Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4. Differential relations for a fluid flow
1. Diffrential Relations For A Fluid Flow Chapter 4 Fluid Mechanics (MEng 2113) Mechanical
Engineering Department Prepared by: Addisu Dagne April, 2017
2. Contents of the Chapter ❖ Introduction ❖ Acceleration Field ❖ Differential equation
Conservation of mass ❖ Stream function ❖ Differential equation of Linear momentum ❖
Inviscid flow ❖ Vorticity and Irrotationality ❖ Velocity Potential ❖ Basic Plane Potential Flows
❖ Superposition of Basic Plane Potential Flows ❖ Solved Problems 2
3. Introduction In analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two paths: 1. Seeking an
estimate of gross effects (mass flow, induced force, energy change) over a finite region or
control volume or 2. Seeking the point-by- point details of a flow pattern by analyzing an
infinitesimal region of the flow. 3
4. The control volume technique is useful when we are interested in the overall features of a flow,
such as mass flow rate into and out of the control volume or net forces applied to bodies.
Differential analysis, on the other hand, involves application of differential equations of fluid
motion to any and every point in the flow field over a region called the flow domain. When
solved, these differential equations yield details about the velocity, density, pressure, etc., at
every point throughout the entire flow domain. 4 Introduction
5. The Acceleration Field of a Fluid Velocity is a vector function of position and time and thus has
three components u, v, and w, each a scalar field in itself. This is the most important variable
in fluid mechanics: Knowledge of the velocity vector field is nearly equivalent to solving a fluid
flow problem. The acceleration vector field a of the flow is derived from Newton’s second law
by computing the total time derivative of the velocity vector: 5
6. Since each scalar component (u, v , w) is a function of the four variables (x, y, z, t), we use the
chain rule to obtain each scalar time derivative. For example, But, by definition, dx/dt is the
local velocity component u, and dy/dt =v , and dz/dt = w. The total time derivative of u may
thus be written as follows, with exactly similar expressions for the time derivatives of v and w: 6
The Acceleration Field of a Fluid
7. Summing these into a vector, we obtain the total acceleration: 7 The Acceleration Field of a
Fluid
8. The term δV/δt is called the local acceleration, which vanishes if the flow is steady-that is,
independent of time. The three terms in parentheses are called the convective acceleration,
which arises when the particle moves through regions of spatially varying velocity, as in a nozzle
or diffuser. The gradient operator is given by: 8 The Acceleration Field of a Fluid
9. The total time derivative—sometimes called the substantial or material derivative— concept
may be applied to any variable, such as the pressure: Wherever convective effects occur in the
basic laws involving mass, momentum, or energy, the basic differential equations become
nonlinear and are usually more complicated than flows that do not involve convective changes.
9 The Acceleration Field of a Fluid
10. Example 1. Acceleration field Given the eulerian velocity vector field find the total acceleration
of a particle. 10 Solution step 2: In a similar manner, the convective acceleration terms, are
11. Solution step 2: In a similar manner, the convective acceleration terms, are
12. An idealized velocity field is given by the formula Is this flow field steady or unsteady? Is it
two- or three dimensional? At the point (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 0), compute the acceleration vector.
Solution The flow is unsteady because time t appears explicitly in the components. The flow
is three-dimensional because all three velocity components are nonzero. Evaluate, by
differentiation, the acceleration vector at (x, y, z) = (−1, +1, 0). 12 Example 2. Acceleration field
13. Example 2. Acceleration field
14. Exercise 1 The velocity in a certain two-dimensional flow field is given by the equation where
the velocity is in m/s when x, y, and t are in meter and seconds, respectively. 1. Determine
expressions for the local and convective components of acceleration in the x and y directions. 2.
