Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces

R Sendi and B Goličnik Marušić, Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia
ª 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Glossary Publicspace The description of a public space as one

Active in presence Long-stay active use refers to word emphasises its very characteristic of being an
movement all the time within a place, for example, inseparable entity of a two-way process between both the
playing or ball games. components: people and place. The final unit constituting
Active in transition Movement through a place, such the spatial component of public space is a place’s form
as walking, cycling, or pushing a pram. and its main articulation. A social component of that
Neighbourhood spaces A collective term for all the public space is understood as its daily dynamic pattern of
public spaces within a neighbourhood. uses.
Passive in presence Long-stay passive activity refers
to posing all the time within a place, for example, sitting
or lying down.

Definition of Public Space (especially green spaces), articulation of the built areas,
legibility of the residential area, and means of orientation
Public space is variously addressed in the literature. As within it. Because of its design aspects, public space may also
such, the literature also includes a variety of definitions have an impact on the image of the particular neighbour­
of public space. Generally, however, public space is defined hood. Appropriately designed public spaces (especially
as space to which people normally have unrestricted access green spaces) contribute to the aesthetic quality and to
and right of way. In other words, public places and spaces greater satisfaction of the inhabitants with their residential
are public because anyone is entitled to be physically environment, which is important also as a restorative envir­
present in them. Focusing on the way of engagement in onment, addressing health issues and well-being.
places, public space is open, publicly accessible space Public space often plays an important role in the defini­
where people go for group or individual activities. Public tion of the neighbourhood. Definitions of neighbourhoods
space is thus a place outside the boundaries of individual or are often seemingly synonymous with the idea of commu­
small-group control, used for a variety of often-overlapping nity. Public space is seen as this component of a
functional and symbolic purposes. Accordingly, people neighbourhood where the community has a chance to com­
have access to spaces, access to activities, access to infor­ municate and grow. Such neighbourhood space consists of
mation, and access to resources. Public spaces, therefore, public outdoor territory close to home, which, because of
are usually multipurpose spaces distinguishable from frequent shared use as well as the residents’ collective respon­
completely green, partly green, or nongreen to soft or sibility and familiar association, is considered to be their own.
hard areas between built structures that are accessible to Each community has the means and the potential to
the public in the same way. To sum up, public space is an create its own public places. Thriving public spaces reflect
inseparable entity of a two-way process between both the a strong sense of community, whereas a lack of such char­
components: public (people) and space (place). Public acter of places may lead towards situations where the
space is then not just a spatial frame, a waiting scene residents may feel less connected to each other. Hence,
where an event will occur; it is more – it is publicspace. public spaces give identity to neighbourhoods. They benefit
neighbourhoods economically and socially and provide set­
tings for cultural exchange. Public places are to be successful
The Importance of Public Space within if they are well accessible and well linked with each other as
Residential Neighbourhoods well as with the programmes in the adjacent buildings. They
are successful, when they can provide a variety of activities
Public spaces in residential neighbourhoods play a variety of for different users, when they are pleasing and offer comfort,
roles through their different uses. The major roles of public and, above all, when they support socialisation of users.
space may be identified as recreation, exposure of different Accessibility and linkage refers to convenience, connect­
residents to one another, facilitation of social cohesion and edness, proximity, continuity, reliability, readability, and
intergenerational interaction, contact with nature walkability. Variety of activities and uses should include

