Pure Mathematics Summary

H2 Mathematics
Catholic Junior College
Mathematics Department
Year 2011
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Content Page

Page Page

1. Partial Fractions 3 13. Parametric Equations 11

2. Binomial Theorem 3 14. Trigonometry 12

3. Arithmetic & Geometric Progressions 3 15. Small Angle Approximations 12

4. Sigma Notation & Method of Difference 4 16. Differentiation 13

5. Recurrence Relation 4 17. Sketching of Derivative Graph 14

6. Mathematical Induction 4 18. Applications of Differentiation 15

7. Functions 5 19. Maclaurin’s Theorem 12

8. Graphing Techniques 6 20. Integration 16

9. Conics 7 21. Definite Integrals 18

10. Transformations 9 22. Differential Equations 19

11. Inequalities 11 23. Vectors 20

12. System of Linear Equations 11 24. Complex Numbers 24

Page 2
 Pure Mathematics Summary

PARTIAL FRACTIONS ARITHMETIC & GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS

Before any fraction can be expressed in partial fractions, ensure that
(i) it is a proper fraction*; Progression Arithmetic Geometric
(ii) the denominator is factorised completely.
* To obtain a proper fraction from an improper fraction, perform long
division or by inspection. First Term: a First Term: a
Notation
Common Difference: d Common Ratio: r

Partial Fractions Tn = Sn − Sn −1
Partial Fractions Decomposition [In Formula List]
General Term Tn = a + ( n − 1)d Tn = ar n−1
n a ( r n − 1)
Case 1: Case 3: Sn = [ 2a + ( n − 1)d ] Sn =
Non-Repeated Quadratic Factors 2 r −1
Non-Repeated Linear Factors
px + q px 2 + qx + r A Bx + C Sum to nth Term n
Sn = [a + Tn ] a (1 − r n )
A B = + 2 Sn =
= + 2 1− r
( ax + b)(cx + d ) (ax + b) (cx + d ) (ax + b)( x + c )
2 2
( ax + b ) ( x + c2 )
where r ≠1
a
Sum to Infinity - NA - S= , r <1
1− r
Case 2:
Tn
Repeated Linear Factors Proving Tn − Tn −1 = constant = constant
px2 + qx + r A B C Tn − 1
= + +
(ax + b)(cx + d )2 (ax + b) (cx + d ) (cx + d )2
3 consecutive terms 3 consecutive terms
x , y and z x , y and z
Techniques used to solve Partial fractions in a finite A.P. in a finite G.P.
Mean y − x = z − y [common diff.] z y
= [common ratio]
x+z y x
y=
 Cover-up Rule can only be used for partial fractions with 2 y 2 = xz
→ linear denominators &
→ repeated linear factors of the highest power
 Substitution
 Comparing Coefficients
Notes
(i) For powers of x in ascending power,
BINOMIAL THEOREM  x 
n
x
n
x (i) n! = (n − 1)! × n
(a + x) n = a n 1 +  ⇒ 1 +  valid for <1
 a   a  a  n n
(ii)   = 1 ;   = 1
Binomial Theorem for a Rational Index, n [In formula list] (ii) For powers of x in descending power, 0
  n
 a  a
n n
a  n  n 
(a + x) n = x n 1 +  ⇒ 1 +  valid for <1 (iii)   =  
n(n − 1) 2 n( n − 1)...(n − r + 1) r  x  x x r  n − r
(1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + ... + x + ... , where x < 1
2! r!

Page 3
 Pure Mathematics Summary

SIGMA NOTATION RECURRENCE RELATION

Important Result Summation Involving Standard Formulae Definition
n n k n It defines a term of a sequence using the previous term.
∑U = ∑U −∑U
n
r r r 1 ∑ a = an BUT ∑ a = a (n + 1) It is a formula to work out the term from the previous one and the 1st
r = k +1 r =1 r =1 r =1 r =0 term of the sequence must be given. E.g. U n = U n −1 + 2 & U 1 = 2 .
n(n + 1)
n n
2 ∑ ∑
r =0
r=
r =1
r=
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n n
b 3 ∑r = ∑r2 2
=
No. of terms in ∑U
r =a
r r =0 r =1
6
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
n n
n 2 (n + 1) 2
= b − a +1 4 ∑
r =0
r = 3

r =1
∑r =
4
3 Proof

STEP 1: Let Pn be the statement about a given result or formula to be proven

where n ∈ Ζ +
STEP 2: Prove P1 is true [Note that for some cases, n ≠ 1 ]
(By substituting n = 1 into LHS and RHS of the statement to prove that
P1 is true)
METHOD OF DIFFERENCE
STEP 3: Assume Pk is true for some k ∈ Ζ +
Involves ‘diagonal cancellation’
STEP 4: RTP Pk +1 is true
Theorem (While proving Pk +1 , you need to make use of the result from Pk )
STEP 5: Conclude by writing: Pk is true ⇒ Pk +1 is also true.
Hence, by Mathematical Induction, Pn is true for all n ∈ Ζ +
n
Let ∑U
r =1
r = U 1 + U 2 + U 3 + ... + U n .

Suppose U r can be expressed in the form

f( r ) − f( r − 1) where f(r ) is some function of r ,
n n Involving Sequences
then ∑ r =1
Ur = ∑ [f(r ) − f(r −1)]
r =1
Involving Forming Conjecture

= f(1) − f(0)
+ f(2) − f(1)
Involving ∑ notation/Series

+ f(3) − f(2) Useful Result:

k +1 k
... ... ...
+ f(n − 1) − f(n − 2) ∑
r =1
Ur = ∑U
r =1
r + U k +1

+ f(n) − f(n − 1)
= f( n ) − f( 0 )

Page 4
 Pure Mathematics Summary

FUNCTIONS
Definition Tests

f : x → rule , x ∈ Domain Test for … Graphical Method

Domain A relation is a function if the vertical line, x = a where a ∈ Domain
• Must be indicated when defining a function Function
does not intersect the graph more than once.
• When domain is not specified, it is assumed that domain is the
largest possible for which function is defined One-one A function is one-one if and only if its graph does not intersect any
Range function horizontal line that is drawn parallel to the x-axis more than once.
• The range of a function can be determined by considering the
graph of the function Restriction of a Function
• Simply read off the least and the greatest values of y within the
given domain • A restriction of a function f : X → Y is a function that
(i) has the same rule as f;
(ii) whose domain is a subset of the domain of f
• Many functions which are not one-one, have restrictions that are one-one.
Inverse Function
Test • f − 1 exists if and only if f is one-one.