What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity and the acceleration at the point x = y = 2 m
at the time t = 0? 14
15. The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation Conservation of mass, often called the
continuity relation, states that the fluid mass cannot change. We apply this concept to a very
small region. All the basic differential equations can be derived by considering either an
elemental control volume or an elemental system. We choose an infinitesimal fixed control
volume (dx, dy, dz), as in shown in fig below, and use basic control volume relations. The flow
through each side of the element is approximately one-dimensional, and so the appropriate
mass conservation relation to use here is 15
16. The element is so small that the volume integral simply reduces to a differential term: 16 The
Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
17. The mass flow terms occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets. Using the field or
continuum concept where all fluid properties are considered to be uniformly varying functions
of time and position, such as ρ= ρ (x, y, z, t). Thus, if T is the temperature on the left face of the
element, the right face will have a slightly different temperature For mass conservation, if ρu
is known on the left face, the value of this product on the right face is 17 The Differential
Equation of Mass Conservation
18. Introducing these terms into the main relation Simplifying gives 18 The Differential Equation
of Mass Conservation
19. The vector gradient operator enables us to rewrite the equation of continuity in a compact
form so that the compact form of the continuity relation is 19 The Differential Equation of
Mass Conservation
20. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates Many problems in fluid mechanics are more
conveniently solved in cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) (often called cylindrical polar coordinates),
rather than in Cartesian coordinates. 20 The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
21. Continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates is given by Steady Compressible Flow If the flow
is steady , and all properties are functions of position only and the continuity equation reduces
to 21 The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
22. Incompressible Flow A special case that affords great simplification is incompressible flow,
where the density changes are negligible. Then regardless of whether the flow is steady or
unsteady, The result is valid for steady or unsteady incompressible flow. The two coordinate
forms are 22 The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
23. The criterion for incompressible flow is where Ma = V/a is the dimensionless Mach number of
the flow. For air at standard conditions, a flow can thus be considered incompressible if the
velocity is less than about 100 m/s. 23 The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
24. Example 3 Consider the steady, two-dimensional velocity field given by Verify that this flow
field is incompressible. Solution Analysis. The flow is two-dimensional, implying no z
component of velocity and no variation of u or v with z. The components of velocity in the x
and y directions respectively are To check if the flow is incompressible, we see if the
incompressible continuity equation is satisfied: So we see that the incompressible continuity
equation is indeed satisfied. Hence the flow field is incompressible.24
25. Example 4 Consider the following steady, three-dimensional velocity field in Cartesian
coordinates: where a, b, c, and d are constants. Under what conditions is this flow field
incompressible? Solution Condition for incompressibility: Thus to guarantee incompressibility,
constants a and c must satisfy the following relationship: a = −3c 25
26. Example 5 An idealized incompressible flow has the proposed three- dimensional velocity
distribution Find the appropriate form of the function f(y) which satisfies the continuity
relation. Solution: Simply substitute the given velocity components into the incompressible
continuity equation: 26
27. Example 6 For a certain incompressible flow field it is suggested that the velocity components
are given by the equations Is this a physically possible flow field? Explain. 27
28. Example 7 For a certain incompressible, two-dimensional flow field the velocity component in
the y direction is given by the equation Determine the velocity in the x direction so that the
continuity equation is satisfied.
29. Example 7 - solution
30. Example 8 The radial velocity component in an incompressible, two dimensional flow field is
Determine the corresponding tangential velocity component, required to satisfy conservation of
mass. Solution. The continuity equation for incompressible steady flow in cylindrical
coordinates is given by 30
31. Example 8
32. The Stream Function Consider the simple case of incompressible, two-dimensional flow in the
xy-plane. The continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates reduces to (1) A clever variable
transformation enables us to rewrite this equation (Eq. 1) in terms of one dependent variable
(ψ) instead of two dependent variables (u and v). We define the stream function ψ as (2)
33. Substitution of Eq. 2 into Eq. 1 yields which is identically satisfied for any smooth function ψ(x,
y). What have we gained by this transformation? First, as already mentioned, a single variable
(ψ) replaces two variables (u and v)—once ψ is known, we can generate both u and v via Eq. 2
and we are guaranteed that the solution satisfies continuity, Eq. 1. Second, it turns out that
the stream function has useful physical significance . Namely, Curves of constant ψ are
streamlines of the flow. 33 The Stream Function
34. This is easily proven by considering a streamline in the xy-plane 34 The Stream Function Curves
of constant stream function represent streamlines of the flow
35. The change in the value of ψ as we move from one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy)
is given by the relationship: Along a line of constant ψ we have dψ = 0 so that and,
therefore, along a line of constant ψ 35 The Stream Function
36. Along a streamline: where we have applied Eq. 2, the definition of ψ. Thus along a streamline:
But for any smooth function ψ of two variables x and y, we know by the chain rule of
mathematics that the total change of ψ from point (x, y) to another point (x + dx, y + dy) some
infinitesimal distance away is 36 The Stream Function
37. Total change of ψ: By comparing the above two equations we see that dψ = 0 along a
streamline; 37 The Stream Function
38. In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation for incompressible, plane, two dimensional
flow reduces to and the velocity components, and can be related to the stream function,
through the equations 38 The Stream Function
39. The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum Using the same elemental control volume as in
mass conservation, for which the appropriate form of the linear momentum relation is 39
40. Again the element is so small that the volume integral simply reduces to a derivative term:
The momentum fluxes occur on all six faces, three inlets and three outlets. 40 The Differential
Equation of Linear Momentum
41. Introducing these terms A simplification occurs if we split up the term in brackets as follows:
The term in brackets on the right-hand side is seen to be the equation of continuity, which
vanishes identically 41 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
42. The long term in parentheses on the right-hand side is the total acceleration of a particle that
instantaneously occupies the control volume: Thus now we have This equation points out
that the net force on the control volume must be of differential size and proportional to the
element volume. 42 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
43. These forces are of two types, body forces and surface forces. Body forces are due to external
fields (gravity, magnetism, electric potential) that act on the entire mass within the element.
