpreted
as related but independent.
• Arrange elements so that proximity corresponds to relatedness. Ensure that
labels and supporting information are near the elements they describe. Favor
direct labeling over legends or keys.
See Also Common Fate • Figure-Ground • Good Continuation Law of
Prägnanz • Uniform Connectedness
This sign at Big Bend (top) misleads hikers by using proximity incorrectly. The redesign (bottom) fixes the
problem.
109 Readability The ease with which text can
be understood, based on the complexity of
words and sentences.
• Readability is one of the most overlooked and important aspects of design.
• Readability is determined by factors such as word length, word
commonality, sentence length, clauses per sentence, and syllables per
sentence.
• Readability can be improved by omitting needless words and punctuation,
avoiding acronyms and jargon, keeping sentence length appropriate for the
intended audience, and using active voice.
• When targeting a specific reading level, consider readability formulas
designed for this purpose.
• Consider readability when creating designs that involve narrative text.
Ensure that the reading level is audience appropriate. Strive to express
complex concepts in simple ways, using plain language.
See Also Inverted Pyramid • KISS • Stickiness • Storytelling
Fry’s Readability Graph is one of many tools that can be used to ensure that readability of text is audience
appropriate.
110 Reciprocity The tendency for people to
give back to those who have given to them.
• Reciprocity is a tendency to respond to kindness with kindness. Anything
that is perceived as a gift or concession creates the effect.
• The acts that create reciprocity most effectively are meaningful,
personalized, and unexpected. Reciprocity only works if the initiating act is
perceived as sincere.
• For example, a nonprofit organization sending mail-outs that contain
useful, personalized gifts—such as mailing labels—will receive significantly
more donations in greater amounts than sending just a solicitation letter.
• Use reciprocity to promote goodwill, garner attention and consideration,
and move people to action. Apply the principle sincerely and sparingly, else
it will be perceived as manipulative.
See Also Framing • IKEA Effect • Nudge • Scarcity • Shaping
After a decade of mailing out free-trial CDs, AOL increased its subscribership 12,000 percent. The campaign
used reciprocity effectively in the early stages, but they didn’t know when to stop. As people began receiving
multiple CDs, the once novel gesture looked increasingly like a wasteful manipulation.
111 Recognition Over Recall Memory for
recognizing things is better than memory for
recalling things.
• Recognition is easier than recall because recognition tasks provide cues
that facilitate a memory search.
• The principle is often used in interface design. For example, early
computers used command line interfaces, which required recall memory for
hundreds of commands. Modern computers use graphical user interfaces
with commands in menus, which only require recognition of desired
commands.
• Decision making is also influenced by recognition. Familiar options are
selected over unfamiliar options, even when the unfamiliar option may be
the best choice. Recognition of an option is often a sufficient condition for
making a choice.
• Minimize the need for recall whenever possible. Use menus, decision aids,
and similar strategies to make available options clear and visible.
See Also Mere-Exposure Effect • Performance Load • Visibility
On December 9, 1968, Douglas Engelbart gave “The Mother of All Demos”, which laid the foundation for
user interfaces based on recognition over recall. This not only made computers easier to use, it enabled them
to become mass-market products.
112 Red Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color red.
• Red makes women appear more sexual.
• Red makes men appear more dominant.
• Wearing red apparel confers a small competitive advantage in sports
contests.
• Red increases performance on simple physical tasks, but impairs problem
solving and creativity.
• Red promotes competitive behaviors, but undermines cooperative
behaviors.
• Use red to increase general attractiveness, gain an edge in competitive
contexts, and increase competitive behaviors. Avoid red in environments
requiring learning, testing, and cooperation.
See Also Attractiveness Bias • Blue Effects • Priming
A lady in red exaggerates her fertility, making her more sexually attractive to males.
113 Redundancy Using back-up or fail-safe
elements to maintain system performance in
the event of failure.
• Redundancy is the most reliable method of preventing catastrophic failure.
• When the causes of failure cannot be anticipated, use different kinds of
redundancy; for example, having both a hydraulic and a mechanical brake.
• When the causes of failure can be anticipated, use more of the same kinds
of redundancy; for example, using independent strands of fiber to weave a
rope.
• When performance interruptions are not tolerable, make redundant
elements active at all times; for example, using additional columns to
support a roof.
• When performance interruptions are tolerable, make redundant elements
passive but available; for example, having a spare tire in the event of a flat
tire.
See Also Crowd Intelligence • Factor of Safety • Modularity Saint-Venant’s
Principle • Weakest Link
Ample redundancy ensured that Super Cow did not get blown off of his thirty-story perch during hurricane
season.
114 Root Cause The key initiating cause in a
sequence of events that leads to an event of
interest.
• Most problems, especially difficult problems, have multiple causes, and
their proximal causes are rarely their root causes. The root cause is the key
event in a cause-event sequence that leads to a problem.
• Asking “why?” an event occurred five times (plus or minus) is an effective
way to identify root causes.
• For example: Why did the welder burn herself? She wasn’t wearing
protective clothing. Why wasn’t she wearing protective clothing? It was hot
in the room. Why was it so hot? The air conditioner was broken. The root
cause of the accident was a broken AC.
• Focus on root causes when troubleshooting problems. Use the five whys
technique to identify root causes and other elements in the causal chain.
Since asking why can lead to infinite regress, focus on actionable causes that
create the majority of the effects.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Confirmation Bias • Errors • Visibility
A partial cause map exploring root causes for the sinking of the RMS Titanic. It is oversimple to blame the
iceberg.
115 Rosetta Stone A strategy for
communicating novel information using
elements of common understanding.
• The Rosetta Stone is an Egyptian artifact inscribed with one message in
