Prefixes to know:

nano micro milli kilo mega giga

n µ m k M G
10 -9
10-6 10-3 103 106 109

~*~*~*~*~ELECTRICITY~*~*~*~*~

Equations:
Q = It Q = charge measured in C
W I = current measured in A
V= Q
t = time measured in s
E = IVt V = p.d. measured in V
V = IR W = work done measured in J
P = IV E = energy (work done) measured in J
V2 R = resistance measured in Ω
P = I2R and P =
R P = power measured in W
RA
ρ= ρ = resistivity measured in Ωm
l
A = X-sectional area measured in m2
l = length measured in m
Definitions based on these equations:

Current is the rate of flow of charge Potential difference is the work done
per unit charge
Resistance is a measure of the
difficulty of making current pass Power is defined as the rate at which
through a component electrical energy is transferred by an
electric circuit
Emf is the electrical energy produced
per unit charge passing through the Resistivity is a measure of how
source strongly a material opposes the flow
of electric current
 Ohm’s Law: states that the pd across a metallic conductor is proportional to
the current through it, provided the physical conditions do not
change.

The graphs below show the current against pd for different components:

Diode
Wire I Lamp I ThermistorI I

V V V 0.6
V

Superconductors: A superconductor is a wire or device made from

material that has zero resistivity at and below a critical
temperature (specific to the material). The wire
therefore has zero resistance below this temperature
and when current passes through it, there is no pd across
wasted.

Circuits
Symbols you must learn!
+ - Variable resistor /
Cell Potential divider

Lamp Switch

Lamp A Ammeter

Resistor V Voltmeter

+ -
Lamp
Variable resistor

+
Diode

-
Electron
flow:
I I electrons electrons

R R
Conventional
current
flow:

Rules for current and potential difference:

In series In parallel
Current The current across components The sum of the currents in a
in series is the same parallel circuit add to the
current through the cell or
battery
Potential difference The sum of the pds across all The pd across components in
the components is equal to the parallel is the same
supply pd

*Current splits at a junction and will split in the opposite ratio to the
resistance in each branch*

Resistors in series: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 etc

1 1 1 1
Resistors in parallel: R = R + R + R etc
T 1 2 3

Internal resistance, r, is due to the opposition to the flow of charge

through the source.
E
ε= ε = IR + Ir
Q

When plotting a graph of V against I, should get: p.d./V

 Y-axis intercept is ε ε
 Gradient is –r

I/A
The Potential Divider
Theory: A potential divider circuit consists of 2 or more resistors in series,
and a source of fixed pd. The pd of the source is divided between the
resistors (and any other component in series). Uses are:
 To supply a pd which is fixed at any value between 0 and source pd
 To supply a variable pd
 To supply a pd that varies with a physical condition, egRtemperature
pd across R1 = x V0
1
In the circuit shown: I
R1 + R2
R1 V1

R2
12V pd across R2 = x V0
R2 V2 R1 + R2
(V0)
 Some possible circuits using a potential divider:

Brightness control using a

A temperature sensor A light sensor
variable potential divider

AC Current

A.C. trace
Peak
Voltage
Peak-Peak Zero
Voltage Line

Screen

V0 I0
Vrms = I rms =
2 2

Oscilloscopes
You need to be able to read the scale on the x-axis (time base)
and the y-axis (voltage). Then work out the frequency from the
time base using:
1
f =
T

The oscilloscope may be used as a voltmeter:

Applied pd = 0V

Applied pd = +4V
 Applied pd = -3V

~*~*~*~*~PARTICLES~*~*~*~*~

The atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, composed of protons and

neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus in outer shells

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons. Mass or nucleon
number. It is the
number of
Isotopes are labelled as: protons and
neutrons
238
92 U
Atomic number.
It is the number
of protons only.

ch arg e
Specific charge of a charged particle =
mass

The four fundamental forces:

Force Exchange particle Acts on Range

Gravity Graviton All particles Infinite
Electromagnetic Photon Charged particles Infinite
Strong interaction Gluon Hadrons ~10-15m
Weak interaction W+, W-, Z0 All particles ~10-18m
 Classification of All particles
(matter and
particles: antimatter).

hadrons leptons

baryons Mesons Leptons:

qqq / qqq qq particle antiparticle
electron, e- positron e+
Baryons: Mesons: muon, µ- antimuon, µ+
Proton: uud π0 : u u electron neutrino, υe electron antineutrino, υe
K0: d s
Antiproton: u u d π +: u d muon neutrino, υµ muon antineutrino, υµ
K+: u s
Neutron: udd π-: d u
K-: su
Antineutron: u d d

Some facts!

Hadrons: interact through the strong interaction and decay through the
weak interaction
Leptons: only interact through the weak interaction and the electromagnetic
interaction if they are charged
Baryons are protons and all other hadrons that decay into protons, either
directly or indirectly.
Mesons are hadrons that do not include protons in their decay products.

Alpha particle emission: An unstable nucleus may emit an alpha particle (2

protons and 2 neutrons. Z X →Z −2Y +2 α
A A−4 4

Showing reactions using Feynman Diagrams:

 β- decay β+ decay Electron capture neutron-neutrino proton-antineutrino
collision collision

Conservation p→n+e
n → p + e +ν e laws
− +
+ν e p + e− → n +ν e n +ν e → p + e − p +ν e → n + e +

Charge, Baryon number, Lepton number and sometimes strangeness must be

conserved. The tables below are to be used. Remember for quarks, they are
1/3 of a baryon, so take 1/3 of the charge and baryon number.

Annihilation and Pair Production

Annihilation is the conversion of the mass of a particle and its
antiparticle to energy in the form of a pair of photons of EM radiation.
positron γ ray
+ E = mc2
Where E is energy, m is
mass and c = 3 x 108ms-1
electron
γ ray
E = 511 keV
When an electron and a positron (or a proton and an antiproton, etc.) collide
they may annihilate each other. Both the electron and the positron cease to
exist and two g ray photons are created. It is impossible for there to be
just one photon for this would not allow both energy and momentum to be
conserved.
 Pair production is the process in which a photon of EM radiation ceases
to exist, creating a particle and its antiparticle pair in its place.
~*~*~*~*~THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT~*~*~*~*~

Equations:
E = hf E = energy measured in J
hf = EK + Φ h = Planck’s constant: 6.63 x 10-34

Φ f = frequency measured in Hz
f min =
h EK = max kinetic energy measured in J
hf = E1 – E2 Φ = work function measured in J
λ=
h fmin = threshold frequency measured in J
mv λ = wavelength measured in m
The electronvolt (eV): m = mass measured in kg
1 eV = 1.6 x 1O-19 J v = velocity measured in ms-1

The work function of a metal is the The threshold frequency is the

minimum energy needed by an minimum frequency of light needed to
electron to escape from the metal remove an electron from the surface
surface. of a metal.
Ionisation of an atom is when the
number of electrons in an atom is not Excitation of an electron (or atom)
equal to the number of protons. The can occur by either collision with an
atom has either gained or lost electron or absorption of a photon.
electrons. Both result in the electron being
raised to a higher energy orbit.
Fluorescence occurs when a gas (eg
mercury) in a tube at low pressure has
an electric current passing through it. Wave Particle Duality means that
Electrons collide with orbiting electrons display both particle
electrons from the mercury atoms properties and wave properties,
and excite. When they de-excite they though not simultaneously.
emit photons of UV light which are Example of particle behaviour:
absorbed by the coating in the tube. deflection due to an electric field.
These atoms therefore excite, and Example of wave behaviour: electron
they then de-excite to the ground diffraction tube.
state indirectly, emitting photons of
smaller wavelength which are in the
visible spectrum of light.