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== TECHNICAL
= PUBLICATIONS Dr. J. S. Chitode
An Up-Thrust for Knowledge Momotha: les
AAs per Revised Syllabus of
Visvesvaraya Technological University
Signals and Systems
Dr. J. S. Chitode
‘M.E. (Electronics), Ph.D.
Formerly Professor & Head
Department of Electronics Engineering
Bharati Vidyapeeth Deemed University
College of Engineering, Pune
=> TECHNICAL [email protected]
PUBLICATIONS www.vtubooks.com Signals and Systems
Semester - IV (EC / TC / TT)
‘Semester - V (EEE)
ISBN 9789350385838
Fit Edition = Febraary 2012
© Copiight with Technical Publications
‘Al righs reserved ith Technical Publications, No port ofthis book shoul be
reproduced in any for, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy ox any information sovege cond
srreel system without prior permission in ring, from Technical Publications, Pune
Published by :
= son any, fe a 2 tana Poh, Pre MS, ND
oe TECHML WAL PLB atr Tene ay(idneaneasiey
Printer
Rochane Ofbet
Seno. 10/3,Sihgad Rood,
Pune 411 047
Price = 350)
«i
vu 10 Preface
The importance of Signals and Systems is well known in voious engineering fields
Overwhelming response to my books on various subjects inspired me to write this book. The
book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Signals and Systems.
The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book
provides logical method of explcining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods
fo explain the imporiant topics, Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations,
practical examples and soled problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in
proper sequence that permits each topic 10 build upen earlier studies. All care hos been
faken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject
Representative questions have been added af the end of each section to help the
students in picking important points from that section
The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but exploins the philosophy of
the subject, This mokes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more
interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject
teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more.
| wish to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book «
realty, Much needed moral support ond encouragement is provided on numerous
occasions by my whole family. | wish to thanks the Publisher and the entire team of
Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality
printing,
Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well
appreciated.
Author
Dr. 1)..S. Chitede
Dedicated at the Lotus feet of Lor Batajt Syllabus (Signals and Systems) tec /Tc/m
UNIT 1: (Chapter - 1)
Introduction : Definitions of a signal and a system, Classification of signals, Basic operations
on signals, Elementary signals, Systems viewed as interconnections of operations, Properties
of systems
UNIT 2 : (Chapter - 2)
Time-domain representations for LTI systems - 1 : Convolution, Impulse response
representation, Convolution sum and convolution integral
UNIT 3: (Chapter - 3)
Time-domain representations for LTI system - 2 : Properties of impulse response
representation, Differential and difference equation representations, Block diagram
representations
UNIT 4 : (Chapter - 4)
Fourier representation for signals - 1: Introduction, Discrete time and continuous time
Fourier series (derivation of series excluded) and their properties.
UNIT 5 : (Chapter - 5)
rete and continuous Fourier transforms
Fourier representation for signals - 2 : Dis
(derivations of transforms are excluded) and their properties.
UNIT 6 : (Chapter - 6)
Applications of Fourier representations :
Fourier transform representation of periodic signals, Fourier trans
discrete time signals. Sampling theorm and Nyquist rate.
UNIT 7 : Chapter - 7)
z-Transforms - 1: Introduction, z-transform, Properties of ROC, Properties of z-transforms,
Inversion of z-transforms.
UNIT 8 = (Chapter -8)
Transform analysis of LT systems, Unilateral z-transform and its
application to solve difference equations
introduction, Frequency response of LTI systems,
orm representation of
z-Transforms - 2
SHGWT Syllabus (Signals and Systems) (e20
PART-A
UNIT 1 = (Chapter - 1)
Introduction - Definitions of signals and a system, Classification of signals, Basic operations on
stems.
signals, Elementary signals viewed as interconnections of operations, Properties of sy
UNIT 2 and 3 : (Chapters - 2, 3)
Time - Domain Representations for LT Systems - Convolution, Impulse response,
Properties, Solution of differential and difference equations, Block diagram representation.