three scripts. Modern knowledge of one of the scripts enabled scholars to
translate the other two unknown scripts.
• Applying the Rosetta Stone principle involves embedding elements of
common understanding in messages, called keys, to act as bridging elements
from the known to the unknown.
• Make it clear that keys are keys, to be interpreted first and used as a point
of reference.
• Deliver messages in stages, with each stage acting as a supporting key for
subsequent stages.
• When you don’t know what level of understanding the recipient will have,
embed multiple keys based on widely understood or universal concepts.
See Also Archetypes • Comparison • Iconic Representation Propositional
Density • Uniform Connectedness
The plaques on the Pioneer space probe included multiple keys to help ETs decipher its message, including
representations of hydrogen, the relative position of the Sun to the center of the Galaxy and fourteen pulsars,
and silhouettes of the spacecraft.
116 Rule of Thirds A technique of composition
in which a medium is divided into thirds.
• The rule of thirds is derived from the use of early grid systems in
composition.
• Application of the rule of thirds generally results in aesthetically pleasing
compositions.
• Divide a medium into thirds, both vertically and horizontally, creating an
invisible grid of nine rectangles and four intersections.
• Position key elements at the points of intersection on the grid, vertical
elements to vertical lines, and horizontal elements to horizontal lines.
• Do not use the rule of thirds when a composition is symmetrical and
contains one dominant element. Centering in this case will increase dramatic
effect.
See Also Alignment • Area Alignment • Golden Ratio Symmetry • Wabi-
Sabi
This photo from the “Thrilla in Manila” makes excellent use of the rule of thirds, placing the heads of both
fighters at opposing intersections on the grid.
117 Saint-Venant’s Principle Local effects of
loads on structures have negligible global
effects.
• Proposed by French mathematician and engineer Adhémar Barré de Saint-
Venant.
• Load effects at one point of concentration on a structure become negligible
a short distance away from that point. For example, overtightening a bolt
deforms just the region that is near the hole.
• Locate loads closer than 3–5 characteristic lengths to merge load effects.
For example, spacing bolts less than 3–5 bolt diameters apart creates a weld-
like join. Separate loads more than 3–5 characteristic lengths to keep load
effects isolated.
• Secure structural and mechanical systems by controlling 3–5 characteristic
aspects of a system. For example, the anchored section of a cantilevered arm
should be 3–5 times the length of the cantilever.
See Also Factor of Safety • Redundancy • Satisficing
Bolts spaced within 3-5 bolt diameters apart (top) have overlapping stress cones, forming a weld-like
connection. Bolts spaced farther apart (bottom) have negligible impact on one another. Both effects are due
to Saint-Venant’s principle.
118 Satisficing A problem solving strategy that
seeks a satisfactory versus optimal solution.
• In certain circumstances, seeking to roughly satisfy—i.e., satisfice—design
requirements is more productive than seeking to optimally satisfy design
requirements.
• When problems are complex or time-constrained, satisficing is more
productive than optimizing.
• Satisficing is the basis for iterative prototyping, design thinking, and most
real-world problem solving. It epitomizes the maxim: “Don’t let perfect be
the enemy of good.”
• Use satisficing versus optimizing when problems are complex or time-
limited—in other words, for most problems most of the time. Once a
problem is solved, the solution can be optimized as time permits.
See Also 80/20 Rule • Cost-Benefit • Iteration • KISS Prototyping • Root
Cause
The legendary makeshift adapter that fit a square CO2 filter to a round receptacle on Apollo 13. NASA
satisficing perfection.
119 Savanna Preference A preference for
savannalike environments over other types of
environments.
• Humans prefer parklike landscapes that feature openness, uniform grass,
scattered trees, visible water, and signs of wildlife.
• The savanna preference likely provided adaptive benefits to human
ancestors—i.e., those who lived in savannas enjoyed a survival advantage
over those who lived in harsher environments.
• The savanna preference is found across all age ranges and cultures, but it is
strongest in children.
• Consider the savanna preference when featuring landscapes in art,
advertising, and other contexts involving depictions of natural environments
—especially contexts involving young children, such as stories, toys, and
play environments.
See Also Archetypes • Biophilia Effect • Defensible Space Prospect-Refuge
• Self-Similarity
The Teletubbies mesmerized children in more than sixty countries and thirty-five languages. Simple stories,
baby-faced creatures, and a savanna landscape equal excellent design for young children.
120 Scaling Fallacy Designs that work at one
scale often do not work at smaller or larger
scales.
• Designs often perform differently at different scales because the forces
involved scale in different ways. Two types of scaling assumptions result in
scaling errors: load and interaction.
• Load assumptions are assumptions that working stresses will be the same
when a design changes scale.
• Interaction assumptions are assumptions that the way people and other
systems interact with a design will be the same when a design changes scale.
• Minimize scaling assumptions in design by raising awareness, testing
assumptions, and researching analogous designs. When you are unable to
verify scaling effects, build in factors of safety.
See Also Factor of Safety • Feedback Loop • Modularity Prototyping •
Redundancy • Satisficing
Flapping to fly works at mid-range scales, but it does not work at very small scales where wings can’t
displace air molecules, or at large scales where the effects of gravity are too great.
121 Scarcity Things become more desirable
when they are in short supply or occur
infrequently.
• Scarce items are more valued than plentiful items.
• Scarcity motivates people to act.
• Apply the principle through: exclusivity, limited access, limited time,
limited number, and surprise.
• The principle holds across the spectrum of human behavior, from mate
attraction to marketing to tactics of negotiation.
• The effect is strongest when the desired object or opportunity is highly
unique, and not easily obtained or approximated by other means.
• Consider scarcity when designing advertising and promotional initiatives,
especially when the objective is to move people to action.
See Also Expectation Effect • Framing • Veblen Effect