1 Find the Rule f −1 ( x ) Composite Function

Let y = f( x ) and manipulate to make x the
subject • For composite function gf to exist, R f ⊆ D g

If the expression for x is not unique; choose the Df Dg Rg
correct one by considering the domain D f f g
Rf
Definition
Then f −1 ( y ) = x ⇒ expression in terms of y Rf R gf

Rewrite the expression by replacing y with x

Test D gf gf
 Find the Domain of f − 1 If gf exists:

Determine R f
1 Write down the function
−1

Then D f = Rf  D gf = D f
 R gf is determined by considering graph of gf ( R gf ⊆ R g )
Df Rf
Domain D f −1 = R f • fg ≠ g f (composite functions are not commutative)
and
Rf −1
= Df • To find (gf) −1 , use the result (gf) −1 = f −1 g −1
Range
R f −1 D f −1 Notes • f −1f ≠ ff −1 even though f −1 f( x) = x = ff −1 ( x)
Reason: Domains of f − 1 f and ff −1 are different
Relationship • Reflections of each other about the line y = x .
( f −1 f and ff −1 are known as Identity Function)
between (When drawing, the scales of the x-axis and y-axis
f and f −1 must be the same)

Page 5
 Pure Mathematics Summary

GRAPHING TECHNIQUES

Step 1: Intercepts on Co-ordinate Axes

x - Intercepts y - Intercepts
Analytical Method Let y = 0 to find the corresponding x -values. Let x = 0 to find the corresponding y -values.
(EXACT)
Use of G.C

Step 2: Asymptotes [must be drawn in dotted lines]

Vertical Horizontal Oblique

Procedure Let denominator of Let x → ±∞ and work out the Let x → ±∞ and work out the tendency
a rational function tendency for y . for y .
be zero and solve Note: A rational function has an oblique
the equation. asymptote if the degree of numerator
is 1 more than degree of denominator
Example 2x + 1 2x + 1 x 2 − 3x + 6
Given y = Given y = Given y =
x+3 x+3 x −1
Solution Let x + 3 = 0 Method : Inspection 4
Using long division, y = x − 2 +
⇒ x = −3 2( x + 3) + 1 − 6 5 x −1
y= = 2−
∴ x = −3 is the x+3 x+3 As x → ±∞ , y → x − 2 .
vertical As x → ±∞ , y → 2 . ∴ y = x − 2 is the oblique asymptote.
asymptote. ∴ y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote.

Method : Long Division

5
y = 2−
x+3
As x → ±∞ , y → 2 .
∴ y = 2 is the horizontal asymptote.

Step 3: Stationary Points

Analytical Method (EXACT) Use of G.C.

dy Minimum point: Maximum point:
 Determine .
dx
dy
2 Put = 0 and find the corresponding x and y co-ordinates.
dx
3 Use the first or second derivative test to check the nature of
the stationary points.

Step 4: Use the G.C. to obtain the Shape of the Graph

Page 6
 Pure Mathematics Summary

CONICS
Ellipse
Parabola Basic Equation: General Equation:
TYPE I
x2 y2 ( x − h) 2 ( y − k)2
Basic Equation: General Equation: + =1 only if a > b + =1
a2 b2 a2 b2
y = kx 2 , k ≠ 0 y = k ( x − a ) 2 + b, k ≠ 0 y
y
B (0,b) k+b
k>0 k<0 k>0 k<0
A’ A a
y y y x k
y (a,b) (−a,0) 0 (a,0) b
k−b
x α β x B’ (0,−b)
α β x 0 h−a h h+a
x
x
(a,b) Properties:
Properties:

Symmetrical about both the
Properties: Properties: x and y axes
Symmetrical about lines

Symmetrical about y -axis
Symmetrical about line x = a
Centre: (0, 0) x = h and y = k

Turning point (0, 0)
Turning point ( a , b )
A’A: major axis of length 2a
Centre: ( h , k )

B’B: minor axis of length 2b

TYPE II *Same scale for both x and y axes when sketching*

Basic Equation: General Equation: Circle

Basic Equation: General Equation:
y 2 = kx, k ≠ 0 ( y − b) 2 = k ( x − a ), k ≠ 0

x2 + y2 = r 2 ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2
k>0 k<0 k>0 k<0
y y y y y y
r k+r
(a,b)
x x (a,b) r
x k
x x −r 0 r

−r k−r
x
Properties: Properties: 0 h−r h h+r

Symmetrical about x -axis
Symmetrical about line y = b Properties:
Properties:

Vertex (0, 0)
Vertex ( a , b )
Symmetrical about any line
that passes through (0, 0)
Symmetrical about any line
that pass through ( h , k )

Centre: (0, 0)

Centre: ( h , k )

Radius: r

Radius: r

Note: Circle is an ellipse with equal axes

*Same scale for both x and y axes when sketching*
Page 7
 Pure Mathematics Summary

TYPE I Hyperbola
Basic Equation: General Equation:
TYPE III [Rectangular Hyperbola]
( x − h) ( y − k)
2 2 2 2
x y
− =1 a, b > 0 − =1 Equation: x2 − y2 = a2 Equation:
a 2 b2 a 2
b2 y2 − x2 = a

y y=
b
x x=h y=
b
( x − h) + k y y
a a y=x y=x
a
−a 0 a x (h−a, k) (h+a, k) y = k x
−a 0 a x 0
(h, k)
b −a
b y = − ( x − h) + k
y=− x a y = −x y = −x
a
Properties: Properties:
Properties: Properties:

Symmetrical about both the
Symmetrical about both x = h and y = k
x and y -axis
Symmetrical about both axes
Symmetrical about both axes

Centre ( h , k )

Centre ( 0, 0)
Centre (0, 0 )

Centre ( 0, 0)
Vertices are ‘ a ’ units from centre ( h , k )

Curve intersect x -axis at x = ±a
Curve intersect y -axis at y = ± a

Curve intersect x -axis at x = ± a in the direction parallel to x -axis

Asymptotes at y = ± x
Asymptotes at y = ± x
b

Asymptotes at y = ± x
Asymptotes at y = ± b ( x − h) + k (they are perpendicular)
a a (they are perpendicular)