The only body force we shall consider is gravity. The gravity force on the differential mass ρ dx
dy dz within the control volume is The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of
the control surface. These stresses are the sum of hydrostatic pressure plus viscous stresses τij
that arise from motion with velocity gradients 43 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
44. The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
45. The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum Fig. Elemental Cartesian fixed control volume
showing the surface forces in the x direction only.
46. The net surface force in the x direction is given by Splitting into pressure plus viscous stresses
where dv = dx dy dz. Similarly we can derive the y and z forces per unit volume on the
control surface 46 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
47. The net vector surface force can be written as 47 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
48. In divergence form is the viscous stress tensor acting on the element The surface force is
thus the sum of the pressure gradient vector and the divergence of the viscous stress tensor 48
The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
49. The basic differential momentum equation for an infinitesimal element is thus In words 49 The
Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
50. the component equations are This is the differential momentum equation in its full glory, and
it is valid for any fluid in any general motion, particular fluids being characterized by particular
viscous stress terms. 50 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
51. Inviscid Flow: Eulers’ Equation For Frictionless flow τij =0, for which This is Eulers’equation
for inviscid flow 51
52. Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations For a newtonian fluid, the viscous stresses are
proportional to the element strain rates and the coefficient of viscosity. where μ is the
viscosity coefficient Substitution gives the differential momentum equation for a newtonian
fluid with constant density and viscosity: 52
53. These are the incompressible flow Navier-Stokes equations named after C. L. M. H. Navier
(1785–1836) and Sir George G. Stokes (1819–1903), who are credited with their derivation. 53
Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations
54. Inviscid Flow Shearing stresses develop in a moving fluid because of the viscosity of the fluid.
We know that for some common fluids, such as air and water, the viscosity is small, therefore
it seems reasonable to assume that under some circumstances we may be able to simply neglect
the effect of viscosity (and thus shearing stresses). Flow fields in which the shearing stresses
are assumed to be negligible are said to be inviscid, nonviscous, or frictionless. For fluids in
which there are no shearing stresses the normal stress at a point is independent of direction—
that is σxx = σyy = σzz. 54
55. Euler’s Equations of Motion For an inviscid flow in which all the shearing stresses are zero and
the Euler’s equation of motion is written as In vector notation Euler’s equations can be
expressed as 55 Inviscid Flow
56. Vorticity and Irrotationality The assumption of zero fluid angular velocity, or irrotationality, is
a very useful simplification. Here we show that angular velocity is associated with the curl of
the local velocity vector. The differential relations for deformation of a fluid element can be
derived by examining the Fig. below. Two fluid lines AB and BC, initially perpendicular at time
t, move and deform so that at t + dt they have slightly different lengths A’B’ and B’C’ and are
slightly off the perpendicular by angles dα and dβ. 56
57. Vorticity and Irrotationality
58. We define the angular velocity ωz about the z axis as the average rate of counterclockwise
turning of the two lines: But from the fig. dα and dβ are each directly related to velocity
derivatives in the limit of small dt: Substitution results 58 Vorticity and Irrotationality
59. The vector is thus one-half the curl of the velocity vector A vector twice as large is called the
vorticity 59 Vorticity and Irrotationality
60. Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called irrotational. Example. For a certain
two-dimensional flow field the velocity is given by the equation Is this flow irrotational?