The Running of the Brides event at Filene’s Basement offers bargain-basement prices on bridal gowns once a
year, one day only. The competitive shopping chaos that ensues is a case study in the power of scarcity.
122 Selection Bias A bias in the way evidence
is collected that distorts analysis and
conclusions.
• Selection bias results from the non-random sampling of evidence.
Accordingly, it over-represents certain aspects of the evidence and under-
represents others, distorting analysis and conclusions.
• For example, if subscribers of a science magazine are surveyed and their
responses generalized to the overall population, science-minded viewpoints
would be over-represented in the analysis and results.
• Avoid selection bias. Collect data from entire populations when they are
small. Randomly sample from populations when they are large.
• Scrutinize the selected population and sampling methods when evaluating
conclusions based on statistical analysis.
See Also Confirmation Bias • Garbage In-Garbage Out Normal Distribution
• Uncertainty Principle
The red dots indicate areas of combat damage received by surviving WWII bombers. Where would you add
armor to increase survivability? The statistician Abraham Wald recommended reinforcing the areas without
damage. Since these data came from surviving aircraft only, bombers hit in undotted areas were the ones that
did not make it back.
123 Self-Similarity A property in which a
thing is composed of similar patterns at
multiple levels of scale.
• Natural forms exhibit similarity at multiple scales. Accordingly, self-
similarity is often considered a universal aesthetic.
• People find self-similar forms beautiful, especially when the mathematical
density of the pattern resembles savanna-like environments and trees.
• Self-similar modularity is an effective means of scaling systems and
managing complexity.
• Explore self-similarity in all aspects of design: storytelling, music
composition, visual displays, and engineering. Use it to enhance aesthetics,
manage complexity, and scale systems.
See Also Archetypes • Hierarchy • Modularity Savanna Preference •
Similarity • Symmetry
The Mona Lisa photomosaic, the African acacia tree, fractals, and Roman aqueducts all exhibit self-
similarity.
124 Serial Position Effects Things presented at
the beginning and end of a sequence are more
memorable than things presented in the
middle.
• Things presented first generally have the greatest influence; they are not
only better recalled, but influence the interpretation of later items. For
example, words presented early in sentences have more impact than words
presented later.
• Things presented last are more memorable when the presentations are
separated in time, and a person is recalling information or making a selection
soon after the last presentation.
• Use serial position effects to increase recall or influence the selection of
specific items. Present important items at the beginning or end of a sequence
in order to maximize recall.
See Also Chunking • Interference Effects • Left-Digit Effect
Items at the beginning and end of lists are easier to remember than items in the middle. If recall is attempted
10 seconds after the list is presented (RED), recall is about the same. If recall is attempted more than 30
seconds after the list is presented (BLUE), the items at the beginning are still easily recalled, whereas the
items at the end are becoming less memorable.
125 Shaping Training a target behavior by
reinforcing successive approximations of that
behavior.
• First studied by the psychologist B.F. Skinner, a pioneer in behavior
modification.
• Shaping involves breaking down a complex behavior into a chain of simple
behaviors, which are trained one by one until the complex behavior is
achieved.
• Positive reinforcement is provided as an observed behavior increasingly
approximates a target behavior.
• Shaping results in the development of superstitious behaviors when
irrelevant behaviors are accidentally reinforced during training.
• Use shaping to train complex behaviors in games and learning
environments, teach rote procedures, and refine complex motor tasks.
See Also Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning
During WWII, B.F. Skinner used shaping to train pigeons to peck at aerial photographs, creating pigeon-
guided bombs.
126 Signal-to-Noise Ratio The ratio of relevant
to irrelevant information. Good designs have
high signal-to-noise ratios.
• In communication, the form of the information—the signal —is sometimes
degraded, and extraneous information—the noise —is added.
• Signal degradation occurs when information is presented inefficiently:
unclear writing, inappropriate graphs, unnecessary elements, or ambiguous
icons.
• Signal strength occurs when information is presented simply and concisely,
using redundant coding, and highlighting of important elements.
• Maximize signal-to-noise ratio in design. Increase signal by keeping
designs simple. Consider enhancing key aspects of information through
techniques like redundant coding and highlighting. Minimize noise by
removing unnecessary elements, and minimizing the expression of elements.
See Also KISS • Ockham’s Razor • Performance Load
Reduce noise in graphs by removing unnecessary elements and quieting the expression of necessary
elements.
127 Similarity Things that are similar are
perceived to be more related than things that
are dissimilar.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• Similarity indicates and reinforces the relatedness of elements. Lack of
similarity indicates and reinforces differences among elements.
• Color similarity is an effective grouping strategy when there are no more
than 3-4 colors, and the design is still usable by the color blind. Size and
shape similarity are effective grouping strategies when elements are clearly
distinguishable from one another.
• Design elements so that similarity corresponds to relatedness. Design
unrelated- or ambiguously-related items using different colors, sizes, and
shapes.
• Use the fewest colors and simplest shapes possible for the strongest
grouping effects, ensuring that elements are sufficiently distinct to be
detectable.
See Also Chunking • Consistency • Mimicry • Self-Similarity
The Tivo remote control uses buttons of different colors, sizes, and shapes to reduce complexity and improve
usability.
128 Social Trap A tendency to pursue short-
term gains that create long-term losses for the
greater group.
• A situation in which people act to obtain short-term gains, and in so doing
create losses for everyone in their group, including themselves.
• For example, ranchers overgraze cattle on public land. This depletes the
land of grasses faster than the land can replenish. This then starves all of the
ranchers’ cattle, including the original overgrazers.
• Social traps are most problematic when a resource is readily available and