TYPE II

Basic Equation: General Equation: G.C. Applications - CONICS

y2 x2 ( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2 The formulas for conics are available in the G.C under

− =1 a, b > 0 − =1 applications.
b2 a2 b2 a2

y b
y= x y=
b
( x − h) + k
a x=h
a
b (h, k+b)

x
0 (h, k) y=k
−b
(h, k-b)
b
y=− x y=−
b
( x − h) + k
a a
Properties:
Properties:

Symmetrical about both the

Symmetrical about both x = h and y = k
x and y -axis

Centre ( h , k )

Centre ( 0, 0)

Vertices are ‘ b ’ units from centre ( h , k )

Curve intersect y -axis at y = ±b in the direction parallel to y -axis
b

Asymptotes at y = ± x
Asymptotes at y = ± b ( x − h) + k
a a

Page 8
 Pure Mathematics Summary

TRANSFORMATIONS
From y = f(x) to … Explanation

y = f(x − a) Translation in the positive x-direction by a units (→)

y = f(x + a) Translation in the negative x -direction by a units (←)

Translation
Moving the curve in the direction of that axis without changing its shape or size y = f(x) + a Translation in the positive y-direction by a units (↑)

y = f(x) – a Translation in the negative y -direction by a units (↓)

1
y = f(ax) Scaling parallel to the x -axis by factor
Scaling a
Stretching a curve parallel to that axis
y = af(x) Scaling parallel to the y -axis by factor a
y = −f(x) Reflection in the x –axis
Reflection
y = f(−x) Reflection in the y –axis

*When sketching, where applicable, asymptotes should be translated/scaled/reflected as well* Transformation to the form y = c f(ax+b) + d

y = f(x)
Transformation to the form y = f(ax+b)
Modulus Translate to left by b units

y = f(x)
To sketch y = f ( x )
  y = f(x+b)
Given the graph y = f(x), 1
1 Retain the portion of the graph Scaling // to x-axis, factor Translate to left by b units
a 1
corresponding to x ≥ 0 Scaling // to x-axis, factor
2 Replace the portion of the graph a
corresponding to x < 0 by reflecting 1 in y = f(ax) y = f(x+b)
the y-axis y = f(ax+b)

b 1
To sketch y = f ( x ) Translate to left by units Scaling // to x-axis factor Scaling // to y-axis, factor c
a a
Given the graph y = f(x),
1 Retain the portion of the graph above the
y = f(ax+b) y =c f(ax+b)
x-axis   b 
y = f  a x +  
2 Reflect the portion of the graph below the   a 
x-axis in the x-axis
Translate upwards by d units

y =c f(ax+b) + d

Page 9
 Pure Mathematics Summary Reciprocal
1
Square Root Step y = f( x ) TO y=
f( x )

Step y = f( x ) TO y = f( x)
x-intercept Vertical asymptote

(a, 0) x=a
1
1 Remove the portion of the graph y = f(x) which is below the x-axis
Vertical asymptote x-intercept
For the remaining portion of the graph y = f(x), consider the following, x=b (b, 0)

Maximum point Minimum point
Intercepts
x-intercept (c, d)  1

x-intercept  c, 
(a, 0) (a, 0) (i.e. no change)  d
2
y-intercept 2

y-intercept
Minimum point Maximum point
(0, b) (0, b ) (e, f)  1
 e, 
Asymptotes  f 

Vertical Vertical
x = c (i.e. no change) Horizontal asymptote Horizontal asymptote
3 x=c
3 y=g 1

Horizontal Horizontal y=
g
y=d y= d
Stationary Points (Nature remains unchanged) y-intercept y-intercept
4 (0, h)  1

Maximum Maximum  0, 
4 (e, f) e, f ( )  h
1

Minimum Minimum → ∞+ (∞−)
(g, h) (g, h ) 5

f(x) → 0+ (0−) f( x )

1
Curvature → 0+ (0−)
Tangent at this point will be
f(x) → ∞+ (∞−) f( x )
Any point that
cuts x-axis parallel to the y-axis
y y Additional information
5 6 (not required when sketching on separate axes)

The 2 graphs will intersect at the points where f(x) = ±1.
x x
1
i i *All y co-ordinates on the graph of y = f(x) will take reciprocal on the graph of y = *
f( x)
* All x co-ordinates (except x-intercept) on the graph of y = f(x) will remain unchanged on
Additional information 1
(not required when sketching on separate axes) the graph of y = *
f( x)

The 2 graphs will intersect at the points where f(x)=0 and f(x)=1

When 0 < f( x) < 1 , f( x ) > f( x ) . To sketch y 2 = f(x)
6
Hence for this region, y = f (x ) lies above y = f(x)

When f(x) > 1, f( x ) < f( x ) . y 2 = f( x )

Hence for this region, y = f (x ) lies below y = f(x)

*All y co-ordinates on the graph of y = f(x) will take square root on the graph of y = f (x) *
y= f( x) y = − f (x )

* All x co-ordinates on the graph of y = f(x) will remain unchanged on the graph of y = f (x) * Reflect the graph of y= f( x ) in the x-axis
Page 10
 INEQUALITIES Pure Mathematics Summary

Definition of Modulus Function Basic Results

x if x ≥ 0 For x ∈ IR , a > 0, SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

-x if x < 0 (a) x = a ⇔ x = ± a
(b) x  < a ⇔ −a < x < a Solving Applications of System of Linear Equations
(c) x  > a ⇔ x < −a or x > a
(d) x < a ⇔ x2 < a Step : Define the variables to be used clearly.
For any a, b ∈ IR , a < b ⇔ a 2 < b 2 Step : Formulate appropriate equations.
Step : Solve using Graphic Calculator.
Applications – PlySmlt2 (2: Simult Eqn Solver)
Solving Inequalities via Graphical Approach Step : Answer the question.

Step : Determine asymptotes of the given equations (if any).