Solution. For the prescribed velocity field 60 Vorticity and Irrotationality
61. Vorticity and Irrotationality
62. Velocity Potential The velocity components of irrotational flow can be expressed in terms of a
scalar function ϕ(x, y, z, t) as where ϕ is called the velocity potential. In vector form, it can
be written as so that for an irrotational flow the velocity is expressible as the gradient of a
scalar function ϕ. The velocity potential is a consequence of the irrotationality of the flow
field, whereas the stream function is a consequence of conservation of mass 62
63. It is to be noted, however, that the velocity potential can be defined for a general three-
dimensional flow, whereas the stream function is restricted to two-dimensional flows. For an
incompressible fluid we know from conservation of mass that and therefore for
incompressible, irrotational flow (with ) it follows that 63 Velocity Potential
64. Velocity Potential This differential equation arises in many different areas of engineering and
physics and is called Laplace’s equation. Thus, inviscid, incompressible, irrotational flow fields
are governed by Laplace’s equation. This type of flow is commonly called a potential flow.
Potential flows are irrotational flows. That is, the vorticity is zero throughout. If vorticity is
present (e.g., boundary layer, wake), then the flow cannot be described by Laplace’s
equation.64
65. For some problems it will be convenient to use cylindrical coordinates, r,θ, and z. In this
coordinate system the gradient operator is 65 Velocity Potential
66. Velocity Potential
67. Example 1 The two-dimensional flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid in the vicinity of
the corner of Fig. is described by the stream function where ψ has units of m2/s when r is in
meters. Assume the fluid density is 103 kg/m3 and the x–y plane is horizontal that is, there is no
difference in elevation between points (1) and (2). FIND a) Determine, if possible, the
corresponding velocity potential. b) If the pressure at point (1) on the wall is 30 kPa, what is the
pressure at point (2)?
68. Example 1 Solution The radial and tangential velocity components can be obtained from the
stream function as 68
69. 69. Solution 69
70. Basic Plane Potential Flows For simplicity, only plane (two-dimensional) flows will be
considered. In this case, by using Cartesian coordinates Since we can define a stream function
for plane flow, we can also let 73
71. Uniform Flow The simplest plane flow is one for which the streamlines are all straight and
parallel, and the magnitude of the velocity is constant. This type of flow is called a uniform flow.
For example, consider a uniform flow in the positive x direction as is illustrated in Fig a.
72. In this instance, u = U and v = 0, and in terms of the velocity potential These two equations can
be integrated to yield where C is an arbitrary constant, which can be set equal to zero. Thus,
for a uniform flow in the positive x direction 75 Uniform Flow
73. The corresponding stream function can be obtained in a similar manner, since and, therefore,
These results can be generalized to provide the velocity potential and stream function for a
uniform flow at an angle α with the x axis, as in Fig. b. For this case and 76 Uniform Flow
74. Source and Sink Consider a fluid flowing radially outward from a line through the origin
perpendicular to the x–y plane as is shown in Fig. Let m be the volume rate of flow emanating
from the line (per unit length), and therefore to satisfy conservation of mass or 77
75. A source or sink represents a purely radial flow. Since the flow is a purely radial flow, , the
corresponding velocity potential can be obtained by integrating the equations It follows that
If m is positive, the flow is radially outward, and the flow is considered to be a source flow. If m
is negative, the flow is toward the origin, and the flow is considered to be a sink flow. The
flowrate, m, is the strength of the source or sink. 78 Source and Sink
76. The stream function for the source can be obtained by integrating the relationships To yield
The streamlines (lines of ψ = constant ) are radial lines, and the equipotential lines (lines of ϕ =
constant) are concentric circles centered at the origin. 79 Source and Sink
77. Example 2 A nonviscous, incompressible fluid flows between wedge- shaped walls into a small
opening as shown in Fig. The velocity potential (in ft/s2), which approximately describes this
flow is Determine the volume rate of flow (per unit length) into the opening. 80
78. The negative sign indicates that the flow is toward the opening, that is, in the negative radial
direction
79. Vortex We next consider a flow field in which the streamlines are concentric circles—that is,
we interchange the velocity potential and stream function for the source. Thus, let and 82
where K is a constant. In this case the streamlines are concentric circles with and This result
indicates that the tangential velocity varies inversely with the distance from the origin
80. A mathematical concept commonly associated with vortex motion is that of circulation. The
circulation, Γ, is defined as the line integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken
around a closed curve in the flow field. In equation form, Γ, can be expressed as 83 Circulation
where the integral sign means that the integration is taken around a closed curve, C, in the
counterclockwise direction, and ds is a differential length along the curve