UNIT 4
Fourier Representation of Periodic Signals - Introduction, Fourier representation of
series (excluding
me periodic
(Chapter - 4)
continuous-time periodic signals (FS), Properties of continuous-time Fouri
derivation of defining equations for CTFS), Fourier representation of discrete-
signals, Properties of discrete-time Fourier series (DTES).
PART -B
UNIT 5 : (Chapters - 5, 6)
The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform - Representation of a periodic signals
Continuous-time Fourier transform (FT), Properties of continuous-time Fourier transform.
Application; Frequency response of LTI systems, Solutions of differential equations.
UNIT 6 : (Chapters -5,6)
The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform - Representations of periodic
Fourier transform (DTET), Properties of DTFT. Application; Frequency response of LTI
systems, Solutions of differential equations.
UNIT 7 and 8 : (Chapters - 7, 8)
z- Transforms- Introduction, z-transform, Properties of ROC, Properties of z-transforms,
on of z-transform methods - Power series and partial expansion, Transforms analysis of
ignals: The discrete time
Invers
LTI systems, Transfer function, Stability and causality, Unilateral z-transform and its
application to solve difference equations.
FEST ESAT Table of Contents
Chapter-1 Introduction” i (4-1) to (4 - 132)
1.1 Definition of Signals and Systems ... f=2
AAA Signals, sos coves 1-2
1.4.2 Systems. 24-2
1.1.3 Signals and Systems Relationship ded
1.1.4 Analogy of Signals and Systems. 5 sone 122
1.2 Classification of Signals... 3
4.2.4 CT and DT Signals... 4
1.2.2 Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals 5
4.2.3 Even and Odd Signals 7
1.24 Energy and Power Signals 9
1.2.5 Deterministic and Random Signals i212
4.3 Elementary Signals... 1-45
4.3.1 Unit Step Function 2.0.2.0... 2 ee 1-46
41.3.2 Unit Impulse or Delta Function 1-46
4.3.3 Unit Ramp Function... 1-49
41.3.4 Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals 1-50
1.3.5 Relationships between the Signass. 1-52
1-57
1.4 Operations on Signals...... ok
1.4.1 Transformation in Independent Variable of Signal
1
1.4.1.1 Time Delay / Advancing 1-57
1.4.1.2 Time Folding ; = 1-89
4.4.1.3 Time Scaling 1-59
1.4.1.4 Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling 1-61
41.4.2 Transformations on Amplitude of the Signal.........s.eseecvcreveteeeeeses 1-62
1.4.2.1 Amplitude Scaling . 1-62
4.4.2.2 Addition and Subtraction 1-63
i) 1.4.2.3 Multiplication and Division 1-64
1.4.2.4 Differentiation and Integration : : 1-64
1.5 Systems Viewed as Interconnections of Operations........ 1-87
1.6 Systems 8 st : 1-88
1.6.1 Static and Dynaic ‘Systems (Systems with th Merry or without Heron. 1-89
1.6.2 Time Invariant and Time Variant Systems ............ 1-90
1.6.3 Linear and Non-linear Systems ...... RE PEE RaRicce 1-95
1.6.4 Causal and Non-causal Systems 1-100
1.6.5 Stable and Unstable Systems 1-102
1.6.6 Invertability and Inverse Systems. 1-103
Chapter-2 Time Domain Representations for LTI Systems - 1 (2+ 1) to (2-60).