Step : Key in appropriate equations into G.C and sketch the graphs.
Step : Determine points of intersections of the graphs.
Step : Write down the required region carefully, taking note of the strict PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
inequality sign (if any).
Cartesian Equation
Solving Inequalities via Analytical Approach Parametric Equation
It is any set of equations It is any equation
Step : Shift all the terms to L.H.S by subtraction or addition. Elimination that describes the
that describes the curve
(NEVER CROSS-MULTIPLY) using a real variable, t, of variable curve using the x-
Step : Take common denominator and y- coordinates in
called the parameter.
the plane.
Step : Factorise all the terms in both numerator and denominator.
Note:
• For the quadratic function that cannot be factorised, complete Use of G.C.
the square to show that it is always positive.
• Then ONLY consider the remaining algebraic function that has (i)
been factorised. Ensure that G.C. is in
Step : Use the test-point method to solve. parametric (PAR) mode
Note: “and” imply intersection & “or” imply union

Illustration of Test-Point Method

Example Test-point Solution (ii)
− + − + *Use this range for
( x − 4) Tmin = −2π
>0 −2 < x < 2 or x > 4 sketching of
( x + 2)( x − 2) −2 2 4 Tmax = 2π parametric graphs,
π unless specified in
( x − 4) − + − + Tstep = 24
≥0 −2 < x < 2 or x ≥ 4 question*
( x + 2)( x − 2) −2 2 4

( x − 4) − + − +
<0 x < −2 or 2 < x < 4
( x + 2)( x − 2) −2 2 4

( x − 4) − + − +
≤0 x < −2 or 2 < x ≤ 4
( x + 2)( x − 2) −2 2 4
Page 11
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Identities & Formulae TRIGONOMETRY

sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 Special Angles
Basic Identities 1 + tan θ = sec θ
2 2

π π π
cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ or 30°° or 60°° or 45°°
6 3 4
1 3 1
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A sin sin 2
2 2 2 π 2 1
cos 2 A = cos A − sin A
2 2
6 3 π
1 π 1 4
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A cos
3
3 cos
Double Angle 2 2 2
Formulae = 2 cos 2 A − 1 1
1
2 tan A 1
tan 2 A = tan 3 tan 1
1 − tan 2 A 3

sin( A ± B ) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos( A ± B ) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
Addition Formulae MACLAURIN’S THEOREM
tan A ± tan B
tan( A ± B ) =
1 m tan A tan B Maclaurin’s Expansion (In Formulae List)

P+Q P−Q
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos x2 x n (n)
2 2 f (x) = f (0) + x f' (0) + f" (0) + ... + f (0) + …
2! n!
P+Q P−Q
Factor Formulae sin P − sin Q = 2 cos sin
“Sum to product
2 2 where f (n) (0) is the n th derivative of f (x) at x = 0.
P+Q P −Q
formulae” cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos
2 2
P+Q P −Q Some Common Series (In Formulae List)
cos P − cos Q = −2 sin sin
2 2
(A) Exponential Series
2 sin A cos B = sin( A + B ) + sin( A − B)
x 2 x3 xn
“Product to sum” 2 cos A sin B = sin( A + B ) − sin( A − B ) ex = 1 + x + + + ... + + ... (all x)
2! 3! n!
formulae 2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B ) + cos( A − B)
− 2 sin A sin B = cos( A + B ) − cos( A − B ) (B) Logarithmic Series
x2 x3 x4 xn
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + ... + (−1) n +1 + … (− 1 < x ≤ 1)
(In Formula List) 2 3 4 n
(C) Trigonometric Series
SMALL ANGLE APPROXIMATIONS x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ... (all x)
3! 5! 7!
sin x ≈ x
x2 x 4 x6
1 cos x = 1 − + − + ... (all x)
cos x ≈ 1 − x 2 2! 4! 6!
2
tan x ≈ x
Page 12
 Pure Mathematics Summary

DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation Formulae

From First Principles Basic General
Powers of x d n
dx
( )
x = nx n −1
d
dx
f( x) n = n[f( x)]n −1 ⋅
df( x)
dx
lim f( x + δx ) − f( x )
f ’(x) = Trigonometric d d df( x)
δx → 0 δx sin x = cos x sin f( x) = cos f( x) ⋅
Functions dx dx dx
d d df( x)
Technique of Differentiation cos x = − sin x cos f( x) = − sin f( x) ⋅
dx dx dx
d d df( x)
d tan x = sec2 x tan f( x) = sec2 f( x) ⋅
Basic Formulae
• ( a) = 0 dx dx dx
dx
d d df( x)
d n sec x = sec x tan x sec f( x) = sec f( x) tan f( x) ⋅
• ( x ) = nxn −1 dx dx dx
dx
d d df( x)
•
d
dx
( )
ax n = anx n −1 dx
cos ecx = − cos ecx cot x
dx
cos ec f( x) = − cos ec f( x) cot f( x) ⋅
dx
d d df( x)
NB: a & n are constant real numbers cot x = − cos ec2 x cot f( x) = − cos ec f( x) ⋅
2
dx dx dx
d dv du
Product Rule (uv) = u +v
dx dx dx
Inverse d 1 d 1 d f( x)
du dv sin −1 x = , sin −1 f( x ) = ⋅
−u Trigonometric dx 1 − x2
d u
v dx 1 − f( x) 2 dx
Quotient Rule  = d x d x Functions
v2 π π
dx v  − ≤ sin −1 x ≤ , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
d y d y du 2 2
Chain Rule = × d 1 d f( x)
d x du d x
d
cos −1 x = −
1
, cos −1 f( x) = − ⋅
dx 1 − x2
dx 1 − f( x) 2 dx
This method is used for differentiating
• expression of the form uv, where u, v are 0 ≤ cos −1 x ≤ π , − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
functions of x, e.g. xsinx
Logarithmic d 1
• complicated products and quotients tan −1 x = , d
tan −1 f( x) =
1
⋅
d f( x)
Differentiation 1 + x2
Steps involve taking logarithm of the expression, dx dx 1 + f( x) 2
dx
π π
simplifying the logarithm and then differentiating − ≤ tan −1 x ≤ , x∈ℜ
wrt x. 2 2
Implicit d dy
f( y) = f ' ( y)
Differentiation dx dx Logarithmic d 1 d 1 df( x)
ln x = ln f( x) = ⋅
The derivative of a curve defined parametrically Functions dx x dx f( x) d x
Parametric d y d y dt d 1 1 d 1 d f( x )
Differentiation by x = f(t) and y = g(t) is given by = ⋅ loga x = = loga e log a f( x) = ⋅
d x dt d x dx x ln a x dx f( x) ln a d x
Exponential d x d f( x ) d f( x)
e = ex e = ef( x ) ⋅
Functions dx dx dx
d x d f( x ) df( x)
a = a x ln a a = a f( x ) ln a ⋅
dx dx dx
(In Formula List)