highly desirable, when people compete to access and use that resource, and
when the long-term costs are not visible or easily monitored.
• Mitigate the effects of social traps by enforcing sustainable limits on
resource use (e.g., fishing limits), rewarding cooperation and punishing
freeloading, and increasing the visibility of long-term costs.
See Also Confirmation Bias • Gamification • Nudge Sunk Cost Effect •
Uncertainty Principle • Visibility
Despite everyone wanting to get home as fast as possible, traffic jams occur—but rarely on tollways. Having
to pay tolls to drive on the roads moderates use, mitigating the social trap.
129 Stickiness A formula for increasing the
recognition, recall, and voluntary sharing of
an idea.
• Stickiness explains why certain ideas go viral and become lodged in the
cultural consciousness. It is characterized by the following six attributes,
which form the mnemonic SUCCES :
1. Simple: Sticky ideas can be expressed simply and succinctly without
sacrificing depth.
2. Unexpected: Sticky ideas contain an element of surprise, which grabs
attention.
3. Concrete: Sticky ideas are specific and concrete, typically using plain
language or imagery.
4. Credible: Sticky ideas are believable, often communicated by a
trusted source.
5. Emotional: Sticky ideas elicit an emotional reaction.
6. Stories: Sticky ideas are expressible as stories, increasing their
memorability and retelling.
See Also Inverted Pyramid • Storytelling • von Restorff Effect
From WWII British motivational poster to modern-day meme, the enduring popularity of the message owes
to its stickiness.
130 Storytelling Evoking imagery, emotions,
and understanding through the presentation
of events.
• Storytelling is the original method of passing knowledge from one
generation to the next.
• Good storytelling requires certain fundamental elements, including a
setting (e.g., time and place), characters with whom the audience can
identify, a plot that ties events together, events and atmospherics that evoke
emotions, and a pace and flow that maintains the audience’s interest.
• Good storytelling minimizes the storyteller.
• Good stories tend to follow archetypal plots.
• Use storytelling to engage audiences, evoke emotions, and enhance
learning. When successful, an audience will experience and recall the events
of the story in a personal way. It becomes a part of them.
See Also Archetypes • Stickiness • Zeigarnik Effect
The Civil Rights Memorial tells the story of the civil rights movement using all of the fundamental
storytelling elements.
131 Structural Forms There are three
structural strategies for creating things: mass,
frames, and shells.
• Mass structures consist of materials that are piled or stacked to create solid
forms. Their strength is a function of the weight and hardness of the
materials. Consider mass structures for barriers and small shelters, especially
when building materials are limited.
• Frame structures consist of struts joined to form a skeleton. Their strength
is a function of the strength of the elements and joints, and their
organization. Consider frames for large structures.
• Shell structures consist of materials that wrap around to contain a volume.
They maintain their form and support loads without a frame or solid mass
inside. Their strength is a function of their ability to distribute loads
throughout the structure. Consider shell structures for containers, small cast
structures, shelters, and designs requiring large spans.
See Also Factor of Safety • Modularity • Scaling Fallacy
Frames work well for large structures. Shells work well for lightweight shelters. Mass forms work well for
simple barriers.
132 Sunk Cost Effect The tendency to
continue investing in an endeavor because of
past investments in that endeavor.
• People frequently let past investments influence future investments. For
example, you buy a nonrefundable ticket to a show, decide you no longer
want to go to the show, but you go anyway because you paid for it.
• Rationally speaking, past investments, or sunk costs, should not influence
decision making. Only the cost-benefits of current options should influence
decisions.
• People are susceptible to the effect because they fear losses more than they
desire gains, and because they do not want to feel or appear wasteful. The
effect leads people and organizations to make bad decisions, throwing good
money after bad.
• Recognizing the sunk cost effect is the first step to recovery. Focus on
current cost-benefits only. Beware the words, “We have too much invested to
quit.”
See Also Cognitive Dissonance • Cost-Benefit • Framing
The British and French governments funded development of the Concorde SST long after they knew it would
be an economic failure. Why? They had invested too much to quit.
133 Supernormal Stimulus An exaggerated
imitation that elicits a stronger response than
the real thing.
• A supernormal stimulus is a variation of a familiar stimulus that elicits a
response stronger than the stimulus for which it evolved.
• For example, female cuckoos sneak into the nests of other birds to lay their
eggs. Because the cuckoo egg is typically larger and brighter than other
eggs, the nest’s owner gives it preferential attention. The size and brightness
of the egg are supernormal stimuli to the unwitting adoptive mother.
• Supernormal stimuli dramatically influence the way people respond to
brands, products, and services.
• Consider supernormal stimuli to increase attention and interest in logos,
brands, products, and advertising. Explore stimuli involved in well-
established biases and preferences for greatest effect.
See Also Baby-Face Bias • Gloss Bias • Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Exaggerations of things we have evolved to like—e.g., attractive features, fat and sugar, baby-faces—grab
our attention.
134 Symmetry A property of visual
equivalence among elements.
• Symmetry is the most basic and enduring aspect of beauty. It is ubiquitous
in nature.
• There are three basic types of symmetry: reflection, rotation, and
translation.
• Reflection symmetry refers to mirroring elements around a central axis or
mirror line.
• Rotation symmetry refers to rotating elements around a common center.
• Translation symmetry refers to locating equivalent elements in different
areas of space.
• Use symmetry to convey balance, harmony, and stability. Use simple
symmetries when recognition and recall are important. Use combinations of
symmetries when aesthetics and interestingness are important.
See Also Area Alignment • MAFA • Self-Similarity • Wabi-Sabi
The Notre Dame Cathedral uses multiple, complex symmetries to create a structure that is as beautiful as it is
memorable.
135 Threat Detection Threatening things are
detected more efficiently than nonthreatening
things.