ENVIRONMENT 21
22 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces

homegrown quality, vitality, fun, uniqueness, specialness, intergenerational conflicts which, in most cases, appear to
realness, sustainability, affordability, usefulness, celebration, arise from the failure to provide appropriately for the var­
and indigenousness. Comfort and image covers cleanliness, ious activities that take place in social spaces and to take into
greenness, walkability, sittability, spirituality, attractiveness, account the specific public space requirements of specific
safety, charm, and historical aspects, while sociability refers categories of users. Settings that attempt to enforce interac­
to friendliness, storytelling, gossip, stewardship, neighbour­ tion have been found to be less successful than those that
liness, cooperation, diversity, welcomeness, and pride. offer a sufficient level of autonomy between the various user
However, the aforementioned description is essen­ groups. Intergenerational interaction may indeed be desir­
tially a theoretical perception of what public space able but the underlying aim in planning public space should
ought to be, its desired function, and the roles it is ideally be to create a well-balanced system of social spaces that
expected to play. In practice, on the other hand, public offers a great variety of choice and provides a wide range of
spaces often fail to satisfy the needs of their users and may recreational opportunities for the various categories of users.
also be a cause of various undesirable, or even negative, Poor management and inappropriate maintenance of
effects in a residential environment. public space may also lead to negative consequences.
One of the problems commonly associated with public Although the richness of open public green space is
spaces concerns the conflicts that sometimes arise due to often described as the most attractive feature of some
intergenerational and cultural differences between the var­ residential neighbourhoods, their poor management and
ious users. Incompatible interests of different user groups can maintenance may turn them into the neighbourhood’s
limit the freedom of the others. Young people, for example, most resented and most undesired spaces. Inappropriate
are often referred to in the literature as the most aggressive management and maintenance of public spaces may result
public space user group. There are several reasons for these in the creation of a negative image of the neighbourhood
allegations. Young people usually gather in public spaces in as seen by outsiders, and, as a result, this may lead to
large numbers so that the size of the group itself is often dissatisfaction among the residents. Furthermore, failure
intimidating. They also often tend to dominate and appro­ to maintain public spaces properly may lead to the degra­
priate certain public spaces to their own needs, forcefully dation of the aesthetic quality of the neighbourhood and,
excluding other weaker user groups (e.g., small children and in some cases, such places may even become a safety
the elderly). What is important to recognise, however, is that problem. Well-managed and well-maintained public
most young people gather in public spaces only to practice spaces, on the other hand, play a vital role in the devel­
sociability with their counterparts. In the majority of cases, opment of a pleasant residential environment and may
young people do not pose any threat to the rest of the contribute greatly to the creation of a sense of neighbour­
community. A better understanding of cultural issues and hood or community cohesiveness for the residents.
intergenerational differences is crucial for the reduction of
feelings of threatening behaviour of young people.
It is also important to note that practical experience Categories of Public Space
does) not provide much evidence of the intergenerational
interaction that (according to social theory) is so desirable Residential neighbourhoods include a whole spectrum of
and is expected to take place in public spaces. On the public open spaces of which Figure 1 shows the most
contrary, many residential environments experience characteristic.

Neighbourhood park
Open space developed in residential
environments; publicly developed and
managed as part of the zoned open
space of cities, or as part of new private
residential development; may include
playgrounds, sport facilities, and the
like.

Figure 1 (Continued)
 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces 23

Playground
Play areas located in neighbourhoods
frequently include traditional play
equipment such as swings and slides;
amenities for adults such as benches;
and can also include innovative designs
such as adventure playgrounds.

Schoolyard
Play area, developed also as community
use space within a residential
neighbourhood.

Everyday spaces
Publicly accessible open places such
as street corners, steps to buildings,
and the like, which people claim and
use for various activities.

Figure 1 Examples of public open spaces.

Regarding the definition of typology and categorisa- social contexts of places may often overwhelm some
tion of places in neighbourhood public space design, one obvious typological similarities. It is of key importance
needs to be careful in searching for the (proto)types of to know users’ (user groups’) preferences and needs.
public spaces, because differences in spatial as well as When addressing categories of public spaces in a
24 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces

neighbourhood, it is crucial to address equally at least three Like small children, elderly residents constitute that
aspects: physical attributes of places, activities or actual uses, category of users whose outdoor activities are mostly
and users’ conceptions of places. From this point of view, a confined to public spaces within their residential neigh­
category of neighbourhood spaces can be recognised as a bourhood. This is also the category of users that may be
hypernym, a collective term for all the public spaces in the greatly hampered by inappropriate design. It is vital that
neighbourhood. At the same time, it is crucial to pay atten­ public spaces are designed in such a way as to allow small
tion to the provision of private or semiprivate spaces in children and the elderly easy access and peaceful use.
relation to public spaces. Such spaces are particularly rele­ However, users and their activities in public space can
vant in settings where each household is entitled to its own be addressed from different viewpoints: either from the
outdoor space. In such cases, complete enclosure is desirable. designers’ perspective on the composition of a place or
An interesting form of categorisation of public space is from the users’ perspective on quality and quantity of
the home zone. The home zone concept (also referred to as programmes, amenities, and the like. Exploring behaviour
woonerf ), was pioneered in the 1970s in the Netherlands. in a built environment, seeing people’s activities classified
Since then, many countries have successfully transferred the on the basis of the degree of compulsory or voluntary
core concepts and created their own safe areas. Home zones outdoor activities, the literature describes the following:
are an attempt to strike a balance between vehicular traffic
and everyone else who uses the street – the pedestrians, Necessary activities are those that are more or less compul­
cyclists, business people, and residents. Some see home sory. As participants have no choice, their incidence is
zones as a way of ‘reclaiming’ local streets from a traditional only slightly influenced by the physical setting.
domination by cars. Others see it more modestly as a way of Optional activities are those that are undertaken voluntarily, if
trying to restore safety and peace in neighbourhoods that are time and space allow, and weather and setting invite them.
becoming overwhelmed with speeding traffic. Social activities depend on the presence of others in public
Home zones work through the physical alteration of space. They are supported and occur whenever neces­
streets and roads in a residential area. These alterations sary, and optional activities are given better
force motorists to drive with greater care and at lower environmental conditions.
speeds. Many countries support this with legislation However, occupation of a place always relates to time
allowing the home zones to enforce appropriately scale in terms of presence and duration of one’s activity
reduced speed limits. The benches, flower beds, play in a place and to the users themselves, in terms of the way
areas, lampposts, fences, and trees used to furnish the they are engaged with the activity in a place. In terms of
streets and roads offer many additional community ben­ activity and time, three situations are usually significant:
efits to the home zones and are considered to enhance the continuously present, temporarily present, and in transit
beauty of an area and increase the housing prices. through a place. In terms of activity engagement, three
general situations are very common: passive, intermit­
tently active/passive, and active. However, all the
Different Patterns of Use of Public Space pairings cannot be represented with equal relevance,
although theoretically all options are possible. The
Studies on the subject have described various patterns of most often and most usual situations are passive in pre­
use, whereby some households are accustomed to sence, active in presence, and active in transition.
conducting various activities in public space more fre­
quently than others, for example, young children and Passive in presence is about a long-stay passive activity and
teenagers. Furthermore, different age groups tend to use refers to posing all the time within a place. This can be
public spaces at different times of the day and for different exemplified by elderly people sitting on a bench and
reasons. For example, older people and children in parti­ observing the world go by and by teenagers or young
cular are normally absent from public places after dark. adults lying down in grassed areas, to read or sunbathe.
Public space is particularly important for the daily lives of Active in presence is about a long-stay active use in a place
children. This is where young children establish first contact and refers to movement all the time within a place. In
with other people outside their family. These contacts and neighbourhood places, this can be exemplified by chil­
the activities that take place in these areas may have a dren at playgrounds playing freely on the grass,
significant influence on their upbringing and mannerisms. playing hide-and-seek, playing with a ball, and the
Public space is equally important for young people as like. Adults can also be involved in such type of activ­
it serves this category of users as a vital prerequisite for ity by playing football or volleyball, for example.
social interaction and the development of social identity. Active in transition represents movement through a place.
Teenagers hanging out in public spaces use them as This is the most frequent type of activity in places as it
spaces for communication and interaction, for exercise, represents the activities of a daily routine such as walking,
and as a retreat. cycling, or pushing a pram. Any user can be involved in it.
 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces 25

More examples of different situations regarding ways of healthy, sociable, convenient, identifiable, personalisable,
involvement of users in places and time of their occupan­ adaptable, and ecologically efficient (e.g., water-sensitive,
cies are summarised Table 1. energy-efficient, and biodiverse). Following are some
Behavioural maps, for example, are media that enable important aspects that must be addressed when aiming
visualisation of any such occupancy in places. The follow­ to achieve good public space design.
ing examples of behavioural maps (Figures 2 and 3) show
daily behavioural patterns in public space (10 minutes of
observation) with regard to activities and age groups. Usability
Changes in public spaces can be permanent or temporary.
The planning of activities and programmes of places is of
Public Space Design key importance for directing changes and foreseeing their
dynamics. Accordingly, the question is what a particular
As has been stated earlier, appropriate public space design user can do with or in a place, how reversible the changes
positively impacts on the neighbourhood and its residents the user introduces into a place are, and how much they
in a variety of ways. In order to achieve this objective, can influence the place’s meaning for its users.
there are several key questions that need to be asked Besides spontaneous changes in public spaces, it is also
during the planning process: What type of an environ­ important to consider possible changes due to some spe­
ment are we aiming to create? What types of activities are cial occasions, such as the celebration of a certain public
expected to take place? What kinds of recreation activities event. It is, as such, vital that the nature and role of public
are appropriate for the particular community? What type space is fully understood by public space designers in
of social interactions are desirable and how can these be order to be able to correctly determine the types of
encouraged while avoiding approaches that suggest for­ changes that can be made to it occasionally.
ceful interaction? As these questions suggest, planners
need to have adequate prior knowledge about the envir­
Physical Structure
onment and the needs of the potential residents of the
neighbourhood. The attractiveness of public spaces depends very much on
There are, however, certain general characteristics their aesthetic quality, the planned uses, and the sensory
that are widely recognised as constituting to good public perception of these places by potential users. The specific
space design. Public spaces must be attractive, safe, relationship that the system of open spaces presents to its