2.1 Introduction to LT! Systems 2-2
2.2 Convolution Integral...
2.2.4 Representation of x(t) Interms of Impulses ....... 6... cc csccceeeees eer
2.2.2 Derivation of Convolution Integral
2.3 Convolution Sum... r 3
2.3.1 Discrete Time Signal as wager impulses .... 2-31
2.3.2 Convoldion Sum Forma csccsecssviveveverereercerressnseniventvences 2-33
Chapter-3 Time Domain Representations for LTI sii 2 (8-1)to (3-100)
3.1 Properties of Impulse Response Representations for LT! Systems .... 3-2
3.1.1 Commutative Property... . ; : me 3-2
3.4.2 Cascade Connection of Systems ...........6.sce8+ : ‘ 3-3
3.1.3 Parallel Connection of Systems... 2.0.0... ccseeeeeeseeeseseee myared=B
3.4.4 Causality of LTI Systems .........005 : 3-12
3.1.5 Stabilty of LTI Systems . wave 23-15
3.1.6 Memoryless and with Memory Systems 4 wre =18
31.7 Invertbie Systems and De-convolution sass suvenede 9
3.1.8 Step Response a esting eA)
3.1.9 Sinusoidal Steady State Response . . . ee 3-21
3.1.9.1 Response to Complex Exponential Sequence 3-21
3.1.9.2 Response to Sinusoidal Signal 3-22
3.2 Differential and Difference Equation Representation........... 3-48 3.2.1 Solution of Differential Equations f Fe Set Bocanwe 3-AB
3.2.4.1 Natural Response y°” (t) R 3-48
3.2.1.2 Forced Response y"” (t). 3-50
3.2.1.3 Complete Response y(t) q 3-52
3.2.2 Solution of Difference Equations Slee ee aes cn 13-56
3.2.2.1 Natural Response y(n) £ 3-55
3.2.22 Forced Response y"”’(n) 3-58
3.22.3 Complete Response y(n). . ore 3-62
3.3 Block Diagram Representations 3-83
3.3.1 Block Diagram Representation of CT Systems . 4 ceees 3-83
3.31.4 Direct Form! implementation... 2. 3-85
3.3.1.2 Direct For Implementation . 2 3-85
3.3.2 Block Diagram Representation of DT Systems “ ie yeas (8 <8
3.3.2.1 Direct Form Implementation 3 3-89
3.3.2.2 Direct Form-|I Implementation 3-90
Chapter-4 Fourier Representation for Signals - 4 (4-1) to (4- 52)
4.1 Introduction a reweabounainass 4-2
4.1.1 Fourier Representations of Four Signal Classes ..... 2
4.1.2 Orthogonality of Complex Sinusoidal Signals. ......
4.2 Continuous Time Fourier Series (CTFS) Representation. .
4.2.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series 6... ccs eeeeee
own
4.2.2 Compact Trigonometric Fourier Series.......... a ase
4.2.3 Exponential Fourier Series.......... acters un aeeN
4.2.4 Convergence of Fourier Series - Dirichlet Conditions ........
4.25 Properties of Fourier Series ee ceeeeeeee
4.2.5.1 Linearity,
4.2.5.2 Time Shift or Translation
4.2.5. Frequency Shift.
4.254 Scaiing
4.255 Time Differentiation
4.2.5.6 Convolution in Time.
4.2.5.7 Multiplication or Modulation Theorem
4.2.5.8 Parseval's Theorem
4.25.9 Symmetry Properties -
4.3 Discrete Time Fourier Series (DTFS) ...
Se Avil) 431 Definition sob mnneelberalec RE Peltor 4-38
4.3.2 Convergence Of DTFS ....... 2... cseeeeenee nee neene een 4-39
4.3.3 Properties of DTFS........ sen neem mt HOT 4-39
4.3.3.1 Periodicity . 4-39
4.3.3.2 Linearity * 4-40
4.3.3.3 Time Shift 4-40
4.3.3.4 Frequency Shift 4-44
4.3.3.5 Convolution 4-at
4.3.3.6 Modulation or Multiplication 4-42
4.3.3.7 Parseval's theorem 4-42
4.3.3.8 Duality beg ee ‘ 4-42
4.3.3.9 Symmetry ‘ os " 4-43
Chapter -5 Fourier Representation for Signals - 2 _ (B+ 1) to (5-74)
5.1 Fourier Transform 15-2
5.4.4 Definition of Fourier Transform. 5
5.4.2 Existence of Fourier Transform - Dirichlet Conditions. 5
5.1.3 Properties of Fourier Transform .......6.06.s0c0eee+ 5
5.13.1 Linearity. . 5
5.1.3.2 Time Shift 5
5.1.3.3 Frequency Shift es 5
5.1.3.4 Time Scaling, Eta ke 5-
5.1.3.5 Frequency-Differentiation 5
5.1.3.6 Time-Differentiation . 5
5.4.3.7 Convolution 5
5.1.38 Integration 5
5.1.3.9 Modulation 5
5.13.10 Duality 5
513.11 Symmetry 5
5.1.3.12 Parseval's Theorem or Rayleigh's Theorem.
6.1.4 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal .
5.1.5 Inverse Fourier Transform
5.2 Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) ..
5.2.1 Definition of DTFT .
5.2.2 Existence of DTFT ...
5.2.3 Properties of DTFT. 5.2.3.1 Periodicity z ci Be
5.2.3.2 Linearity * 5-45
6.2.3.3 Time Shift is 5-45
5.2.3.4 Frequency Shift ee 5-46
6.2.3.5 Scaling. 5-46
5.2.3.6 Differentiation in Frequency Domain . 5-47
5.2.3.7 Time Reversal ‘ 5-48
5.2.3.8 Convolution 5-49
5.2.3.9 Multiplication in Time Domain (Modulation). 5-50
5.23.10 Parseval's Theorem: 2 aa eee 5-51
Chapter-6 Applications of Fourier Representations (6-1) to (6 - 52)
6.1 Introduction 6-2
6.2 Frequency Response of ut Systane 6-2
6.2.1 Frequency Response of CT Systems 6-2
6.2.2 Frequency Response of DT Systems ..... se 6-3
6.3 Solution of Differential and Difference Equations 6-26
6.3.1 Solution of Differential Equations ere ee
6.3.2 Solution of Diflerence Equations .............0000 . 6-27
6.4 Sampling of Continuous Time Signals and Reconstruction ...........6- 33
6.4.1 Representation of CT Signals by its Samples .........0...00.025 cece 633
64.2 Sampling Theorem for Low Pass (LP) Signals... .......e2005 cece 6-34
6.4.3 Effects of Undersampling (Aliasing)........ Coalinga 38
6.4.4 Nyquist Rate and Nyquist Interval : oe Danas Neo4
6.4.5 Reconstruction Filer (Interpolation Filter) y 6-41
6.4.6 Zero-Order Hold for Practical Reconstruction ........... $ 6-43
Chapter-7 z-Transforms-| (7-1) to (7 - 66)
7.1 Introduction : aoines 7-2
7.2 2-Transform..... 7-2
7.2.4 Definition of z-Transform
7.2.2 Types of z-Transform : Unilateral and Bilateral
~~
2
“3
7.2.3 Region of Convergence (ROC) “3 7.24 z-Transform of Standard Signals. .......0.c00resseesreeseees seven FB
7.3 Properties of the ROC.......
7.4 Properties of z-Transform ......
7.4.4 Lineatity es
7.4.2 Time Shifting or Transiation . .
7.43 Scaling in 2-Domain or Multiplication by Exponential. .........0-..s0reee0 17-12
7.4.4 Time Reversal 7-12
7.4.5 Differentiation in z-Domain or Multiplication by a Ramp, cece THB
7.4.6 Convolution in Time Domain 7-13
7.4.7 Correlation of Two Sequences... 5 ae a cevees THM4
7.4.8 Multiplication of Two Sequences or Convolution in z-Domain veceeeeeeerses Tel
7.4.9 Conjugation of a Complex Sequence. . . eer ste =A6
7.4.10 2-Transform of Real Part of a Sequence... imme sage geen THAB
7.4.11 z-Transform of Imaginary Part of Sequence. 20.20.65 1 T16
7.4.12 Parseval’s Relation. ...... on oie vee THB
7.4.13 Initial Value Theorem ...... 2. 0scseeseeees . re TAT
7.5 Inverse z-Transform.......-.
7.5.1 Inverse 2-Transform using Power Series Expansion. .... . 7-43
7.5.2 Inverse z-Transform using Partial Fraction Expansion . . aS
7.5.3 Inverse 2-Transform using Contour Integration c 7-60
7.6 Relationship between z-Transform and DTFT .........-
Chapter -8 z-Transforms - 2.
