PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

1ST SEMESTER

Experiment No. 1

To Study about basic elements of Energy Management

Reducing energy use makes perfect business sense; it saves money, enhances corporate reputation and
helps everyone lead the fight against climate change. The Carbon Trust provides simple, effective advice
to help businesses and public sector organizations take action to reduce carbon emissions, and the
simplest way to do this is to use energy more efficiently.

What do we mean by energy management?

Let’s consider some definitions.

Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency aims to gain the maximum results or effects from each unit of energy used; it’s about
achieving the same outcomes through less energy. Renewable energy Renewable energy refers to energy
that occurs naturally and repeatedly in the environment. This can be energy from waves, wind, the sun
and geothermal heat from the ground. Renewable energy can also be produced from plant sources such as
wood or crops grown specifically as a fuel. Renewable energy will not run out, unlike energy from fossil
fuels.

Energy management
Energy management is the systematic use of management and technology to improve an organization’s
energy performance. It needs to be integrated, proactive, and incorporate energy procurement, energy
efficiency and renewable energy to be fully effective. Energy management is essential if you want to
control costs, be fully compliant with legislation and enhance the organization’s reputation.

Energy Manager
The term Energy Manager is widely used and we use it here as shorthand for the person responsible for
implementing the organization’s energy programmed or strategy. In practice, most organizations do not
have or need a full-time Energy Manager; there are many part-time Energy Managers.

Why is good energy management important?

Saving energy makes business sense. A structured, co-ordinated and integrated approach to managing
energy will maximize the benefits. Evidence shows that effective energy management works, and its
techniques are easily available and applicable to all types of organization.
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ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

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Good energy management leads to cost-effective decision-making. Carbon dioxide emissions from
energy use will dominate total greenhouse gas emissions for most organizations, so energy management
is a key component of wider carbon management. Similarly, carbon management is a key aspect of an
organization’s overall environmental management.

Energy Management Self-Assessment Tools

• The Energy Management Matrix helps organizations assess their strengths and weaknesses across the
following six areas of energy management:

 Policy
 Organizing
 Training
 Performance measurement
 Communication
 Investment

The Energy Management Assessment (EMA) tool provides more comprehensive self-assessment through
the following criteria:

Management commitment

• Energy policy

• Energy strategy

• Organizational structure

Regulatory compliance

Procurement and investment

• Procurement policy

• Investment procedures

Energy information systems and identifying opportunities

• Monitoring and analyzing energy use

• Target setting

• Opportunities identification

Culture and communications

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ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

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• Staff engagement and training

• Operational procedures

• Communications

Energy policy
Decide whether the energy policy should be a standalone document or part of an existing framework such
as an environmental or carbon management policy.

Drafting your energy policy

A suitable energy policy provides the foundation for best practice in energy management. An effective
policy needs to be directly relevant to the organization and appropriate to its nature and size. It should
provide a clear focus for the organization’s objectives and be the formal expression of the senior
management’s commitment to, and ownership of, the issues. It should provide workable principles to
guide the organization’s energy strategy, and include the following elements:

• The context with respect to corporate vision and mission, plus other specific environmental policies.

• A clear expression of the organization’s energy/carbon vision and aspirations, with specific objectives,
for example:

 to go beyond basic legal requirements;

 quantitative targets or a commitment to develop and adopt such targets;
the adoption of qualitative public commitments or external recognition/ accreditation schemes.

• A commitment to develop and maintain an up-to-date energy strategy ensuring the integration of energy
management across all relevant decision-making.

• A commitment to ensure that sufficient resources are in place to meet the policy objectives.

• A commitment to meeting the training and development needs of energy management staff and raising
the energy awareness of all staff.

• A commitment to regular and formal review. Good practice would be to review the policy annually,
though this does not mean that it has to be redrafted each year.

An energy policy should be short and succinct (certainly no more than two pages), signed by the Chief
Executive (or equivalent), and be a public document.

Policies often comprise two documents:

 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

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Part A: A high-level statement containing the guidelines and principles to which the organization is
committing. It should demonstrate explicit support from senior management and provide the framework
for the delivery of energy savings.

Part B: A more detailed document setting out specific energy management objectives and targets along
with the methodology for achieving these. It should provide clear information about who is responsible
for the delivery of the policy, detail of actions, and a timeframe for review.

Energy strategy
A policy on its own will not deliver energy savings. What the policy does is provide the mandate and
focus for the development of an effective energy management strategy.

Following approval of the policy, a working strategy needs to be developed. In some cases an
organization might need to develop a draft strategy to finalize and approve their policy. In this case, the
instruction to draft the strategy is one form of commitment.

A strategy is essential if you are a large organization. For smaller organizations, it may be enough to have
a robust energy plan.

Strategies should not be developed by a single individual, or fully handed over to an external
organization, though it can be helpful to involve external facilitation if the cost can be justified.

A group of stakeholders should develop the strategy. This is important because:

• you need the input and ‘buy-in’ of the people that the strategy will affect and those who will be
responsible for implementing the various elements.

• it spreads the resource requirement.

The strategy is, in effect, the ‘corporate framework’ that will enable energy management to develop and
integrate with the other activities of the organization.

Action plan
Developing the strategy will identify which initial actions are needed to put good energy management
into effect. The following sections describe the vital elements that need to be established, if not already in
place. These actions should form a live energy plan that is regularly updated to show progress and
development.

The action plan will expand to include specific actions to identify opportunities and implement energy
reduction projects.
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The format of the action plan will depend on what works for you, rather than reflecting a standard
approach. Many larger organizations may have planning or project management processes already in
place that can be used for energy management. It is far better to do this than to invent new processes.

To be effective, the action plan should:

• be agreed and approved by the appropriate level of management

• involve the senior manager who is ultimately accountable for energy management performance

• priorities actions

• relate actions to individual objectives and targets, which should come, in turn, from specific policy
commitments and strategy development

• assign actions to individuals with clear deadlines for reporting progress and completing the task

• state a realistic time and budget allocated to individuals to complete each action

• clearly indicate who has authority for approval and signing off each action when it has been completed.

ELEMENTS OF ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Energy is also recognized as a resource like land, labour, capital and raw material.

The key elements of energy management are planning, execution and control.

Planning:
In planning phase we have to collect information on energy utilization. Based on this information,
different programmes are designed and also various procedures are established.

Execution:
In execution phase, the top level management appoints a person as a energy manager/ energy
management coordinator. Energy management coordinator has to develop and implement an energy
management program. It required, the management forms a committee to help the energy management
coordinator. Accountability and responsibility for the energy management program is wasted in the
individual not a committee. Many times the company also hires an outside professionally trained energy
management consultant to assist the energy management coordinator.