Page 13
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Procedure to sketch y = f ’ (x) from y = f( x )

Sketching of Derivative Graph
Step 1: Analyse the asymptotes on y = f(x )
Basic Concepts
y = f( x ) TO y = f '( x)
Consider the graph of y = f(x),
Vertical Asymptote: x = a Vertical Asymptote: x = a
If … Interpretation of y = f ( x )
Horizontal Asymptote: y = a Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0
dy (1) Positive gradient
>0 Oblique Asymptote: y = ax + b Horizontal Asymptote: y = a
dx (2) y is a strictly increasing function of x

dy (1) Negative gradient Step 2: Analyse the stationary points on y = f( x )

<0
dx (2) y is a strictly decreasing function of x y = f( x ) y = f '( x)
TO
Curve concave upwards
Maximum Point: x-intercept:
d2 y
>0 (a, b) +ve
d x2
x
(a, 0)
Curve concave downwards −ve
d2 y
<0
d x2 Minimum Point: x-intercept:
+ve
x
(a, 0)
(a, b)
−ve

Point of Inflexion: Minimum/Maximum Point:

(a, 0)
x
(a, b)

(a, b) x
(a, 0)

Step 3: Analyse the portions of the graph where …

y = f( x ) TO y = f '( x)

Gradient is negative Graph is below x-axis

Gradient is positive Graph is above x-axis

Step 4: Using the information obtain from step 1- 3, sketch the graph of y = f ‘ (x)

Page 14
 Pure Mathematics Summary

APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Stationary Points
Tangents and Normals
To Check Nature of Stationary Points

2 lines with gradients m1 and m2 are
1 First Derivative Test
• // if and only if m1 = m2
• ⊥ if and only if m1m2 = −1. x a− a a+ Nature of Points

Equation of tangent to the curve at the point (xo, yo),
dy >0 0 <0
dy
y − yo = f ′(xo)(x − xo) where f ′(xo)= dx /  \
d x ( xo , yo )
Maximum Point

Equation of normal to the curve at the point (xo, yo),
dy <0 0 >0
1 
y − yo = − (x − xo) dx \ /
f ' ( x0 ) Minimum Point

If equation of curve is parametrically defined by x = f(t ) , y = g(t ) , >0 0 >0

dy
dy g ' (a) 
Gradient of curve at t =a is t =a = ' dx / /
dx f (a ) Stationary Point of Inflexion
'
g (a )
Equation of tangent; y − g( a ) = ( x − f( a )) dy <0 0 <0
f ' (a)
dx \  \
f ' (a) Stationary Point of Inflexion
Equation of normal : y − g( a ) = − ( x − f( a ))
g ' (a) 2 Second Derivative Test
d2 y
Nature of Points
d x2
>0 Minimum
Rate of Change
<0 Maximum
dx No conclusion. Use first derivative test to check.
In general,  >0 ⇒ x increases as t increases. =0
dt
dx
 <0 ⇒ x decreases as t increases.
dt
Connected Rates of Change Maximum and Minimum
Variables related by y = f (x) vary with time t.
Steps:
dx
• : rate of change of x with respect to t at any instant t 1. Identify variables (Draw diagram if possible)
dt 2. Form the equations involving these variables
dy 3. Express dependent variable in terms of one variable only
• : rate of change of y with respect to t at any instant t
dt 4. Differentiating to find the stationary values
dy dy dx 5. Determine if these values are max. or min.
By Chain Rule, = ⋅ 6. Use these values to answer the question.
dt d x dt

Page 15
 Pure Mathematics Summary

INTEGRATION
Basic General Additional
Powers of x x n +1
[f( x)] n +1
( a x + b) n +1
∫x dx = +c ∫ [f(x)] f ' ( x) dx = + c for all n ≠ −1 ∫ ( a x + b) dx = +c
n n n
n +1 n +1 a( n + 1)
Logarithmic ln x + c if x>0 f ' ( x) 1 1
∫ ax + b d x = a ln ax + b
1
Functions ∫ x d x = ln x + c =  ln(− x) + c if x<0
∫ f( x) d x = ln f( x) + c +c

Exponential
∫e d x = e + c ∫ f ' ( x) e d x = ef( x ) + c 1 ax+ b
f( x )
∫e
x x ax + b
dx = e +c
Functions a
1 1
∫ a d x = ln a . a + c ∫ f ' ( x) a dx = . a f( x ) + c
x x f( x )
ln a
Trigonometric  π
Functions ∫ cos x d x = sin x + c ∫ cos(ax + b) d x = a sin(ax + b) + c
1
∫ tan x d x = ln(sec x) + c for  x < 2 
∫ sin x d x = − cos x + c ∫ sin(ax + b) d x = − a cos(ax + b) + c
1
∫ cot x d x = ln(sin x) + c for (0 < x < π)
∫ sec x d x = tan x + c
2

∫ sec
2 1
(ax + b) d x =tan(ax + b) + c ∫ cos ecx d x = − ln(cos ecx + cot x) + c for (0 < x < π)
∫ cos ec x d x = − cot x + c a
2
 π
∫
1
cos ec 2 (ax + b) d x = − cot(ax + b) + c ∫ sec x d x = ln(sec x + tan x) + c for  x < 2 
∫ sec x tan x d x = sec x + c a
1
∫ cos ec x cot x d x = − cos ec x + c ∫ sec(ax + b) tan(ax + b) d x = sec(ax + b) + c
a
1
∫ cos ec(ax + b) cot(ax + b) d x = − cos ec(ax + b) + c
a

Inverse 1 f ' ( x)
Trigonometric ∫ 1− x 2
d x = sin −1 x + c ∫ 1 − [f( x)]2
d x = sin −1[f( x)] + c
Functions

∫
1  x
d x = sin −1   + c for x < a( ) ∫
f ' ( x)  f( x) 
d x = sin −1  +c
a −x
2 2 a a − [f( x )]
2 2  a 
1 f ' ( x)
∫x
−1
d x = tan −1 x + c ∫ [f(x)]2 + 1 d x = tan [f( x)] + c
+1
2