8.1 Unilateral z-transform... sie
8.1.1 Properties of Unateral Transform
8.1.1.1 Time Shift
8.1.1.2 Final Value Theorem
8.2 Transform Analysis of LT! Systems
8.2.1 Pole-Zero Plots . .
8.2.2 Transfer Function of the LT! System
8.2.3 Causality and Stability interms of z- Transform eae syineetennan Bone
8.24 Inverse Systems
8.2.5 Solution of Difference Equations using z-Transform ay iva tnesn WADA Appendix =A Trigonometric Relations (A-4)
Appendix - B Derivatives (B-1)
Appendix -C Integration (C -1)to (C - 4)
Appendix « D Series Expansions (D+ 1) to (D -2)
Appendix - E Fourier Transform Relations (E- 1) to (E- 2)
Appendix - F z-Transform Relations (F +1) to (F - 2)
Appendix -G Functions (G-1)
References i (R-1)
(ai) Magnitude of the complex quantity contained within
Represents transform pair.
ci
plex conjugate function of X.
xe)
Continuous time convolution of x (1) and y (0)
etme vn)
Discrete time convolution of x (n) and y(n).
ae) Phase angle of complex quantity contained within,
Rel Real part of quantity contained within,
Im Imaginary part of quantity contained within,
Fix) Fourier Transform of x (0
Inverse fourier transform of X (1).
Laplace transform of x (0)
Inverse laplace transform of X (s)
ZIxiol z-transform of x (n)
WV |X| Inverse z-transform of X (2)
HidorH(o | is frequency response function,
He Discrete time system transfer function,
Hi) Continuous time system transfer function,
wo Continuous time unit step function
at
2 crete time step function,
500) Diserete time unit sample function,
ho Impulse response
hin) Unit sample response
reet (t) Rectangular pulse. a
sent) Signum function.
sine Sine funetion,
H1 (9), H" (2) | System function of inverse system,
(9,01 (n) | Impulse response of inverse system.
® Angular frequency.
f Linear frequency,
y (a) or yt) | Natural response.
y' (a) or yQ)_| Forwed response. Introduction
Syllabus
Introduction : Definitions of a signal and a system, Classification of signals, Basic operations on signals,
Elementary signals, Systems viewed as interconnections of operations, Properties of systems,
Contents
1.1 Definition of Signals and Systems July/Aug.-06, 11, Marks 6
Jan JFeb.-04
1.2 Classification of Signals July/Aug.-08, 06, 07, 08, 10, 14,:° Marks 8
Jan /Feb.-04, 05, 06, 07, 08,
1.3 Elementary Signals July/Aug.-11, Marks 6
JanJFeb.-08,
1.4 Operations on Signals: Jan/Feb.-05, 06, 07, 08, Marks 10
July/Aug.- 05, 10, 11,
4.5. Systems Viewed as interconnections of Operations
1.6 Systems Jan. JFeb.-08, 06, 07, 08, 14
July/Aug.-04, 05, 06, 07, 10, 17 Signals and Systems 422 Introduction
Definition of Signals and Systems
Signals
A function of one or more independent variables which contain some
information is called signal.
Examples :
i) Electric voltage or current, such as radio signal, TV signal, telephone signal
computer signals etc.
ii) Pressure signal, sound signal etc are non-electric signals.
systems
A system is a set of elements or functional block that are connected together
and produces an output in response to an input signal.
Examples :
i) An audio amplifier, attenuator, TV set, transmitter, receiver etc. all are systems.
ii) Any machine or engine are also systems.
Signals and Systems Relationship
* Every system has one or more inputs. It is called excitation
* Every system has one or more outputs. It is called response.
+ The inputs and outputs of the systems are always signals.
* Fig. 1.1.1 shows an audio amplifier. It is a system.
Input Output
signal signal
(Low level audio) (Amplified audio)
Fig. 1.1.1 Example of signals and system relationship
* Input to the audio amplifier is low level audio.
Output of the audio amplifier is amplified audio.