Table 1

Time occupation in a place

Activity Continuously present Temporarily present In transit

Way of involvement
Active Movement all the time within Movement, break, Movement through a
a place: continuation of the place:
� Playing hide-and-seek movement through a place: � Walking
� Playing with a ball � Walking a child while he/she � Cycling
plays from time to time on � Rollerblading
the way � Using a wheelchair

Intermittent Movement, break, coming Repeated movement-break Repeated movement

back to the ‘stage’: patterns (along the way) through a place:
� Flying a kite within a place: � Jogging in circles,
� Skateboarding � Walking a dog visiting a particular
� Joining a ball game from part of
time to time neighbourhood place
several times
Passive Posing all the time within Reposing a certain time Being transported by
a place: period within a place: somebody/
� Sitting on a bench � Sitting on a bench while something through a
� Lying down on grass being on a walk/jogging place:

� Waiting and leaning against through a place � Sleeping baby being

the fence transported in a pram

through a place
26 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces

Women Men
Cycling Cycling
Playing football Playing football
Pushing a pram Sitting
Sitting on a bench Sitting on a bench
Sitting with a pram Stopping while walking a dog
Playing Walking a child
Stopping while pushing a pram Walking a dog
Stopping while walking a dog Walking/passing through
Walking a child
Walking/passing through

10 0 10 20 m

Figure 2 Argentinski Park, Ljubljana. A representative day showing usage of a neighbourhood park in Ljubljana.

Reproduced from Goličnik B (2005) People in Place: A Configuration of Physical Form and the Dynamic Patterns of Spatial Occupancy

in Urban Open Public Space, p. 222. PhD Thesis, Edinburgh College of Art, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh.

users needs to be clearly defined and well laid out. individual neighbourhood elements or parts can be recog­
Dwellings and other facilities within a residential neigh­ nised as a consistent pattern. The characteristics of a legible
bourhood should be designed to provide a pleasant environment have been described as well formed, distinct,
external environment for the residents. The importance remarkable, engaging the senses, and inviting participation.
of physical structure, as a design aspect, is that it must In addition to legibility, public space design must also
promote a sense of place and provide an attractive and ensure a certain degree of flexibility that allows residents
secure residential environment. Attempts to achieve an to occasionally change or restructure sections of their
appropriate physical structure should be based on suitable environment. Physical structures that enable the users to
answers to questions such as: For whom will the space be actively participate in the alteration or adaptation of public
provided? What are the specific needs of the potential spaces for special purposes or events, encourage socialisa­
users of this space? How can the space itself be designed tion, and provide conditions for the promotion of a sense of
to meet these needs? Which shapes and sizes are most belonging among residents.
appropriate for the specific public spaces? And, how is
access to the open space enabled for all potential users?
Safety Issues
An important aspect of the physical structure of public
space is the legibility of the residential environment as a Some public places in residential neighbourhoods are
whole. Legibility, in this case, refers to the ease with which sometimes considered unsafe. Although most of these
 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces 27

Daily behavioural pattern in Bristo Square Daily behavioural pattern in Bristo Square
type of activity age groups
Skateboarding Sitting 6 –12 years old 35 – 49 years old
Standing while Standing 13 –19 years old 50 – 64 years old
Skateboarding Walking through 20 – 34 years old ≥ 65 years old
Roller-skating
5 0 5 10 15 20 m 5 0 5 10 15 20 m

Figure 3 The usual example of a daily occupancy in Bristo Square, Edinburgh, ranged with regard to the type of activity and age group to

which any participant belongs.

Reproduced from Goličnik B (2005) People in Place: A Configuration of Physical Form and the Dynamic Patterns of Spatial Occupancy in

Urban Open Public Space, p. 86. PhD Thesis, Edinburgh College of Art, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh.