• People reflexively detect and pay attention to certain threatening stimuli,

such as spiders, snakes, predators, and angry human faces.
• This threat-detection ability provided early human ancestors with an
adaptive advantage. Modern humans have inherited this ability.
• Things possessing key features of threatening stimuli can also trigger threat
detection; for example, a wavy line that looks snakelike.
• Consider using key features of threatening stimuli in your designs to
capture and hold attention.
See Also Archetypes • Black Effects • Contour Bias Freeze-Flight-Fight-
Forfeit • Savanna Preference
In visually complex environments, threatening stimuli are detected more quickly than nonthreatening stimuli.
136 Top-Down Lighting Bias A tendency to
interpret objects as being lit from a single
light source from above.
• People interpret dark areas of objects as shadows resulting from a light
source above the object.
• Things that are lit from the top tend to look natural; whereas things that are
lit from the bottom tend to look unnatural.
• Objects that are lighter at the top and darker at the bottom are interpreted to
be convex, and objects that are darker at the top and lighter at the bottom are
interpreted to be concave.
• Use a single top-left light source to depict natural-looking things. Explore
bottom-up lighting when depicting unnatural-looking or foreboding things.
Adjust the difference between light and dark areas to vary the perception of
depth.
See Also 3D Projection • Figure-Ground Relationship Threat Detection •
Uncanny Valley
The Lincoln Memorial is usually lit top-down (left), but it has on occasion been lit bottom-up (right),
revealing zombie Lincoln.
137 Uncanny Valley Both abstract and
realistic depictions of human faces are
appealing, but faces in between are not.
• When a face is very close but not identical to a healthy human—as with
mannequins or computer-generated renderings of people—it is considered
repulsive. This is the uncanny valley.
• The uncanny valley refers to human features generally, but uncanny faces
are the key source of the revulsion.
• The response is likely due to evolved mechanisms for detecting and
avoiding people who are sick or dead.
• Until robots, computer renderings, and mannequins are indistinguishable
from humans, favor more abstract versus realistic depictions of faces.
Negative reaction is more sensitive to motion than appearance, so be
particularly cognizant of jerky or unnatural facial expressions and eye
movements.
See Also Anthropomorphism • Attractiveness Bias Threat Detection • Top-
Down Lighting Bias
Mannequins that are realistic—but not perfectly realistic—are considered repulsive, dwelling in the uncanny
valley.
138 Uncertainty Principle Measuring things
can change them, often making the results
and subsequent measurements invalid.
• Measuring sensitive variables in a system can alter them, undermining the
validity of the results and the instrument of measure.
• For example, event logging in computers increases the visibility of how the
computer is performing, but it also consumes computing resources, which
interferes with the performance being measured.
• The uncertainty introduced by a measure is a function of the sensitivity of
variables in a system and the invasiveness of the measure. Beware using
invasive measures, for they can permanently alter system behaviors and lead
to unintended consequences.
• Use minimally invasive measures of performance whenever possible.
Remember the maxim: Not everything that can be counted counts, and not
everything that counts can be counted.
See Also Abbe • Feedback Loop • Garbage In-Garbage out
Many weight-loss programs promote keeping a food journal to lose weight—i.e., writing down everything
you eat. Why does this work? Tracking what you eat changes how you eat.
139 Uniform Connectedness Things connected
by lines or boxes are perceived to be more
related than things not connected.
• One of the Gestalt principles of perception.
• There are two strategies for applying uniform connectedness: connecting
lines and common regions.
• Connecting lines touch two or more elements.
• Common regions enclose two or more elements with boxes or shaded
areas.
• Uniform connectedness is the strongest grouping principle, and will
overpower other grouping effects.
• Consider this principle to correct poorly grouped control and display
configurations. Use common regions to group text and clusters of control
elements. Use connecting lines to group individual elements and imply
sequence.
See Also Closure • Common Fate • Figure-Ground Good Continuation •
Proximity • Similarity
Uniform connectedness is a means of grouping elements and overriding competing cues like proximity and
similarity.
140 Veblen Effect A tendency to find a product
more desirable because it has a high price.
• Proposed by the economist Thorstein Veblen.
• In certain cases, higher prices increase demand, and lower prices decrease
demand.
• For example, the effect is most pronounced for items and services that
signal status, such as art, jewelry, clothes, cars, fine wines, hotels, and luxury
cruises.
• High prices increase perceived quality, and low prices decrease perceived
quality.
• Consider the Veblen effect in marketing and pricing. Promote associations
with high status people (e.g., celebrities). Employ strategies to discourage
knockoffs, including legal protection, watermarking, and aggressive counter-
advertising. Set prices high based on the intangible aspects of the offering.
See Also Classical Conditioning • Cognitive Dissonance IKEA Effect • Left-
Digit Effect • Scarcity
Electric cars are historically slow, ugly, and uncool. How to change this perception? Introduce a sexy electric
car in limited numbers, associate it with people of status, and charge a premium. Once product perception
makes the transformation from white elephant to white tiger, introduce lower-priced models. The Tesla
Roadster: Veblen good.
141 Visibility Things in clear view are more
likely to be used than things not in clear view.
• Visible controls and information act as cues for what is and is not possible.
Things that are not seen are less likely to be considered, and this is
especially true when people are under stress.
• Accordingly, systems should clearly indicate their status, the key actions
that can be performed, and the consequences of those actions once
performed.
• Visibility increases probability of use when the number of options is small,
but can overwhelm when the options are numerous. Beware kitchen-sink
visibility.
• Design systems that clearly indicate their status, possible actions, and
consequences of those actions. Balance visibility and complexity by
selectively revealing and concealing controls and information based on
context, relevance, and frequency of use.
See Also Affordance • Control • Performance Load Progressive Disclosure •
Recognition Over Recall
Analysis of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 revealed blind spots that made solving the problems
almost impossible. In addition, alarms were blaring, lights were flashing, and critical system feedback was
routed to a printer that could only print fifteen lines per minute—system status information was more than an
hour behind for much of the crisis.
142 Visuospatial Resonance A phenomenon in
which different images are visible at different
distances.
• Images rendered at a high spatial frequency appear as sharp outlines with
little between-edge detail. High-spatial-frequency images are easily
interpreted up close, but are not visible from a distance.
• Images rendered at a low spatial frequency appear as blurry images with
little edge detail. Low-spatial-frequency images are not visible up close, but
are easily interpreted from a distance.
• When images rendered at different spatial frequencies are combined, the
result is visuospatial resonance. The effect can be stunning.
• Consider visuospatial resonance as a means of increasing the
interestingness of posters and billboards, and masking sensitive information.
See Also Figure-Ground Relationship • Law of Prägnanz
A hybrid image of two people at different spatial frequencies. Up close: Albert Einstein. Far away: Marilyn