[EEERY Analogy of Signals and Systems
Fig, 1.1.2 shows an example of central government, which can be considered as a big
system. It consists of many sub systems which are interconnected
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An up ts for knowledge Signals and Systems 1-3 Introduction
Central government as a system
Revenue (taxes) —=i
g +—> Government resolutions
| Finance aids
© Government functions
Import =f |
f
Compas and appoatons —=
Proposals for financial aids —=!
Business suggestions —= 1,
Policies of foreign
countries
Input signals to ‘Output signals from
government ‘government
Fig, 1.1.2 A government system and its inputs/outputs
* The system is composed of many subsystems such as finance, defence, foreign
affairs, home, culture, agriculture, human resources, social welfare, industries, etc.
‘* The system has input signals in the form of revenue (taxes), import, complaints
and applications, proposals for financial aids, social issues, business suggestions,
policies for foreign countries. These are the input signals to central government
based on which it functions.
© The central government processes input signal and produces output signals in the
form of exports, government resolutions, financial aids, government functions,
to states, welfare programs, planning, law and order, elections, business
1. Define signals and systems, Give their examples es
Ete |
Classification of Signals
The signals can be classified into two parts depending upon independent variable
+ (time).
A) Continuous Time (CT) signals.
B) Discrete Time (DT) signals.
Both the CT and DT signals can be classified into following, parts >
i) Periodic and non-periodic signals.
ii) Even and odd signals.
) Energy and power signals.
iv) Deterministic and random signals.
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An up thst fr knowledge Signals and Systems 1-4 Introduction
CT and DT Signals
Definition : A CT signal is defined continuously with respect to time. A DT signal
is defined only at specific or regular time instants.
x0 eT signal |
© is defined
at every time
tant
‘Ampiltude
Sy
Ltt
SE:
Fig. 1.2.1 CT and DT signals
Examples :
© Fig, 1.2.1 shows an example of CT signal, which is x(f) =e". Note that this signal
is continuous function of time. 3
© Fig, 1.2.1 also shows a DT version of exponential signal. It is defined as .
An) 2 eT = 0, ald, gM AST,
* Thus the DT signal has values only at 0,7,, 2T,, 37,,... It is not defined over
continuous time,
Significance :
i) Analog circuits process CT signals. Such circuits are op-amps, filters, amplifier ete
ii) Digital circuits process DT signals. Such circuits are microprocessors, counters,
flip-flops ete.
Analog and digital signals :
i) When amplitude of CT signal varies continuously, it is called analog signal. In
other words amplitude and time both are continuous for analog signal.
ii) When ampliftude of DT signal takes only finite values, it is called digital signal.
In other words amplitude and time both are discrete for digital signal
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". An up thrust for krowiedge Signais and Systems
1-5
Introduction
Fig, 1.2.2 below shows the summary of CT/DT, analog/digital signals.
“The signal tak
Instanisous.
Trt
armpits at
Ty 2g Ty
| Continuous ime
|
23h ae
| iscrte tne intr
aa
Lo
=
T
Conroe at
beeen cy a
soa |
| les |
The signal is. Be |
a) | ee, teed Heteetl |
s ‘oftine, bake E815 ‘quantized to noarest
a ene
1 amplitude I gE x + f
a air A pte:
Teieaoal Tet ot,
r 7, et, [31 ar, r
Diseete te intewte_ | +
Fig. 1.2.2 Exponential signal as CT/DT, analog/digital
EE2] Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
Definition : A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at regular intervals.
Non-periodic signals do not repeat at regular intervals.
* Examples of CT and DT pectdkinurepeviodie signals
ES
DT signal repeats
if froqueney 5 rational
aki
For peroscity
a= x(t)
:
eee
For eae
Amite
Lette
Non: period signal —~
ot
repeat
TTT
fi]
Fig. 1.2.3 Examples of periodic and non-periodic signals
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS”
An up hus for knowledge Signals and Systems 1-6 Introduction
* Condition for periodicity of CT signal
The CT signal repeat after certain period Ty i.e.
x(t) = xl+7p) e(.21)
+ Condition for periodicity of DT signal
Consider DT cosine wave, x(n) = cos(2m fy)
xin-+N) = cos[2mfy(n+N)I
= cos(2nfon +2 fy N)
For periodicity, x7) = x(1 + N)
cos(2nfy n) = cos(2mfyn + 2zfy N)
Above equation is satisfied only if 2rfgN is integer multiple of 21. ic.,
2mfyN = 2nk, Where k is integer
Jo = A AED
‘The above condition shows that DT signal is periodic only if its frequency is rational
(function of two integers).