Next step in execution phase is to create database for internal and external energy information. The
internal database refers the energy utilization in the company. The external database refers to the
available energy conservation opportunities with their cost of implementation.
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Energy audit is the key component of information gathering process. It involves collecting data of puts
energy use from utility bills and current energy use form surveys. Through survey, we can find out the
energy consuming process and identify potential energy conservation opportunities.

At last, the identified energy conservation opportunities are analyzed with respect to

(i) The capital expenditure needed to implement it

(ii) Annual energy cost saving
(iii) Return on investment
All selected energy conservation opportunities are implemented through different plans. During
implementation, the procedures may change and require an additional capital investment.

Control:
The result at all the implementation stage are obtained. It is compared with the planned goals and
corrective measures should be taken. The energy management coordinator performs the controlling
functions like monitoring and reporting. Monitoring can be performed by installing sub meters on large
energy consuming devices.

Continuous planning, execution and control will bring success of program.

Conclusion:

To make sure we have plenty of energy in the future, it's up to all of us to use energy wisely. We
must all conserve energy and use it efficiently. It's also up to those who will create the new
energy technologies of the future. All energy sources have an impact on the environment. But
we'll need to continue to use fossil fuels and nuclear energy until new, cleaner technologies can
replace them. The future is ours, but we need energy to get there.
 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

1ST SEMESTER

Experiment No 2

To Study about Voltage Sag, Power Factor &

Analysis of Power System

What Is Power Quality?

Power quality is ultimately a consumer-driven issue, and the end user’s point of reference takes
precedence. Therefore, the following definition of a power quality problem is: Any power problem
manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that results in failure or misoperation of customer
equipment.

A simpler and perhaps more concise definition might state: “Power quality is a set of electrical
boundaries that allows a piece of equipment to function in its intended manner without significant
loss of performance or life expectancy.” This definition embraces two things that we demand from an
electrical device: performance and life expectancy. Any power-related problem that compromises either
attribute is a power quality concern.

Power Quality _ Voltage Quality

The common term for describing the subject of this book is power quality; however, it is actually the
quality of the voltage that is being addressed in most cases. Technically, in engineering terms, power is
the rate of energy delivery and is proportional to the product of the voltage and current. It would be
difficult to define the quality of this quantity in any meaningful manner. The power supply system can
only control the quality of the voltage; it has no control over the currents that particular loads might draw.
Therefore, the standards in the power quality area are devoted to maintaining the supply voltage within
certain limits.

Why Are We Concerned about Power Quality?

The ultimate reason that we are interested in power quality is economic value. There are economic
impacts on utilities, their customers, and suppliers of load equipment. The quality of power can have a
direct economic impact on many industrial consumers. There has recently been a great emphasis on
revitalizing industry with more automation and more modern equipment. This usually means
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1ST SEMESTER

electronically controlled, energy-efficient equipment that is often much more sensitive to deviations in the
supply voltage than were its electromechanical predecessors.

The Power Quality Evaluation Procedure

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ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

1ST SEMESTER

Voltage Sags
Voltage sags and interruptions are related power quality problems. Both are usually the result of faults in
the power system and switching actions to isolate the faulted sections. They are characterized by rms
voltage variations outside the normal operating range of voltages. A voltage sag is a short-duration
(typically 0.5 to 30 cycles) reduction in rms voltage caused by faults on the power system and the starting
of large loads, such as motors. Momentary interruptions (typically no more than 2 to 5 s) cause a
complete loss of voltage and are a common result of the actions taken by utilities to clear transient faults
on their systems. Sustained interruptions of longer than 1 min are generally due to permanent faults.

Utilities have been faced with rising numbers of complaints about the quality of power due to sags and
interruptions. There are a number of reasons for this, with the most important being that customers in all
sectors (residential, commercial, and industrial) have more sensitive loads. The influx of digital
computers and other types of electronic controls is at the heart of the problem. Computer controls tend to
lose their memory, and the processes that are being controlled also tend to be more complex and,
therefore, take much more time to restart. Industries are relying more on automated equipment to achieve
maximum productivity to remain competitive. Thus, an interruption has considerable economic impact.

Estimating Voltage Sag Performance

The following is a general procedure for working with industrial customers to assure compatibility
between the supply system characteristics and the facility operation:

1. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from transmission system faults.

2. Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from distribution system faults (for
facilities that are supplied from distribution systems).

3. Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the actual performance of the
production process based on voltage sag performance calculated in steps 1 and 2.

4. Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the performance, either on the supply
system (fewer voltage sags) or within the customer facility (better immunity).

Description: A decrease of the normal voltage level between 10 and 90% of the nominal rms voltage
at the power frequency, for durations of 0,5 cycle to 1 minute.
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ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

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Causes: Faults on the transmission or distribution network (most of the times on parallel feeders).
Faults in consumer’s installation. Connection of heavy loads and start-up of large motors.

Consequences: Malfunction of information technology equipment, namely microprocessor-based

control systems (PCs, PLCs, ASDs, etc) that may lead to a process stoppage. Tripping of contactors and
electromechanical relays. Disconnection and loss of efficiency in electric rotating machines.

Power Factor
Power factor is included in the discussion of power quality for several reasons. Power factor is a power
quality issue in that low power factor can sometimes cause equipment to fail. In many instances, the cost
of low power factor can be high; utilities penalize facilities that have low power factor because they find
it difficult to meet the resulting demands for electrical energy.

Displacement And True Power Factor

The terms displacement and true power factor, are widely mentioned in power factor studies.
Displacement power factor is the cosine of the angle between the fundamental voltage and current
waveforms. The fundamental waveforms are by definition pure sinusoids. But, if the waveform distortion
is due to harmonics (which is very often the case), the power factor angles are different than what would
be for the fundamental waves alone. The presence of harmonics introduces additional phase shift between
the voltage and the current. True power factor is calculated as the ratio between the total active power
used in a circuit (including harmonics) and the total apparent power (including harmonics) supplied from
the source:

True power factor = total active power/total apparent power

Utility penalties are based on the true power factor of a facility.