Monroe.
143 von Restorff Effect Uncommon things are
easier to recall than common things.
• Proposed by German psychiatrist Hedwig von Restorff.
• The von Restorff effect results from the increased attention given to novel
things relative to other things.
• For example, in the set of characters EZQL4PMBI, people will have
heightened recall for the 4 because it is the only number in the sequence.
• The strength of the effect is a function of the novelty of the thing to be
recalled.
• Apply the von Restorff effect to attract attention and increase
memorability. Since recall for the middle items in a sequence is weaker than
items at the beginning or end, use the von Restorff effect to boost recall for
middle items. Consider unusual words, sentence constructions, and images
to improve interestingness and recall.
See Also Highlighting • Layering • Mnemonic Device Serial Position Effects
• Stickiness • Threat Detection
The highly distinctive form of the Wienermobile makes it—and the Oscar Mayer brand—completely
unforgettable.
144 Wabi-Sabi An aesthetic style that
embodies naturalness, simplicity, and subtle
imperfection.
• In sixteenth-century Japan, a student was tasked to tend the garden. He
cleared the garden of debris and raked the grounds. Once the garden was
perfectly groomed, he proceeded to shake a cherry tree, causing a few
flowers and leaves to fall randomly to the ground. This is wabi-sabi.
• Wabi refers to beauty achieved through subtle imperfection. Sabi refers to
beauty that comes with the passage of time.
• Wabi-sabi runs contrary to many innate biases and aesthetic conventions
(e.g., preference for symmetry).
• Consider wabi-sabi when designing for audiences with sophisticated design
sensibilities. Use elements that embody impermanence, imperfection, and
incompleteness. Favor colors drawn from nature, natural materials and
finishes, and organic forms.
See Also Desire Line • Ockham’s Razor • Zeigarnik Effect
Deborah Butterfield uses found pieces of metal and wood in her horse sculptures. Equine wabi-sabi.
145 Waist-to-Hip Ratio A preference for a
particular ratio of waist size to hip size in men
and women.
• The waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is a significant factor in determining the
attractiveness of people and anthropomorphic objects.
• WHR is primarily a function of testosterone and estrogen levels, and
therefore serves as a biological signal of reproductive potential.
• WHR is calculated by dividing the circumference of the waist by the
circumference of the hips.
• Men prefer women with a WHR between 0.67–0.80. Women prefer men
with a WHR between 0.85–0.95.
• Consider WHR when depicting attractive people and anthropomorphic
objects. Feminize objects by making their WHRs approximate 0.7 and
masculinize objects by making their WHRs approximate 0.9.
See Also Anthropomorphism • Attractiveness Bias Baby-Face Bias •
Supernormal Stimulus
When asked to pick the most attractive bodies, people favored female A and male C, corresponding to WHRs
of 0.70 and .90.
Mannequins have changed with the times, but their WHRs have been 0.70 for women and 0.90 for men for
over five decades.
146 Wayfinding The process of using spatial
and environmental information to navigate to
a destination.
• Wayfinding involves orientation, route decision, route monitoring, and
destination recognition.
• Support orientation using clearly identifiable “you are here” landmarks and
signs.
• Support route decisions by minimizing the number of navigational choices,
and providing signs or prompts at key decision points.
• Support route monitoring by connecting locations with paths that have
clear beginnings, middles, and ends. Provide regular confirmations that the
path is leading to the destination.
• Support destination recognition by disrupting the flow of movement
through a space using barriers or dead ends, and giving destinations clear
identities.
See Also Mental Model • Progressive Disclosure Rosetta Stone • Visibility
The London 2012 Olympic Park used landmarks, signage, simple routes, and destination markers to support
wayfinding.
147 Weakest Link An element designed to fail
in order to protect more important elements
from harm.
• Weakest links work in two ways: halting systems when they fail (e.g.,
electrical fuse), or activating mitigation systems when they fail (e.g., fire
suppression system).
• Properly designed, the weakest link in a chain is the most important link.
• Weakest links predictably and reliably fail first.
• Weakest links are applicable to systems with cascading fault conditions—
i.e., when there is a chain of events that can be interrupted.
• Consider adding weakest links to systems where failures occur as
cascading events. Test and verify that weakest links only fail under the
appropriate, predefined failure conditions.
See Also Errors • Factor of Safety • Feedback Loop Modularity •
Redundancy
Crumple zones are one of the most significant automobile safety innovations of the twentieth century. The
front and rear sections of vehicles are designed to crumple in a collision, reducing the energy transferred to
the passenger shell.
148 White Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color white.
• White is universally associated with goodness and security, likely due to an
evolved association with daytime and a reduced vulnerability to predators.
• White signals passivity, submission, and cleanliness.
• Sports teams wearing predominately white uniforms are perceived to be
less aggressive and less likely to cheat than those wearing dark colors.
Accordingly, they incur fewer penalties.
• White products are generally perceived to be classy, high value, and
timeless.
• Use white to increase perceived value in products, and perceived authority
in people. Consider white to create a sense of peacefulness and submission.
See Also Archetypes • Black Effects • Red Effects Supernormal Stimulus •
Threat Detection
Archetypal heroes wear mostly white to signal their goodness, but with a dash of black to make them tough
and intimidating.
149 Yellow Effects A set of cognitive and
behavioral effects triggered by exposure to
the color yellow.
• Yellow is the most visible color to the eye, likely the result of an evolved
sensitivity for detecting ripe fruit.
• When people eat a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, carotenoids give their
skin a subtle, but detectable, yellow glow. This glow increases attractiveness.
• Yellow pills and chemicals are perceived to be stimulative and energetic.
• Yellow legal pads and yellow stickies may foster concentration and
problem solving.
• Yellow clothes decrease attractiveness in both males and females more than
any other color.
• Use yellow to grab attention, signal energy and potency, and promote
problem solving. When attractiveness is key, generally avoid yellow apparel.
See Also Green Effects • Supernormal Stimulus • White Effects
Painting fire trucks yellow versus red reduces the risk of visibility-related accidents by three times.
150 Zeigarnik Effect A tendency to experience
intrusive thoughts about a task that was
interrupted or left incomplete.
• Proposed by Soviet psychiatrist and psychologist Bluma Zeigarnik.
• The unconscious mind seeks closure and completion, and preoccupies the
conscious mind until it gets it. Accordingly, interrupted or incomplete tasks
are better remembered than completed tasks.
• Once an interrupted task is completed, the recall benefits are lost. For
example, waiters have better recall for in-process orders than served orders.
• The effect is strongest when people are highly motivated to complete a
task.
• Apply the Zeigarnik effect to engage and maintain attention. For example,
the “To be continued…” device is used in cliffhangers to keep people
interested. Most importantly, never use the Zeigarnik effect to…
See Also Closure • Flow • Gamification • IKEA Effect
A never-ending series of puzzles leaves Tetris players shifting blocks in their dreams, a condition dubbed the
Tetris Effect.
Credits 3D Projection
Photograph by Flickr user Bill Hunt via
Flickr through Creative Commons license.
Accessibility
Photograph by Gerry Manacsa.