1 1 x f ' ( x) −1  f( x) 
∫ d x = tan −1   + c 1
x +a
2 2
a a ∫ [f(x)]2 + a 2 d x = a tan  a +c
 
Others 1 1 x−a 1 1 (x + k ) − a
∫x dx = ln  + c for (x > a ) ∫ (x + k ) dx = ln +c
2
− a2 2a  x + a  2
− a2 2a ( x + k ) + a

∫a
1
dx =
1 a+x
ln  + c for x < a
2a  a − x 
( ) ∫a
1
dx =
1
ln
a + (x + k)
+c
2
− x2 2
− (x + k)2 2a a − ( x + k )

(In Formula List)

Page 16
 Pure Mathematics Summary

TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION

Integration Explanation

• Powers of x
• Logarithmic functions

By Standard Form • Exponential functions

• Trigonometric functions
• Inverse trigonometric functions

INTEGRAL OF THE FORM:

(A) ∫ sin px cos qx dx ; ∫ sin px sin qx dx ; ∫ cos px cos qx dx

Using Trigonmetric Apply Factor Formulae [In Formula List]
Formulae
∫ sin ∫ cos
n n
(B) x dx ; x dx where n is even

Apply Double Angle Formula [In Formula List]

Involving Partial p( x)
Used for rational functions, , with denominator that can be factorised.
Fractions q ( x)

Involving Long 3x 2x2

Division
For integrals containing “improper fractions” such as ∫ 1 − x dx and ∫ x+4 dx .

Involving “Splitting f ' ( x)

the Numerator” For integrals that are unable to be expressed in the form ∫ f ( x)
dx directly.

For integrals with modulus sign, a sketch of the graph (without the modulus sign) is always
With Modulus Sign
useful.

Useful for integrals that contain inverse functions, logarithmic functions and mixed
functions.
 dv   du 
By Parts ∫ u d x  d x = uv − ∫ v d x  d x
Choice of function u: (term to differentiate)
Logarithmic, Inverses, Algebraic, Trigonometry, Exponential (LIATE)

Used to transform complicated expressions into the standard forms through a change of
variable.

Procedure:
Step 1: Differentiate the substitute variable so as to obtain dx in terms of u & du.
By Substitution Step 2: Both x and dx are to be replaced by the expressions of u & du respectively.
Step 3: In the case of definite integrals, limits must be changed.
Step 4: Integrate the expression with respect to u.
[Note: Expression should be easy to integrate]
Step 5: Final answer must be expressed in terms of the original variable, in this case x.
In the case of definite integral, a numerical answer is expected.

Page 17
 Pure Mathematics Summary

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
… x-axis … … y-axis …

Area bounded by the curve y = f( x ) , Area bounded by the curve y = f( x ) ,

the x-axis, the vertical lines x = a & x = b the y-axis, the horizontal lines y = c & y = d

∫ x dy, provided x ≥ 0 for c ≤ y ≤ d

b

∫ a
y dx, provided y ≥ 0 for a ≤ x ≤ b c

y
y y = f( x )
d

a b x
x
Definite integration is a process of summation
x =b

∫ y dx = lim
δx → 0
∑ yδx
x =a

Area bounded between y = f( x ) , y = g( x ) , Area bounded between y = f( x ) , y = g( x ) ,

Area
the vertical lines x = a & x = b the horizontal lines y = c & y = d

b d

∫ [f(x) − g( x)] dx, provided f( x) ≥ g( x) for a ≤ x ≤ b

a
∫ [x
c
right − xleft ] dy, provided xright ≥ xleft for c ≤ x ≤ d

y
y = g( x )
xleft x right
d

a b
x

y = f( x )
c

Area under a curve defined by the parametric equations x = f( t ) , y = g( t ) is given by

b d dx where x = a when t = c
∫ a
y dx = ∫ c
y
dt
dt
and x = b when t = d

Volume of the solid formed by rotating the region, Volume of the solid formed by rotating the region,
bounded by the curve y = f( x ) , the x-axis, bounded by the curve y = f( x ) , the y-axis,
the vertical lines x = a and x = b, about the x-axis is the horizontal lines y = c and y = d, about the y-axis is

b d
∫ a
πy 2 dx
∫ c
πx 2 dy

Volume Volume of
y
Hollow Solids/Solids with Cavity:

y = f(x )

= ∫ π[f ( x)]2 dx − ∫ π[g( x )]2 dx

b b
The required volume, V = V outer − V inner
y = g(x ) a a

0 a b x

Page 18
 Pure Mathematics Summary

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Definition

d y d2 y
If y is a function of x, then any equation relating x, y and one or more of the derivatives , etc.
d x d x2
is called a differential equation.

Solving First Order Differential Equations

Variables Separable Differential Equations

Substitution
• A Variables Separable First Order Differential • Certain first order differential equations
dy are not variables separable.
Equation is of the form = f( x) g( y ) , where f is a
dx • However, with a suitable substitution of
function of x alone and g is a function of y alone. variables, they can be transformed into
• The equation can be rewritten as variables separable or integrating factor
1 dy differential equations.
= f( x )
g( y ) d x
• And integrate with respect to x,
1 dy
∫ g( y ) d x d x = ∫ f( x) d x
1
⇒ ∫ g( y ) d y = ∫ f( x ) d x

Solutions of Differential Equations Solution Curves

• The general solution to a

differential equation with an
arbitrary constant gives a family of
General Solution Particular Solution curves.
• When all terms in the general • If the arbitrary constant can be • Each value of the arbitrary
solution are ln terms, the constant evaluated, a particular solution is constant gives a particular curve
of integration is written as ln A. obtained. of the family.
• The general solution to a • When the arbitrary constant is
differential equation with arbitrary evaluated, a particular curve from
constants gives a family of curves. the family of curves is picked.