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

Two ways to improve the power factor and minimize the apparent power drawn from the power source
are:

• Reduce the lagging reactive current demand of the loads

• Compensate for the lagging reactive current by supplying leading reactive current to the power system
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The second method is the topic of interest in this chapter. Lagging reactive current represent the
inductance of the power system and power system components. As observed earlier, lagging reactive
current demand may not be totally eliminated but may be reduced by using power system devices or
components designed to operate with low reactive current requirements. Practically no devices in a
typical power system require leading reactive current to function; therefore, in order to produce leading
currents certain devices must be inserted in a power system. These devices are referred to as power factor
correction equipment.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

In simple terms, power factor correction means reduction of lagging reactive power (Q) or lagging
reactive current (IQ). Consider Figure 6.5. The source V supplies the resistive/inductive load with
impedance (Z):

Z = R + jωL

I = V/Z = V/(R + jωL)

Apparent power = S = V × I = V2/(R + jωL)

Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by (R – jωL),

S = V2(R – jωL)/(R2 + ω2L2)

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Separating the terms,

S = V2R/(R2 + ω2L2) – jV2ωL/(R2 + ω2L2)

S = P – jQ

The –Q indicates that the reactive power is lagging. By supplying a leading reactive power equal to Q, we
can correct the power factor to unity.

We know Q/P = tanØ & Q/P = ωL/R = tanØ and Ø = tan–1(ωL/R), thus:

Power factor = cosØ = cos (tan–1ωL/R)

ADVANTAGES OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Correcting low power factor has other benefits besides avoiding penalties imposed by the utilities. Other
advantages of improving the power factor include:

• Reduced heating in equipment

• Increased equipment life

• Reduction in energy losses and operating costs

• Freeing up available energy

• Reduction of voltage drop in the electrical system

Good power factor is not necessarily critical for most equipment to function in a normal manner. Having
low power factor does not cause a piece of machinery to shut down, but high power factor is important
for the overall health of the power system. Operating in a high power factor environment ensures that the
power system is functioning efficiently. It also makes economic sense. Electrical power generation,
transmission, and distribution equipment have maximum rated currents that the machines can safely
handle. If these levels are exceeded, the equipment operates inefficiently and suffers a loss of life
expectancy. This is why it is important not to exceed the rated currents for power system equipment. It is
also equally important that the available energy production capacity be put to optimum use. Such an
approach helps to provide an uninterrupted supply of electrical energy to industries, hospitals, commercial
institutions, and our homes. As the demand for electrical energy continues to grow and the resources for
producing the energy become less and less available, the idea of not using more than what we need takes
on more relevance.
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Conclusion:
Power factor is a power quality issue in that low power factor can sometimes cause equipment to
fail. So if we increase the power factor ratio , the non-productive power will be decrease
automatically. And avoid the voltage sag in power system because it causes the power loss.
 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

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EXPERIMENT NO 3

To study about cost evolution method ROI, IRR, PAYBACK

TERM.
THEORY:

In the process of energy management, at some stage, investment would be required for
reducing the energy consumption of a process or utility. Investment would be required for
modifications/retrofitting and for incorporating new technology. It would be prudent to adopt a
systematic approach for merit rating of the different investment options vis-à-vis the anticipated
savings. It is essential to identify the benefits of the proposed measure with reference to not only
energy savings but also other associated benefits such as increased productivity, improved
product quality etc.

Investment Need, Appraisal and Criteria:

To persuade your organization to commit itself to a program of investment in energy efficiency, you need
to demonstrate:

1 The size of the energy problem it currently faces

2 • The technical and good housekeeping measure available to reduce waste
3 • The predicted return on any investment
4 • The real returns achieved on particular measures over time.
The need for investments in energy conservation can arise under following circumstances

For new equipment, process improvements etc.

1 • To provide staff training

2 • To implement or upgrade the energy information system
3
Energy Proposals Vs Other Competitive Proposals
One of the most difficult problems which many energy managers face is justifying why their
organization should invest money in increasing its energy efficiency, especially when there are
other, seemingly more important priorities for the use of its capital
 Organization typically give priority to investing in what they see as their core or profit-making
activities in preference to energy efficiency
 Even when they do invest in saving energy, they tend to demand faster rates of return than they
require from other kinds of investment.
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Investment Appraisal
Energy manager has to identify how cost savings arising from energy management could be redeployed
within his organization to the maximum effect. To do this, he has to work out how benefits of increased
energy efficiency can be best sold to top management as,

1 Reducing operating /production costs

2 • Increasing employee comfort and well-being
3 • Improving cost-effectiveness and/or profits
4 • Protecting under-funded core activities
5 • Enhancing the quality of service or customer care delivered
6 • Protecting the environment

Financial Analysis
In most respects, investment in energy efficiency is no different from any other area of financial
management. So when your organization first decides to invest in increasing its energy efficiency it
should apply exactly the same criteria to reducing its energy consumption as it applies to all its other
investments. It should not require a faster or slower rate of return on investment in energy efficiency than
it demands elsewhere.

The basic criteria for financial investment appraisal include:

1 Simple Payback – a measure of how long it will be before the investment makes money, and
how long the financing term needs to be
2
3 Return on Investment (ROI) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) – measure that allow
comparison with other investment options

4
5 Net Present Value (NPV) and Cash Flow – measures that allow financial planning of the
project and provide the company with all the information needed to incorporate energy efficiency
projects into the corporate financial system.

Initially, when you can identify no or low cost investment opportunities, this principle should not be
difficult to maintain. However, if your organization decides to fund a rolling program of such
investments, then over time it will become increasingly difficult for you to identify opportunities, which
conform to the principle. Before you’ll reach this position, you need to renegotiate the basis on which
investment decisions are made.
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Financial Analysis Techniques

Simple Pay Back Period:

Simple Payback Period (SPP) represents, as a first approximation; the time (number of years) required to
recover the initial investment (First Cost), considering only the Net Annual Saving

The simple payback period is usually calculated as follows:

Examples:
(1) Simple payback period for a continuous Deodorizer that costs Rs.60 lakhs to purchase and install,
Rs.1.5 lakhs per year on an average to operate and maintain and is expected to save Rs. 20 lakhs
by reducing steam consumption (as compared to batch deodorizers), may be calculated as
follows:

Advantages
 It is simple, both in concept and application. Obviously a shorter payback generally indicates a more
attractive investment. It does not use tedious calculations.
 It favours projects, which generate substantial cash inflows in earlier years, and discriminates against
projects, which bring substantial cash inflows in later years but not in earlier years.

Limitations
 It fails to consider the time value of money. Cash inflows, in the payback calculation, are simply
added without suitable discounting. This violates the most basic principle of financial analysis, which
stipulates that cash flows occurring at different points of time can be added or subtracted only after
suitable compounding/discounting.
 It ignores cash flows beyond the payback period. This leads to discrimination against projects that
generate substantial cash inflows in later years.
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To illustrate, consider the cash flows of two projects, A and B:

The payback criterion prefers A, which has a payback period of 3 years, in comparison to B, which has a
payback period of 4 years, even though B has very substantial cash inflows in years 5 and 6.