Aesthetic-Usability Effect
Photograph courtesy of Arnell.

Archetypes
Images courtesy of Sue Weidemann Brill. Design concepts by Michael Brill,
illustrations by Safdar Abidi. For more information about Michael Brill’s work,
please visit www.bosti.com .

Area Alignment
Images © 2008 Jupiterimages Corporation.

Attractiveness Bias
Photographs of Kennedy and Nixon © Bettman/Corbis.

Back-of-the-Dresser
Photographs by Paul Brennan/Hemera/Thinkstock Biophilia Effect
Photograph by Urban Land Institute via Flickr through Creative Commons
license.

Black Effects
“I Am Alex” photo by Robyn Arouty. For more information about Robyn’s work,
please visit www.robynarouty.com

Blue Effects
Images created by kovacevicmiro/iStock/Thinkstock.

Chunking
The Mona Lisa photomosaic is by Robert Silvers/Runaway Technology Inc. For
more information about the work of Robert Silvers, please visit
www.photomosiac.com . The Acacia Tree photograph is courtesy of U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. The aqueduct photograph is by Prioryman via Wikipedia
through Creative Commons license.

Classical Conditioning
Poster courtesy of Texas Department of Transportation. Photograph by Rob Buck.
Advertising campaign by Sherry Matthews Advocacy Marketing. For more
information about Jacqueline’s story and recovery progress, please visit
www.helpjacqui.com .

Closure
The USA Network logo © NBCUniversal, Inc., a division of NBC Universal. The
IBM logo © IBM. The WWF logo is © World Wildlife Fund. All rights reserved.

Constancy
Photograph by Richard Lyon (Flickr user The_Gut) via Flickr through Creative
Commons license.

Constraint
The Apple iPod is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cost-Benefit
Photograph courtesy of Oru Kayak.

Desire Line
Photograph by Carl Huber.

Expectation Effects
Photograph of Wine Bottle by Visivasnc/iStock/Thinkstock.

Feature Creep
Photograph of “The Vasa form the Bow” by Flickr user JavierKohen via Flickr
through Creative Commons license.

Fitts’ Law
Photograph by Joe Shlabotnik via Flickr through Creative Commons license.

Flexibility Trade-Offs
Photograph by Volodymyr Krasyuk/iStock/Thinkstock Forgiveness
Photograph courtesy of Ballistic Recovery Systems, Inc.
Form Follows Function
Photograph by Willard/iStock/ThinkStock.

Framing
Advertisement courtesy of the Ohio State University Department of History.

Gamification
Photograph by Flickr user KJ Vogelius via Flickr through Creative Commons
license.

Gloss Bias
Photograph of Nokia X2 courtesy of Nokia. Photograph of car by Robert
Churchill/iStock/Thinkstock. Photograph of rocks by
Amawasri/iStock/Thinkstock. Photograph of lips by dmitry
zubarev/iStock/Thinkstock.

Golden Ratio
The Apple iPod is a registered trademark of Apple Computer, Inc.

Hierarchy of Needs
Photograph of the dog by Flickr user Richard Masoner/Cyclelicious. Photograph
of paintball helmet by Flickr user Gordon Tarpley. Photograph of drone by Flickr
user Don McCullough. Photograph of PBS NewsHour helmet by PBS NewsHour .
All photographs via Flickr through Creative Commons license.