Applications of Differential Equations

To form Differential Equation

• Rate of Increase… ⇒ k
• Rate of Loss… ⇒−k
(where k is a positive constant)

Page 19
 Pure Mathematics Summary

VECTORS

Basic Equations
Lines Planes
 x
r=y
Vectors in 3-D ∼
z m P
l
n
~ ~
| r | = x2 + y2 + z2
∼ A r
~ → A
u
~
OA = a
A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1. ~ v
a ~ π
^ a ~
Unit Vectors The unit vector in the direction of a is given by a= ∼
∼ ~ a O
∼
 Vector Equation of a Straight Line l  Parametric Form

l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ π contains the point A with position vector

~ ~ ~ a and is parallel to u and v , where u // v
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
a : position vector of a point on l
~ r = a + λu +µ v , λ, µ∈ℜ
m : direction vector of line l ~ ~ ~ ~
~
λ is a parameter  Scalar Product Form
Projection of a Vector onto a Plane To convert parametric form into scalar
 Parametric Equations of a Line
product form, n = u × v
→ ~ ~ ~
Length of projection of a vector AB onto a plane π a1  m1 
l: r = a2 + λ m2  Given a normal n , perpendicular to the
B ~    m3  ~
→ ^ a3
= | AB × n | plane π ; and a point A in π.
~ A then the parametric equations of l are:
n r.n=a.n
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x = a 1 + λ m1
π y = a 2 + λ m2  Cartesian Form
z = a 3 + λ m3
x n1 
 Cartesian Equation of a Line r . n = d ⇒ y.n2 = d where d = a . n
~ ~ z   n3  ~ ~
x-a1 y-a2 z-a3
= =
m1 m2 m3 n1 x + n2 y + n3 z = d

Page 20
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Properties
Parallel Vectors Two non zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a = kb for some k∈ℜ
~ ~ ~ ~
→ →
Collinear Vectors Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if AB = k BC for some k∈ℜ
A µ P λ B
→ → λ λ
→ λ OA + µ OB
Ratio Theorem If P divides AB in the ratio µ : λ, then OP =
λ+µ
O

 aa1   bb1 
Scalar Product ab=  2   2  = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 = | a | | b | cos θ
~ ~  a3   b3  ~ ~

 a1   bb1   a2b3 − a3b2  ^ a×b b

a × b =  a2  ×  2  =  − (a1b3 − a3b1) = | a | | b | sin θ n ~ ~ ~
~ ~    b3   a1b2 − a2b1  ~ ~ ~
a3

 1
  −2 
Use of G.C. to compute: Find  2 × 3 . a
 3  0 ~
To obtain x-coordinate: y-coordinate: z-coordinate:

  −2   −9 
Vector Product
 1
∴  2  ×  3  =  −6 
 3  0 7

Note: (i) Vector product of a and b will give a vector which is ⊥ to both a and b .
~ ~ ~ ~
a×b
~ ~
(ii) Acute angle between vectors: sin θ =
|a ||b|
~ ~
(iii) If a × b = 0 ⇔ a // b
~ ~ ~ ~
a. b
~~
Angle between 2 vectors a and b : cos θ =
~ ~ |a ||b | a
~
~ ~
θ
a. b
~~ b
For acute angle, use cos θ = ~
|a||b|
Angle ~ ~
Remark: The angle between 2 vectors is taken to be the angle formed when both vectors converge or
diverge from the same point.
Note: (i) a . b = b . a
~ ~ ~ ~
(ii) a ⊥ b ⇒ a . b = 0
~ ~ ~ ~
Q
→ ^
Length of Length of projection of a on b = |PR | = |a . b | a
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Projection/
Projection → ^ ^ b
Projection of a on b = PR = (a . b ) b P R ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~

→ → D C
Test of ABCD is a parallelogram ⇔ AB = DC
Parallelogram → → → → → →
Note: AB = DC ⇒ |AB |=| DC | & AB // DC A B

a
Area of Area of parallelogram = | a × b | ~
~ ~
Parallelogram/
1
Triangle Area of triangle = |a×b| b
2 ~ ~ ~

Page 21
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Relationship between …

2 Lines Line & Plane 2 Planes

Given 2 non-parallel lines, l : r = a + λ m and π : r . n = d Given equations of two non-parallel planes as

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
l1 : r = a1 + λ m1 and l2 : r = a2 + µ m2 π1 : r . n 1 = d1
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n.m ~ ~
n
m1.m2 l1 sin θ =
~~ ~ m
~
l π2 : r . n 2 = d2 π1
~ ~ |n ||m| A ~ ~ n2
n1
cos θ = ~ ~ Acute ∠ between the planes ~ θ ~
Angle | m1 || m2 | θ
~ ~ l2 = acute ∠ between the normals θ
π2
θ π =θ
n1.n2
~ ~
cos θ =
| n1 || n2 |
~ ~

 a 1   m1  l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ Two non-parallel planes intersect at a line.

~ ~ ~
Given 2 lines l1 : r =  a2  + λ  m2  and Given equations of two planes as
~    m3  π: r .n=d
a3 ~ ~ π1 : r . n1 = d1
~ ~
   n1 
b1
Case : π2 : r . n2 = d2
l2 : r =  b2 + µ  n2 .
~  
b3  n3  Line l is // to plane π but is not lying in plane π ~ ~

m . n = 0 ⇒ line is parallel to plane Step : Convert both equations into Cartesian form
~ ~
 m1   n 1 
a . n ≠ d ⇒ A does not lie in the plane
Step : Use GC (Apps: PlySmlt2) to solve the
If  m2  = k  n2  for some real number k, then ~ ~ equations
 m3   n 3 
the 2 lines are parallel. Case : Relationship between 3 planes:
Line l is // to plane π and is lying in plane π a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
Relationship To check whether 2 lines intersect, we form
m . n = 0 ⇒ line is parallel to plane
~ ~ a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
the 3 equations: a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
a1 + λm1 = b1 + µn1 --- (1)
a . n = d ⇒ A lies in the plane
~ ~
a2 + λm2 = b2 + µn2 --- (2) Using GC (Apps: PlySmlt2), will give the following:
a3 + λm3 = b3 + µn3 --- (3) Case :
Line l intersects the plane π Case : Planes do not have a common point

m . n ≠ 0 ⇒ line is not parallel to plane ⇒ PlySmlt2: No solution found
Solve eq. (1) and (2) for λ and µ and ~ ~ Case : Planes intersect at a line
substitute the values into eq. (3)
Let (a + λ1 m ). n = d for some λ1 ∈ ℜ and solve for λ1 ⇒ PlySmlt2: Infinitely many solutions.
~ ~ ~
If the values of λ and µ satisfy all 3 equations,
Position vector of point of intersection is a + λ1 m Case : Planes intersect at one point
~ ~
then the 2 lines intersect. ⇒ PlySmlt2: Unique solution.
Otherwise they are skew.