Return on Investment (ROI)

ROI expresses the "annual return" from the project as a percentage of capital cost. The annual
return takes into account the cash flows over the project life and the discount rate by converting
the total present value of ongoing cash flows to an equivalent annual amount over the life of the
project, which can then be compared to the capital cost. ROI does not require similar project life
or capital cost for comparison.
This is a broad indicator of the annual return expected from initial capital investment, expressed
as a percentage:

1 ROI must always be higher than cost of money (interest rate); the greater the return on investment
better is the investment.

Limitations
 It does not take into account the time value of money.
 It does not account for the variable nature of annual net cash inflows.

Internal Rate of Return

This method calculates the rate of return that the investment is expected to yield. The internal rate of
return (IRR) method expresses each investment alternative in terms of a rate of return (a compound
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interest rate). The expected rate of return is the interest rate for which total discounted benefits become
just equal to total discounted costs (i.e net present benefits or net annual benefits are equal to zero, or for
which the benefit / cost ratio equals one). The criterion for selection among alternatives is to choose the
investment with the highest rate of return. The rate of return is usually calculated by a process of trial and
error, whereby the net cash flow is computed for various discount rates until its value is reduced to zero.

The internal rate of return (IRR) of a project is the discount rate, which makes its net present value (NPV)
equal to zero. It is the discount rate in the equation:

CFt value will be negative if it is expenditure and positive if it is savings.

In the net present value calculation we assume that the discount rate (cost of capital) is known and
determine the net present value of the project. In the internal rate of return calculation, we set the net
present value equal to zero and determine the discount rate (internal rate of return), which satisfies this
condition.

To illustrate the calculation of internal rate of return, consider the cash flows of a project:
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The calculation of “κ” involves a process of trial and error. We try different values of “κ” till we find that
the right-hand side of the above equation is equal to 100,000. Let us, to begin with, try κ = 15 per cent.
This makes the right-hand side equal to:

This value is slightly higher than our target value, 100,000. So we increase the value of κ from 15 per cent
to 16 per cent. (In general, a higher κ lowers and a smaller r increases the right-hand side value). The
right-hand side becomes:

Advantages
 It takes into account the time value of money.
 It considers the cash flow stream in its entirety.
 It makes sense to businessmen who prefer to think in terms of rate of return and find an
absolute quantity, like net present value, somewhat difficult to work with.

Limitations

1 The internal rate of return figure cannot distinguish between lending and borrowing and hence a
high internal rate of return need not necessarily be a desirable feature.
Example
Calculate the internal rate of return for a economizer that will cost Rs.500,000, will last 10 years,
and will result in fuel savings of Rs.150,000 each year.
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Conclusion:
 Simple payback is simple, both in concept and application. Obviously a shorter payback
generally indicates a more attractive investment. It does not use tedious calculations.

 ROI must always be higher than cost of money (interest rate); the greater the return on
investment better is the investment.

 It makes sense to businessmen who prefer to think in terms of rate of return and find an
absolute quantity, like net present value, somewhat difficult to work with.
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EXPERIMENT NO 4

To study about energy audit and case study of audit.

THEORY:

Energy Audit:
Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy
management. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all
the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy usage according to its discrete functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy
management programme as per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as
“the verification, monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical
report containing recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis
and an action plan to reduce energy consumption”.
Need for Energy Audit

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both electrical and
thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or potential cost
savings in each of the above components, energy would invariably emerge as a top ranker, and thus
energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction. Energy Audit will help to
understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any industry, and help in identifying the
areas where waste can occur and where scope for improvement exists. The Energy Audit would give a
positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control programmes
which are vital for production and utility activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on
variations which occur in the energy costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on
appropriate energy mix, identify energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation
equipment etc.

In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending technically
feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a specified time frame.

The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption per unit of
product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a “bench-mark” (Reference point) for
managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of
energy throughout the organization.
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Type of Energy Audit

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
Function and type of industry
Depth to which final audit is needed, and
Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types.

Preliminary Audit
Detailed Audit

Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

 Establish energy consumption in the organization
 Estimate the scope for saving
 Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention
 Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/ savings
 Set a ‘reference point’
 Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
 Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data

Detailed Energy Audit Methodology

A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan for a facility, since it
evaluates all major energy using systems.

This type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers the interactive
effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use of all major equipment, and includes detailed energy
cost saving calculations and project cost.

In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the energy balance. This is based on an inventory of
energy using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and calculations of energy use. This
estimated use is then compared to utility bill charges.

Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I, II and III.

Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

Phase II - Audit Phase
Phase III - Post Audit Phase
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Ten Steps Methodology for Detailed Energy Audit

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The following Worksheets can be used as guidance for energy audit assessment and reporting.
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Conclusion:
The gaps may exist in design & actual operations for large complexes due to integration of :

 Steam thermal systems.

 Electrical systems

 Process systems (Motive/ Thermal loads) due to variation in efficiencies/ actual

requirements

 Continuous monitoring and analysis of integrated systems is essential for improvements.

 Energy Audits will identify such gaps.

 Implementation of recommendations will result into considerable energy savings.

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Experiment No. 5

To Study about energy audit of induction motor &

transformer

Induction motor:

AC induction motors are the most common motors used in industrial motion control systems, as well as in
main powered home appliances. Simple and rugged design, low-cost, low maintenance and direct
connection to an AC power source are the main advantages of AC induction motors. Energy Conservation
Industries, LLC (ECI) has developed a method for Energy Conservation of active power (kWatts) in
applications using induction motors at <500 VAC (in Delta or Wye configuration).
Example — Motors
In addition to the cash flow analysis, various postal policies may play a role in making an investment
decision. There are two types of decisions to make for motors: (1) what type of motor to use when a
motor fails, and (2) whether to refurbish or replace an old motor when it fails.
Standard versus Efficient Motors
According to a National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimate, a standard efficiency 10-
horsepower (hp) motor costs $400 and has a lifetime of 20 years, over which time it will incur $6,500 in
energy costs and $500 in maintenance and repair costs. Energy costs, therefore, account for 88 percent of
a standard motor’s $7,400 lifetime costs. A new efficient motor’s initial purchase price is higher.
According to NIST’s estimate, an efficient 10-hp motor costs $500, $100 more than a standard motor.
However, the LCC of the efficient motor is estimated to be $1,000 less due to lower energy, operation,
and maintenance costs.
Therefore, it is important that decision-makers purchase efficient motors for replacements when older,
less-efficient motors fail. Exhibit B-2.1 plots the available data, showing the long-term benefit of
investing in the more efficient motor.
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Exhibit B-2.1, Life-Cycle Costs of Motors