Hunter-Nurturer Bias
Reprinted from Evolution and Human Behavior, Vol. 23(6), Gerianne M.
Alexander and Melissa Hines, “Sex differences in response to children’s toys in
non-human primates (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus)”, pp. 467-479, Copyright
2002, with permission from Elsevier.

IKEA Effect
Photograph by monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock.

Iteration
Photograph courtesy of NASA.

Mere-Exposure Effect
Posters courtesy of Ota Nepily, Studio Gappo, Brno, Czech Republic. The posters
on this page and similar works are available for purchase at www.poster.wz.cz .
Special thanks to Petr Kuca for his assistance.
Modularity
Photograph courtesy of NewDealDesign, LLC. Photography by Mark Serr
Photography.

Nudge
Photograph by Paul Downey via Flickr through Creative Commons license.

Ockham’s Razor
The Apple iMac is a registered trademark of Apple Computer, Inc.

Priming
Photographs of eyes and flowers © 2008 Jupiterimages Corporation.

Prototyping
Photograph by Derek Sykes, NCR, Inc. Special thanks to Yaakov Greenshpan,
David Martin, and Shelley Armstrong.

Readability
Fry’s Readability Graph reproduced with permission from The McGraw-Hill
Companies.

Reciprocity
Image of AOL CD © 2002 America Online, Inc. All rights reserved.

Red Effects
Photographs of woman © 2008 Jupiterimages Corporation.

Rosetta Stone
Image courtesy of NASA.

Rule of Thirds
Photographs of Ali vs. Liston and Ali vs. Frasier © Bettman/Corbis.

Satisficing
Photograph courtesy of NASA.

Savanna Preference
Photograph of Teletubbies © 1996-2003 Ragdoll Ltd. Used with permission. All
rights reserved.
Scarcity
Photographs from Running of the Brides® courtesy of Filene’s Basement.
Photography by Robb Cohen and Brett Clark.

Self-Similarity
The Mona Lisa photomosaic is by Robert Silvers/Runaway Technology Inc. For
more information about the work of Robert Silvers, please visit
www.photomosiac.com . The Acacia Tree photograph is courtesy of U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service. The aqueduct photograph is by Prioryman via Wikipedia
through Creative Commons license.

Social Trap
Photograph of traffic by Comstock/Stockbyte/Thinkstock. Photograph of toll road
by algre/iStock/Thinkstock.

Storytelling
Photographs of Civil Rights Memorial courtesy of Southern Poverty Law Center.
Photographs by John O’Hagan. Designed by Maya Lin.

Structural Forms
Photographs of RDFW courtesy of Geocell Systems. Pod photograph courtesy of
Sanford Ponder, Icosa Village, Inc.

Sunk Cost Effect

Profile drawing by Emoscopes via Wikipedia through GNU Free Documentation
License. Schmematics by Julien.scavini via Wikipedia through Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

Supernormal Stimulus
Image of Superhero by Gazometr/iStock/Thinkstock. Photograph of Cheesecake
by Lesyy/iStock/Thinkstock. Image of Po © 1996-2003 Ragdoll Ltd. Used with
permission. All rights reserved.

Threat Detection
Photograph of spider by GlobalP/iStock/Thinkstock.

Top-Down Lighting Bias

3D Model by Dan Deentremont from TurboSquid.

Uncanny Valley
Photograph of mannequin one © 2008 Jupiterimages Corporation. Photograph of
mannequin two by Flickr user Dierk Schaefer via Flickr through creative
commons license. Photograph of mannequin three by Flickr user Jesse Swallow
via Flickr through Creative Commons license.

Veblen Effect
Photograph of Tesla Roadster courtesy of Tesla Motors, Inc.

Visibility
Photograph courtesy of United States Department of Energy Visuospatial
Resonance
Hybrid image of Einstein and Monroe courtesy of Aude Olivia, MIT. Source
images for Einstein © Bettman/Corbis and Monroe, Getty Images/Hulton
Archive. Special thanks to Aude Oliva.

von Restorff Effect

Photograph by Jonathunder via Wikipedia through GNU Free Documentation
License.

Wabi-Sabi
Top image is a photograph by Flickr user cpf1. Bottom left image is a photograph
by Flickr user Wonderlane. Bottom middle image is a photograph by Flickr user
Jason Taellious. Bottom right image is a photograph by Flickr user Cliff. All
photographs via Flickr through Creative Commons license.

Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Photograph of mannequins courtesy of Adel Rootstein, Inc. Drawn images
reproduced with permission from Devendra Singh.

Yellow Effects
Photograph by Geo Swan via Flickr through Creative Commons license.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the many contributors whose works are featured,
and ask that readers review the Credits section to learn more about these very
talented individuals and companies. We would also like to extend a special thanks
to Scott O’Connor for his modeling and graphic design support.
About the Authors Principal Authors William
Lidwell
Design gadfly.
Reluctant color expert.
Kritina Holden
NASA human factors guru.
Perfectionist in residence at Lockheed Martin.

Jill Butler
Choreographer of bits and atoms.
Chief Creator at Stuff Creators Design.

Contributing Authors Yen Le Loftin

User-centered industrial designer.
Observer and ponderer.

Andrea Novoa
Industrial designer and fervent list-maker.
Passion for sci-fi and marshmallows.
FOR FRIEND AND MENTOR
David B. Palumbo
© 2015 by Rockport Publishers, Inc.
This edition published in 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the
copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent of the
artists concerned, and no responsibility is accepted by producer, publisher, or printer for any infringement of
copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensure
that credits accurately comply with information supplied.
First published in the United States of America by:
Rockport Publishers, a member of Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
100 Cummings Center
Suite 406-L
Beverly, Massachusetts 01915-6101
Telephone: (978) 282-9590
Fax: (978) 283-2742
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Digital edition: 978-1-62788-366-5
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Design: Stuff Creators Design