81. For an irrotational flow This result indicates that for an irrotational flow the circulation will
generally be zero. However, for the free vortex with , , the circulation around the circular path
of radius r is which shows that the circulation is nonzero. However, for irrotational flows the
circulation around any path that does not include a singular point will be zero.84 Circulation
82. The velocity potential and stream function for the free vortex are commonly expressed in terms
of the circulation as and 85 Circulation
83. Doublet Doublet is formed by combining a source and sink in a special way. Consider the equal
strength, source–sink pair shown. The combined stream function for the pair is
84. which can be rewritten as From the Fig. above it follows that And These results
substitution gives 87 Doublet
85. So that For small values of the distance a 88 Doublet A doublet is formed by letting a source
and sink approach one another. since the tangent of an angle approaches the value of the angle
for small angles
86. The so-called doublet is formed by letting the source and sink approach one another while
increasing the strength so that the product remains constant. In this case, since where K, a
constant equal to is called the strength of the doublet. The corresponding velocity potential
for the doublet is 89 Doublet
87. Plots of lines of constant ψ reveal that the streamlines for a doublet are circles through the
origin tangent to the x axis as shown in fig below. 90 Doublet
88. Rankine Ovals To study the flow around a closed body, a source and a sink of equal strength
can be combined with a uniform flow as shown in Fig. below. 92
89. The stream function for this combination is 93 Rankine Ovals
90. Using the stream function for the source–sink pair, the stream function for Rankine Ovals can be
written as Or The corresponding streamlines for this flow field are obtained by setting ψ =
constant. If several of these streamlines are plotted, it will be discovered that the streamline ψ
=0 forms a closed body as shown in fig. above. 94 Rankine Ovals
91. Stagnation points occur at the upstream and downstream ends of the body. These points can be
located by determining where along the x axis the velocity is zero. The stagnation points
correspond to the points where the uniform velocity, the source velocity, and the sink velocity
all combine to give a zero velocity. The locations of the stagnation points depend on the value
of a, m, and U. The body half-length, When y= 0), can be expressed as or 95 Rankine Ovals
92. The body half-width, h, can be obtained by determining the value of y where the y axis
intersects the ψ = 0 streamline. Or both are functions of the dimensionless parameter, . A
large variety of body shapes with different length to width ratios can be obtained by using
different values of Ua/m, 96 Rankine Ovals
93. As this parameter becomes large, flow around a long slender body is described, whereas for
small values of the parameter, flow around a more blunt shape is obtained 97 Rankine Ovals
94. Flow around a Circular Cylinder When the distance between the source–sink pair approaches
zero, the shape of the Rankine oval becomes more blunt and in fact approaches a circular shape.
Since the Doublet was developed by letting a source–sink pair approach one another, it might
be expected that a uniform flow in the positive x direction combined with a doublet could be
used to represent flow around a circular cylinder. This combination gives for the stream
function and for the velocity potential 98
95. In order for the stream function to represent flow around a circular cylinder it is necessary that
where a is the radius of the cylinder. which indicates that the doublet strength, K, must be
equal to Thus, the stream function for flow around a circular cylinder can be expressed as 99
Flow around a Circular Cylinder
96. and the corresponding velocity potential is The velocity components are On the surface of
the cylinder it follows 100 Flow around a Circular Cylinder
Fig. The flow around a circular cylinder. 101 Flow around a Circular Cylinder
97. Solved Problems 1. The velocity potential for a certain flow field is ϕ = 4xy. Determine the
corresponding stream function. 102
98. 2. The stream function for an incompressible, two dimensional flow field is Where a and b are
constants. Is this an irrotational flow? Explain. 104 bxay 2
99. The stream function for a given two dimensional flow filed is Determine the corresponding
velocity potential. 106 32 )3/5(5 yyx
100. 4. Determine the stream function corresponding to the velocity potential ϕ = x3 – 3xy2.
Sketch the streamline ψ = 0, which passes through the origin. 108
101. 5. The velocity potential for a certain inviscid, incompressible flow field is given by the
equation Where ϕ has the units of m2/s when x and y are in meters. Determine the pressure at
the point x = 2 m, y = 2m if the pressure at x = 1 m, y = 1 m is 200 kPa. Elevation changes can be
neglected and the fluid is water. 110 32 ) 3 2 (2 yyx
102. . 6. Water is flowing between wedge-shaped walls into a small opening as shown in the
Fig. below. The velocity potential with units m2/s for this flow is ϕ = -2ln r with r in meters.
Determine the pressure differential between points A and B. 112
103. 7. An ideal fluid flows between the inclined walls of a two dimensional channel into a
sink located at origin. The velocity potential for this flow field is 114
104.
105. End of Chapter 4 Next Lecture Chapter 5: Dimensional Analysis And Similitude 117