Type of Motor Initial Costs 20-Year Energy and Total Life- Cycle Costs
Maintenance Costs
Standard motor $400 $6,500 + $500 = $7,000 $7,400

Efficient motor $500 $6,000 $6,500

Step 1: Electrical Motor Energy Audit:

The Electrical Motor Energy Audit is the collection of actual electrical motor load data including:
voltage, current, active power, total power, reactive power, and power factor under normal operating
conditions.
The Electrical Motor Energy Audit is performed during the Facility Assessment process which entails a
visit to the facility by ECI representatives in order to identify eligible motors for the Energy Conservation
process. Prior to the Assessment the Customer is required to provide a complete Motor List of the facility.
This List contains basic motor name plate information (e.g. HP, RPM), motor location within the facility,
ID number, average annual hours of operation, and if the motor incorporates any Soft Starts, VFD’s or
other peripherals. Utility billing information is also generally collected during the Assessment in order to
determine the historical average annual utility rate.
Generally, electric induction motors between 5 - 50HP, with at least 50% annual operation time, and
without Soft Starts and/or VFD’s are the best candidates for application and are the first priority for the
Electrical Motor Energy Audit.
Normally, a facility representative who is very familiar with the location and operation of the motors is
required to assist with locating the eligible motors from the Motor List the Electrical
Motor Energy Audit can be performed. It is very important that the motor be operating under normal load
and operating conditions during the Electrical Motor Energy Audit, which usually takes 15 minutes per
motor.
ECI recommends and currently uses the Fluke 430 Series Power Quality Analyzer for the Electrical
Motor Energy Audit process. This is a very accurate, reliable, and user friendly instrument. Once the
Assessment process is complete, ECI can generate a Proposal (based on the data collected during the
Electrical Motor Energy Audit projecting Energy Conservation (in kW) for each application as well as
outlining the projected investment, required equipment, payback period, and ongoing cost savings.
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After the Proposal is accepted by the Customer, a Purchase Order is submitted to ECI with a Production
Deposit of 50% of the order amount. This deposit secures the order and initiates the manufacturing
process. Delivery is generally made within 6 – 8 weeks, when final payment is also due.

Important Notes:

(1) Energy Conservation projections are based on the data collected during the Electrical Motor Energy
Audit.

(2) Energy Conservation and dollar savings cannot be extrapolated between treated and untreated
applications.

(3) Annual dollar savings projections are calculated by multiplying the projected Energy Conservation,
the average annual utility rate and the hours of operation (provided by the Customer). Changes in the
utility rate and/or hours of operation will significantly affect the actual payback period.

(4) The payback period is based on the prior year’s average annual utility rate provided by the Customer.
Utility rates have consistently risen over the past 10 years.

(5) Additional savings may be possible if the Utility Company billing structure includes charges for
kVAh and/or kVARh.

(6) All ECI equipment carries a full 1 year warranty. Extended warranties are available for an additional
charge.

(7) The expected application life is 10 – 25 years depending on the environment and operating conditions
of equipment.

Step 2: Calculation of Electrical Losses in Motor

Energy Conservation is achieved by minimizing the electrical losses of the motor, which are generally
categorized as:

• Losses in the Stator (across RS)

• Losses in the Rotor (across RR)

• Losses in the Magnetic Core (across RC)

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In order to determine the amount of Electrical Losses in the Motor a calculation of RS, LS, RR, LR, RC,
and LC is made from the data collected during the Electrical Motor Energy Audit.

These measured values are then used to accurately calculate and determine the complex equivalent
impedance (i.e. resistance and inductance) of the motor.

Step 3: Implementation of Recycling Resonant System

Based on these measured and calculated electrical parameters the ECI Model then determines the
matching impedance to implement a Recycling Resonant System. By matching the impedance of the
motor a resonance current is recycled back to the motor which diminishes losses across the motor and
lowers the consumption of line side current and active power (Kw) of the main source, without affecting
the load.
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Step 4: Energy Conservation

The difference between the original and reduced active power (kW) becomes the Energy Conservation.
Average Energy Conservation ranges from 3 -35% depending on motor load conditions and will always
be dependent upon the load. Under loaded motor applications, or oversized, have more electrical losses
and therefore more potential for Energy Conservation and dollar savings.

If necessary an additional Electrical Motor Energy Audit can be conducted following Implementation to
verify the actual Energy Conservation and dollar savings. The verification process simply entails the
collection of an average baseline motor load sample (before process) followed by another comparable
average motor load sample with the ECI method (after process), and the evaluation of the difference.

Energy Conservation is realized immediately upon Implementation. Through an exclusive affiliation with
Carbon Angel (a Platinum Eco honest company) ECI is now able to offer certified carbon offsets and
financial support for its Energy Conservation projects. Find out more about Carbon Angel and what you
can do to participate and support ECI and other carbon output reducing projects.
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Conclusion:

Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy
management. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all
the energy streams in a facility. The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy
cost reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control programmed which are vital for
production and utility activities.
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Experiment 6

To Study about energy performance assessment of

Compressor
The compressed air system is not only an energy intensive utility but also one of the least energy efficient.
Over a period of time, both performance of compressors and compressed air system reduces drastically.
The causes are many such as poor maintenance, wear and tear etc. All these lead to additional
compressors installations leading to more inefficiency. A periodic performance Assessment is essential to
minimize the cost of compressed air.

Purpose of the Performance Test

To find out:

• Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor

• Isothermal power required
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific power requirement
The actual performance of the plant is to be compared with design / standard values for assessing the
plant energy efficiency.

Field Testing

Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method

Principle: If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver getting its supply
from a compressor, sonic flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat for a particular ratio of upstream
pressure (receiver) to the downstream pressure (atmospheric) i.e. Mach number equals one.
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When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for reasonable intervals of time, the airflow output of
the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the known characteristic of the
nozzle.

Arrangement of test equipment

Calculation for Nozzle method:

(1) Free air delivery m3/sec

(2) Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal power/Input power

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Isothermal Power (KW)

P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2

Qf = Free air delivered m3/hr.

r = Pressure ratio P2/P1

(3) Specific Power Consumption at rated discharge pressure

(4) Volumetric Efficiency

(5) Compressor Displacement

D = Cylinder bore, metre

L = Cylinder stroke, metre

S = Compressor speed rpm

= 1 for single acting and

2 for double acting cylinders

n = No. of cylinders
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Assessment of Specific Power requirement

Specific Power Consumption

Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor

• Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main compressed air
system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.

• Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline. Make sure
that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.

• Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.

• Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from initial

Pressure P1.

• Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below:

Actual Free Air Discharge

Where

P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)

P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding

P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)

V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver, after cooler, and delivery piping

T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes

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Conclusion:

From above experiment, it can be concluded that a high efficiency compressor can be developed
by applying design modification, which reduce the various loss such as mechanical loss,
volumetric loss and thermal loss. By maintaining a performance test result we overcome the
problem which reduces the efficiency of the compressor.
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Experiment No.7

To Study About Energy Efficient Motor & Field Test For

Calculation Of Efficiency Of M/C
An electric drive is defined as a form of machine equipment designed to convert electrical energy in to
mechanical energy and provide electrical control of this processes. The system employed for motion
control is called an electrical drive. Drive is the system which includes the motors and the speed control
devices. Now a days drives are extensively used in the industries where variable speed is required. Since
energy must be used with the maximum efficiency since power consumed by the drive must be least for
economical performance of the industries. Energy efficient drives are defined as the drives which have
maximum efficiency i.e. minimum losses.
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THEORY OF ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTOR

Improvements in motor efficiency can be achieved without compromising motor performance - at higher
cost - within the limits of existing design and manufacturing technology. From the Table 10.1, it can be
seen that any improvement in motor efficiency must result from reducing the Watts losses. In terms of the
existing state of electric motor technology, a reduction in watts losses can be achieved in various ways.

All of these changes to reduce motor losses are possible with existing motor design and manufacturing
technology. They would, however, require additional materials and/or the use of higher quality materials
and improved manufacturing processes resulting in increased motor cost.

Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENC

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Thus energy-efficient electric motors reduce energy losses through improved design, better materials, and
improved manufacturing techniques. Replacing a motor may be justifiable solely on the electricity cost
savings derived from an energy-efficient replacement. This is true if the motor runs continuously, power
rates are high, the motor is oversized for the application, or its nominal efficiency has been reduced by
damage or previous rewinds. Efficiency comparison for standard and high efficiency motors is shown in
Figure below:

Technical aspects of Energy Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient motors last longer, and may require less maintenance. At lower temperatures, bearing
grease lasts longer; required time between re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures translate to long
lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in operating temperature.

Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for operation at 85% of the rated
motor load.

Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can affect the operation of energy-
efficient motors.

Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure of motor
winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy efficient motors
results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.
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Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managers should be
careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.

 Calculate the Efficiency Of Induction Motor

The efficiencies of induction motors remain almost constant between 50% to 100% loading.

Equation of Induction Motor

The efficiency of the motor is given by

η = Pout / Pin = (Pin- Ploss ) / Pin = 1 – ( Ploss / Pin )

• Where Pout = Output power of the motor

• Pin = input power of the motor
• Ploss = Losses occurring in motor
• Measurements of Output power are difficult with extensive testing facilities in comparison of
Input power which is simple to measure.
• Testing standards widely used.
• Difference in efficiency value is up to 3% between these standards.
• Efficiency rating may be used for calculations if the motor load is in the range of 50 –100 %.
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency
 No Load Test :
 F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) –
o (No load current)2 × Stator resistance
= P – I2 R
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Stator and Rotor I2R Losses:

 Stator Losses :
 The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge or volt amp method.
 The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature.
 For modern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 1000C to 1200C and
necessary correction should be made. Correction to 750C may be inaccurate. The correction
factor is given as follows :
 R2 / R1 = (235 + t2) / (235 + t1)
 where, t1 = ambient temperature, oC &
t2 =operating temperature, oC.

Rotor losses :

• frequency, but
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced
2
rotor I R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
• Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input – Stator I2R Losses – Core
Loss)

Stray Load Losses:

• These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy.
• IS and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of output. It must be remarked that actual value
of stray losses is likely to be more.
• IEEE – 112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %.

Motor Rating Stray Losses

• 1 – 125 HP 1.8 %
• 125 – 500 HP 1.5 %
• 501 – 2499 HP 1.2 %
• 2500 and above 0.9 %

Estimation of efficiency in the field :

a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value, I2R
losses are calculated.

b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
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c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss

 Example

Motor Specifications No load test Data

Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP Voltage, V = 415 Volts

Voltage = 415 Volt Current, I = 16.1 Amps

Current = 57 Amps Frequency, F = 50 Hz

Speed =1475 rpm Stator phase resistance at 300C = 0.264 Ohms

Insulation class = F No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts

Frame = LD 200 L

Connection = Delta

 Calculate Motor Full Load Efficiency

• Assuming that stray losses are 0.5 % of the motor rated power.
• Rotor losses are slip times rotor input.
• Motor efficiency at full load,
η = (Poutput / Pinput) * 100

• Poutput = Full load output power

• Pin = Full load input power
• Poutput = 34 KW = 34000 W (Given)
• Pinput = Rotor input, Pr + Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 120 0C + friction and windage
loss (P - I2R) + Pstray
• Pstray = Full Rated power * 0.5 % (stray loss)
= 34000* 0.005

= 170 Watt

• friction and windage loss = P - I2R

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=1063.74 – (16.1) 2 * 0.264 (Given) = 995.3 W

Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 1200C = I2R

 
(R2 / R1) = (235 + t2) / (235 + t1)

Where, t1 = ambient temperature =30 oC &

t2 =operating temperature=120 oC.

R2 = ((235 + t2) / (235 + t1)) * R1

= ((235 + 120) / (235 + 30)) * 0.264

=0.354 ohms per phase

Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 1200C = I2R

= (57)2 * 0.354

= 1150.1 Watts

Rotor Input = Poutput/ (1 – S)

S = Slip (%) = ((Synchronous speed – Full load Rated speed) / Synchronous speed) *
100

= (1500 – 1475) / 1500 = 0.0167

Rotor input, Pr = Poutput / (1-S)

= 34000 / (1-0.0167)

= 34577.4 Watts

Pinput = Rotor input, Pr + Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 1200C + friction and windage loss
(P - I2R) + Pstray

  = 34577.4 + 1150.1 + 995.3 + 170

= 36892.8 Watts

η = (Poutput / Pinput) * 100

  = (34000 / 36892.8) * 100

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  = 92.2 %

Conclusion:

Most of the industrial loads having motors are consuming 70% of the loads electricity. So it is
better to replace standard motors with energy efficient motors. Motor performance energy and
cost savings are calculated from field test data.
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EXPERIMENT NO 8

To study about concept of Variable Speed Drive and

application of VSD.

THEORY:
The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to it,
as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation

Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.

Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct
proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the job
given to the VSD.
The VSD's basic principle of operation is to convert the electrical system frequency and voltage
to the frequency and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated speed. The
two most basic functions of a VSD are to provide power conversion from one frequency to
another, and to enable control of the output frequency.
As illustrated by Figure there are two basic components, a rectifier and an inverter, to
accomplish power conversion.
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The rectifier receives the 50-Hz AC voltage and converts it to direct current (DC) voltage. A DC
bus inside the VSD functions as a "parking lot" for the DC voltage. The DC bus energizes the
inverter, which converts it back to AC voltage again. The inverter can be controlled to produce
an output frequency of the proper value for the desired motor shaft speed.

Factors for Successful Implementation of Variable Speed Drives

(1) Load Type for Variable Frequency Drives

The main consideration is whether the variable frequency drive application requires a variable torque or
constant torque drive. If the equipment being driven is centrifugal, such as a fan or pump, then a variable
torque drive will be more appropriate. Energy savings are usually the primary motivation for installing
variable torque drives for centrifugal applications. For example, a fan needs less torque when running at
50% speed than it does when running at full speed. Variable torque operation allows the motor to apply
only the torque needed, which results in reduced energy consumption.

1. Motor Information
Full Load Amperage Rating Using a motor's horsepower is an inaccurate way to size variable
frequency drives.

Speed Range Generally, a motor should not be run at any speed less than 20% of its specified
maximum speed allowed. If it is run at a speed less than this without auxiliary motor cooling, the motor
will overheat. Auxiliary motor cooling should be used if the motor must be operated at very slow speeds.

Multiple Motors To size a variable frequency drive that will control more than one motor, add
together the full-load amp ratings of each of the motors. All motors controlled by a single drive must have
an equal voltage rating.

(2) Efficiency and Power Factor

The variable frequency drive should have an efficiency rating of 95% or better at full load.

Variable frequency drives should also offer a true system power factor of 0.95 or better across the
operational speed range, to save on demand charges, and to protect the equipment (especially motors).

(3) Protection and Power Quality

Motor overload Protection for instantaneous trip and motor over current. Additional Protection: Over
and under voltage, over temperature, ground fault, and control or microprocessor fault. These protective
circuits should provide an orderly shutdown of the VFD, provide indication of the fault condition, and
require a manual reset (except under voltage) before restart. Under voltage from a power loss shall be set
to automatically restart after return to normal. The history of the previous three faults shall remain in
memory for future review.
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Information needed to Evaluate Energy Savings for Variable Speed

Application
1 Method of flow control to which adjustable speed is compared:
1 o output throttling (pump) or dampers (fan)
2 o recirculation (pump) or unrestrained flow (fan)
3 o adjustable-speed coupling (eddy current coupling)
4 o inlet guide vanes or inlet dampers (fan only)
5 o two-speed motor.
2 Pump or fan data:
1 o head v's flow curve for every different type of liquid (pump) or gas (fan) that is handled
2 o Pump efficiency curves.
Process information:
3 o specific gravity (for pumps) or specific density of products (for fans)
4 o system resistance head/flow curve
5 o equipment duty cycle, i.e. flow levels and time duration.
Efficiency information on all relevant electrical system apparatus:
6 o motors, constant and variable speed
7 o variable speed drives
8 o gears
9 o transformers.

Application of Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Although there are many methods of varying the speeds of the driven equipment such as
hydraulic coupling, gear box, variable pulley etc., the most possible method is one of varying the
motor speed itself by varying the frequency and voltage by a variable frequency drive.

Conclusion
The energy savings achieved can result in the investment to install drives being recovered in as
little as a few months. Drives come in many different sizes and are typically encased in boxes
that can be as small as a milk carton or as big as a wardrobe, depending on the size of the motor
or motors they regulate.
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Experiment No. 9
To Study about energy performance of pumps and cooling
Tower
Pumps and Pumping Systems:
Pumps have two main purposes:
 Transfer of liquid from one place to another place (e.g. water from an underground aquifer into a
water storage tank)
 Circulate liquid around a system (e.g. cooling water or lubricants through machines and
equipment)

Assessment of Pumps:
This section explains how the performance of pumps and pumping systems can be assessed.
 Calculate pump performance:
The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and of the weight of the liquid
pumped in a given time period. Pump shaft power (Ps) is the actual horsepower delivered to the
pump shaft, and can be calculated as follows:
Pump shaft power Ps = Hydraulic power hp / Pump efficiency η pump
Or
Pump efficiency ηpump = Hydraulic power / Pump shaft power
Pump output, water horsepower or hydraulic horsepower (hp) is the liquid horsepower delivered
by the pump, and can be calculated as follows:
Hydraulic power hp= Q (m3/s) x (hd- hsin m) x ρ (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000
Where: Q = flow rate
hd= discharge head
hs = suction head
ρ = density of the fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
 Difficulties in the assessment of pumps:
It is more difficult to assess pump performance. Some important reasons are:
􀂃 Absence of pump specification data: Pump specification is required to assess the pump
performance. Most companies do not keep original equipment manufacturer (OEM) documents
that provide these data. In these cases, the percentage pump loading for a pump flow or head
cannot be estimated satisfactorily.

 Difficulty in flow measurement: It is difficult to measure the actual flow. The methods are used
to estimate the flow. In most cases the flow rate is calculated based on type of fluid, head and
pipe size etc., but the calculated figure may not be accurate. Another method is to divide the tank
volume by the time it takes for the pump to fill the tank. This method can, however, only be
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applied if one pump is in operation and if the discharge valve of the tank is closed. The most
sophisticated, accurate and least time consuming way to measure the pump flow is by
measurement with an ultrasonic flow meter
 Improper calibration of pressure gauges and measuring instruments: Proper calibration of all
pressure gauges at suction and discharge lines and other power measuring instruments is
important to obtain accurate measurements. But calibration has not always been carried out.
Sometimes correction factors are used when gauges and instruments are not properly calibrated.
Both will lead to incorrect performance assessment of pumps.

Performance Assessment Of Water Pumps:

Purpose of the Performance Test:
 Determination of the pump efficiency during the operating condition
 Determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the pump and compare the
same with design.

Performance Terms and Definitions:

 Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time, m3/hr or m 3/sec. Q is
proportional to N, where N- rotational speed of the pump.
 Total developed head, H = the difference of discharge and suction pressure. The pump head
represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from inlet of the pump to the
discharge of the pump.
There are three heads in common use in pumps namely
(i) Static head
(ii) Velocity head
(iii) Friction head.
The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly as the
square) of the capacity flow through the system.
 System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance & total static head.
 Pump Efficiency: Fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power input in
the pump shaft.

Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems

 Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation
 Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.
 Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
 Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.
 Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of multiple units.
 Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a booster pump in the
problem area.
 Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.
 Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in case of heat exchangers.
 Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.
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 Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
 Avoid pumping head with a free-fall return (gravity); Use siphon effect to advantage:
 Conduct water balance to minimize water consumption
 Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors, refrigeration systems, cooling
towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.
 In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling
 Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head
 Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps
 In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or downsize / replace impeller or
replace with correct sized pump for efficient operation.
 Optimize number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins
 Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimization

COOLING TOWER:
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling tower is
to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of
removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to
evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling
tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other units for further cooling.

Figure: Cooling Water System

Components of Cooling Tower:

The basic components of an evaporative tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water basin, drift
eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.

 Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures,
motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass fiber units,
the casing may essentially be the frame.
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 Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximizing
water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type. With splash fill, water falls over
successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while
also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash
fill Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed,
or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a
smaller volume than the splash fill.
 Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives the
cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low
point for the cold water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin is
beneath the entire fill.
 Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would
be lost to the atmosphere.
 Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire
side of a tower–cross flow design– or be located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow
designs.
 Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize
air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs do
not require louvers.
 Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of
the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed
in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assembly as
found in some circular cross-section towers.
 Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced
draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either be fixed or variable pitch. Afan
having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be used over a wide range
of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption.
Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

Cooling Tower Performance:

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers, are:

 "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
 "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be monitored, the
'Approach' is a better indicator of cooling tower performance.
 Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e., difference
between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is
= Range / (Range + Approach).
 Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow rate of
water, specific heat and temperature difference.
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 Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and, theoretically, for every 10,
00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m 3. An empirical relation used
often is:
*Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
T1-T2 = Temp difference between inlet and outlet water.
Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the
dissolved solids in make-up water.
 Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is given
by relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. – 1)
 Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow
rates. Against design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air
flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness through measures like water box loading
changes, blade angle adjustments. Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the
water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air:
Where,
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold water temperature (°C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (same units as
above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as
above)

Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers:

 Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or modify
structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.
 Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
 Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance.
 On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square spray ABS
practically non-clogging nozzles.
 Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
 Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern
 Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.
 Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
 Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling.
 Optimize blow down flow rate, as per COC limit.
 Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self-extinguishing, PVC cellular units.
 Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
 Monitor L/G ratio, CW flow rates w.r.t. design as well as seasonal variations. It would help to
increase water load during summer and times when approach is high and increase air flow during
monsoon times and when approach is narrow.
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1ST SEMESTER

 Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity for continuous optimization efforts, as per
seasonal variations as well as load side variations.
 Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.
 Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings.
 Consider possible improvements on CW pumps w.r.t. efficiency improvement.
 Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures especially in case of small units.
 Optimize process CW flow requirements, to save on pumping energy, cooling load, evaporation
losses (directly proportional to circulation rate) and blow down losses.

Conclusion:
Purpose of the Performance Test for pump can be carried out to determination of the pump efficiency
during the operating condition & determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the
pump and compare the same with design. Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical
plants. The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water.
 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CSE

1ST SEMESTER

Experiment No.10

To study about Maximum Demand controller, Automatic

P.F. Controller and Concept of soft starter with energy
saving.

1. Maximum Demand controller:

High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to the usual charge for
the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest amount of power used during
some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum demand charge often represents
a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only one isolated 30 minute episode of high power
use.

Considerable savings can be realised by monitoring power use and turning off or reducing non-
essential loads during such periods of high power use.
 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

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Fig 10.1 Maximum Demand Controller

Maximum Demand Controller ( See Figure10.1) is a device designed to meet the need of industries
conscious of the value of load management. Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a preset value. If
corrective action is not taken, the controller switches off non-essential loads in a logical sequence.

This sequence is predetermined by the user and is programmed jointly by the user and the supplier of the
device. The plant equipments selected for the load management are stopped and restarted as per the
desired load profile. Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable control contactors. Audio
and visual annunciations could also be used.

2. Automatic Power Factor Controllers

Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay/ microprocessor logic. Two of
the most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr Control.

Voltage Control
Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are applied at point
where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where they are applied the voltage
should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage should be around 4-5 % with increasing
load.

Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation applications, when maintaining a
particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is independent of load cycle. During light
load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the substation, which is to be taken note of.
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KILOVAR Control
Kilovar sensitive controls (see Figure 10.2) are used at locations where the voltage level is closely
regulated and not available as a control variable. The capacitors can be switched to respond to a
decreasing power factor as a result of change in system loading. This type of control can also be used to
avoid penalty on low power factor by adding capacitors in steps as the system power factor begins to lag
behind the desired value. Kilovar control requires two inputs - current and voltage from the incoming
feeder, which are fed to the PF correction mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay.

Automatic Power Factor Control Relay

It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to switch on or off power factor correction
capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and needs contactors of appropriate rating for switching
on/off the capacitors. There is a built-in power factor transducer, which measures the power factor of the
installation and converts it to a DC voltage of appropriate polarity. This is compared with a reference
voltage, which can be set by means of a knob calibrated in terms of power factor.

When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The relays are
provided with First in First out ( FIFO ) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The capacitors controlled
by the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in linear sequence. To prevent over
correction hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting determines the range of phase angle over which
 PARUL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

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the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes beyond this range, the relay acts. When the load is low,
the effect of the capacitors is more pronounced and may lead to hunting. Under current blocking (low
current cut out) shuts off the relay, switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load current
is below setting. Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they are
switched in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transient. The solid state indicating lamps

(LEDS) display various functions that the operator should know and also and indicate each capacitor
switching stage.

Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC)

This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected in each step during the first hour of its
operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on the most
appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally associated with capacitor switching.

3. Soft Starter
When starting, AC Induction motor develops more torque than is required at full speed. This stress is
transferred to the mechanical transmission system resulting in excessive wear and premature failure of
chains, belts, gears, mechanical seals, etc. Additionally, rapid acceleration also has a massive impact on
electricity supply charges with high inrush currents drawing +600% of the normal run current

Fig 10.3 Soft starter

The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the problem. Should the motor slow down during
the transition period, the high peaks can be repeated and can even exceed direct on line current. Soft
starter (see Figure 10.3) provides a reliable and economical solution to these problems by delivering a
controlled release of power to the motor, thereby providing smooth, step less acceleration and
deceleration. Motor life will be extended as damage to windings and bearings is reduced.

Soft Start & Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing controlled starting and stopping with a
selection of ramp times and current limit settings to suit all applications (see Figure10.4)
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Fig 10.4 Soft Starter: Starting current, Stress profile during starting

Advantages of Soft Start

Less mechanical stress

Improved power factor.

Lower maximum demand.

Less mechanical maintenance

Conclusion:
Maximum Demand controller is a device designed to meet the need of industries.

Most common controls are: Voltage control

KVar control

Soft starter provides a reliable & economical solution.