Page 22
 Pure Mathematics Summary

Relationship between a Point and a Line/Plane

Line Plane

To check whether a point P lies on a line l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ, To check whether a point P lies in a plane r . n = d ,
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Is point lying equate the x, y and z components of P and the equation of substitute the position vector of P into the equation of the plane.
on …? the line and solve for λ. If LHS = RHS, P lies on the plane.
There will be a unique value of λ if P lies on the line.

Given a line l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ Let position vector of a point A on the plane be a .

~ P
~ ~ ~
C Distance between the point P and the plane
n
→ ~
→ = length of projection of AP on n
AP = length of projection of AC on l ~
⊥ distance → ^ → ^ ^ ^ ^ A
= | AC . m | A P
l =| AP . n | = |(p − a ). n | = |p .n − a . n | π
between ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
point and m
~ n
~
… ∴Perpendicular distance from C to l is CP Distance of Plane to Origin:
Distance from plane to origin.
→ ^ A
π
= AC2 − AP2 or | AC × m | = length of projection of a on n
~ ~
~
a
~
^
= |a.n| O
~ ~

Given a point, P with position vector p and a plane, π : r . n = d

Given a line l : r = a + λ m , λ∈ℜ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ C Let N be the foot of the perpendicular from the point P to the P
Since P lies on l, plane. n
~
→
Foot of ⊥ OP = a + λ1 m for some λ1 ∈ ℜ --- (1) The vector equation of the line that is perpendicular to the
~ ~ plane and passing through P is l : r = p + λ n , λ∈ℜ
from a point l
→ A P ~ ~ ~ N
to … CP . m = 0 to solve for λ1 m N is the point of intersection between the line and the plane.
π
~ ~
→ Step : Let (p + λ1 n ). n = d for some λ1 ∈ ℜ and solve for λ1
Substitute λ1 into (1) to find OP ~ ~ ~
→
Step : ON = p + λ1n
~ ~
→ → → →
Find OP first and then use the following result to find OC' Find ON first and then use the following result to find OP' P
n
~
Image by C
reflection → 1 → → → 1 → →
of point in OP = (OC + OC' ) ON = (OP +OP' ) N
2 P
l 2 π
…
C′ P’

Page 23
 Pure Mathematics Summary

COMPLEX NUMBERS
−1 = i

Forms of a
Algebraic Modulus-Argument/ Trigonometric/ Polar Exponential
Complex No.

z = re iθ
z = x + iy z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) , θ
Expression is in radians
where θ is in radians
Im(z) Im(z)

Note: e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ

r z= r = x 2 + y 2

rsinθ
y (Euler’s Formula)
y
Re(z) θ arg (z) = θ = tan −1
Re(z) x
x rcosθ
Note:
• Principal argument of z is −π < θ ≤ π .
• θ is measured In an anti-clockwise sense from
Re-axis

z = r (cos θ − i sin θ )
Conjugate
z = x − iy or z = re − iθ

z = r (cos( − θ) + i sin( − θ ))

Use of
Graphic
Calculator

Answers obtained will be Answers obtained will be

expressed in rectangular expressed in exponential
form, a + bi form, re iθ

Modulus & Argument of a Complex Number

1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

P(−x, y)
P(x, y)
r
r
θ
θ
θ
θ
r
r
P(x, −y)
P(−x, −y)

r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2 r= x2 + y2

 y  y   y  y
θ = tan −1   θ = π − tan −1   θ = −  π − tan −1    θ = − tan −1  
x x   x  x

Page 24
 Pure Mathematics Summary
Complex Roots of Polynomials De Moivre’s Theorem
If a polynomial with real coefficients has complex roots, they
occur in conjugate pairs. Hence, there is always an even Definition [r (cosθ + i sin θ )]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) for all values of n
number of complex roots, and the rest are real roots.
• The n th roots of unity where n is a positive integer
Product and Quotient
z n = 1 = e i (0 + 2 k π )
2 kπ
i
Let z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) & z 2 = r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) z=e n
, k = 0, 1, 2,..., n − 1
z1 z 2 = r1r2 [cos(θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin( θ1 + θ 2 )] Applications
• The n th roots of a complex number
z1 r (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )
= 1
r
= 1 [cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ 2 )] z n = reiθ = rei (θ + 2kπ)
z 2 r2 (cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) r2 1 i  θ + 2 kπ 
 
z = r ne  n 
, k = 0, 1, 2,..., n − 1
zn = z
n
In general,
arg( z n ) = n arg( z ) ( ±2kπ )
Loci
Argand Diagram Let P(x, y) represent the variable complex number z = x + iy.

A complex no. z = x + i y can be associated with

(a) a point with cartesian coordinates (x, y)
| z - (a + b i) | = k
→ Circle (a, b)
(b) a vector OP , position vector of a point P(x, y). locus of P is a circle, centre at (a, b), radius = k k

Definition Im(z) P(x, y)

| z - (a + b i) | = | z - (c + d i) | (a, b)
⊥ Bisector
locus of P is a perpendicular bisector of
Re(z)
x : real part of z =0Re(z) the line segment joining points (a, b) & (c, d). (c, d)
y : imaginary part of z = Im(z)
arg [z - (a + b i)] = α , -π < α ≤ π
(1) z* is the reflection of z in the Re-axis.
(2) Multiply z by i is to rotate z through an angle 90° , Half-line locus of P is the half-line from (a, b) (excluding
Simple θ
anti-clockwise about origin O. the point itself), making an angle α with the (a, b)
Transformations (3) Multiply z by −i is to rotate z through an angle 90° , positive direction of the Re-axis.
clockwise about origin O.
(4) Multiply z by −1 is to reflect z about the origin O. Note: An inequality involving a complex number defines a region in the
If z1 is rotated anti-clockwise direction about O, through complex plane.
an angle θ , the new complex no. is z 2 . Inequality sign Locus to be drawn in …
Geometric Effect Im(z)
Z2
≤ or ≥ (solid line)
of Multiplication < or > (dotted line)
Z1
θ
z 2 = z1 (cos θ + i sin θ)
Re(z)
Page 25