fears are often unfounded, safety is not always an imagin­ authors give it different roles and meanings with regard to
ary problem. Safety problems do exist in some residential the definition of the term itself as well as with respect to
areas and special attention needs to be paid to these issues its role in evaluating the successfulness of public spaces.
during the designing process. Unsafe public spaces may, In practice, three types of access are usually considered:
in the first place, pose serious danger to the lives of physical, visual, and symbolic.
inhabitants and eventually lead to social and economic Physical access means absence of barriers and linkage
degradation of a particular residential area. with neighbouring spaces. Ease of access to public spaces
Where the safety and fear factors are real, designs aimed is especially intended in the case of public space facilities
at guaranteeing safety must avoid creating unfriendly, alie­ for young children and the elderly. These areas should
nating public spaces, for example, places with rigid also be easily accessible in relation to the residential
restrictions on use. On the contrary, these may achieve buildings.
the opposite, turning out to be scary or indeed unsafe. Visual access refers to an appropriate visual contact
Practice shows that vibrant public places that allow a between the user and the place towards which they are
variety of activities at different times of the day are usually heading. Visibility, in this case, is a very important aspect
much safer than those that are less actively used. The of safety in public places. Being visible in a place is as
principal objective must be to ensure safety throughout important as the visibility of the place. Public places must
the entire neighbourhood and avoid inadequate solutions appropriately offer both options.
that displace crime from one area to another. The installa­ Symbolic access is being increasingly recognised as
tion of a CCTV system, for example, in a particular spot important, too. It is often defined by the presence of signs
may result in criminal activity relocating to other parts of or marks that show who is welcome and who is not in
the neighbourhood where there is no such surveillance. certain places or territories. These signs can be elements of
physical structure and an articulation of a place such as
landmarks (monuments, sculptures, etc.), significant pro­
grammes in a place such as pavilions, galleries, and other
Access
theme objects, as well as people – users themselves – such
Accessibility is the dimension of public space most often as user groups like teenagers or maintenance or security
linked with the definition of public space itself. Various staff.
28 Neighbourhood Design: Public Spaces

Comfort and Amenities Further Reading

With regard to comfort and amenities in public space, one Butler GD (1968) Introduction to Community Recreation. Prepared for
aspect predominates, and that is recreation. The recrea­ the National Recreation and Park Association. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company.
tional aspect refers to the relationship between the public Carmona M (2001) Housing Design Quality through Policy, Guidance
space and its user and the impact of the use of public and Review. London: Spon Press.
space on the personality of an individual. All the different Carr S, Francis M, Rivlin LG, and Stone AM (1992) Public Space.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
interests and activities that are realised in public spaces by Elsley S (2004) Outsiders! Children and young people and their use of
the various user groups with their various needs may be public space. Paper Presented at the Conference Open Space-
People Space, Edinburgh, UK. http://www.openspace.eca.ac.uk/
described simply as recreation. conference/proceedings/PDF/Elsley.pdf
Recreation facilities are increasingly being recog­ Gehl J (1987) Life between Buildings: Using Public Space. New York:
nised as an urgent constituent part of residential Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Goličnik B (2005) People in Place: A Configuration of Physical Form and the
neighbourhoods. Exterior recreation spaces are there­ Dynamic Patterns of Spatial Occupancy in Urban Open Public Space.
fore a major factor that must be considered in the PhD Thesis, Edinburgh College of Art, Heriot Watt University, Edinburgh.
neighbourhood plan together with the residential build­ Goličnik B and Ward Thompson C (2010) Emerging relationships
between design and use of urban park spaces. Landscape and
ings and other neighbourhood facilities. The location of Urban Planning 94(1): 38–53.
recreation areas, such as open spaces, green areas, com­ Hester R (1997) Neighbourhood space. In: Larice M and Macdonald E
munity facilities, and playgrounds, will be most effective (eds.) The Urban Design Reader, pp. 376–387. London: Routledge:
Taylor & Francis Group.
if these are suitably considered and appropriately Lawson B (2001) The Language of Space. Oxford: Architectural Press.
included in the neighbourhood plan at the beginning of Lynch K (1960) The Image of the City. Cambridge, MA: The Joint Centre
the design process. The main objective is to provide for Urban Studies, MIT.
Lynch K (1981) A Good City Form. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
areas and facilities that make possible a great variety of Madanipour A (2003) Why are the design and development of public spaces
recreation activities serving a wide range of recreation significant for cities? In: Cuthbert AR (ed.) Designing Cities: Critical
Readings in Urban Design, pp. 139–152. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
interests for all residents, irrespective of age or economic Schwab E and Standler K (2004) Youth behaviour and young people’s
status. demands for open space: Teens_open_space. Paper Presented at the
Conference ‘Open Space-People Space’, Edinburgh, UK. http://
www.openspace.eca.ac.uk/conference/proceedings/PDF/Standler.pdf
Sendi R, Aalbers BM, and Trigueiro M (2009) Public space in large housing
See also: Crime Prevention Through Environmental estates. In: Rowlands R, Musterd S, and Van Kempen R (eds.) Mass
Design; Defensible Space; Housing Estates; Housing in Europe: Multiple Faces of Development, Change and
Response, pp. 131–156. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Neighbourhood Design: Green Space and Parks; Thiel P (1997) People, Paths and Purposes: Notations for a Participatory
Neighbourhood Design: Urban Outdoor Experience. Envirotecture. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.