«Periodicity of signal x, (#)+x2()
Let us consider that the signal x(!) =x,(8) +x2(#)
Then x(t) will be periodic if,
xy) = xy(t+Ty) = xn(t+2Ty) =
or x4) = x+mT)), Here 'm' is an integer.
Similarly x2 (2) will be periodic if,
Xp(t) = x9 (F+T2) = x2(t+272)
or x2() = x2(t+nT2), Here 'n’ is an integer
Then x(t) will be periodic if,
mT, = nT) =T9, Here Tp is period of x()
This means ‘To! is integer multiple of periods of .;(f) and x2(!). For above equation
we have,
gis: z i.e. ratio of two integers
This is the condition for periodicity
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS". Ao up thvust fr knomtedge Signals and Systems 4-7 Introduction
The period of x(4) will be least common multiple of T and T>.
* Periodicity of x4(n) +x2(n)
Here x(n) =_ x(t) +x3(n) is periodic if,
Ni _ je. ratio of two integers
Ny 7m
The period of x(n) will be least common multiple of Ny and N>.
Even and Odd Signals
Definition of even signal : A signal is said to be even signal if inversion of time
axis does not change the amplitude. i.e,
Condition for Aa =x-1) (123)
signal to be even
* Lat) = 2-1) (1.24)
+ Even signals are also called symmetric signals.
Definition of odd signal : A signal is said to be odd signal if inversion of time axis
also inverts amplitude of the signal i-e.,
Condition for, x(t) = -x(-!) + (125)
signal tobe odd x(n) = —»(-n) vs (1.2.6)
Odd signals are also called anti-symmetric signals.
Examples of even and odd signals
(Fig. 1.2.4 see on next page)
= Cosine wave is an example of even signal. Since cos) = cos(-8).
«Sine wave is an example of odd signal. Since sin (0) = ~sin(-0)
Significance of even and odd signals
«Even or odd symmetry of the signal have specific harmonic or frequency content.
‘+ Even or odd symmetry property is used in filter design.
Representation of signal in even and odd parts
i) Let the signal be represented into its even and odd parts as,
Mt) = xa()+xXo(t)
12.7)
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1s sme a
XU oe
x(t) =x)
for odd signal
“sn 9° = 1
sin(-90") = ~1
sine wave is odd
|
t
Fig. 1.2.4 Examples of even and odd signals
Here x,(t) is even part of x(t) and
x,(0 is odd part of x(t)
ii) Substitute -t for t in above equation,
aH) = x(x 9(-D
Now by definition of even signal, x,(-#) = x,(t) and by definition of odd signal
¥)(-) = -Xo(l). Hence above equation will be,
af) = xe) — xp) (1.28)
iii) Adding equation (1.2.7) and equation (1.2.8),
OHH = 2x69 xe =F 4-0)
Subtracting equation (1.2.8) from equation (1.2.7).
AOAC) = 2x4) x91 =F) 2-0)
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Even part : x,(t) 5 (0 +a(-1)}
Odd part : x,( = Fl -x-0) (1.2.9)
Original signal : x(t)=x,(t)+x,(#)
Similarly for DT signals we can write,
Even part : xo(n) = (x(n) +x(-r)]
Odd part: x,(0) =} 09) —x(-n)} (1.2.10)
Original signal : x(x) =x, (1) +x,(n)
EEE2Z] Energy and Power Signals
* Instantaneous Power dissipation
i)
v(t) R
12.5
For circuit of Fig. 1.25, the instantaneous power dissipated in load resistance 'R’ will
be given as,
pt) = 2M. 20K (1.2.11)
* Normalized Power : It is the power dissipated in R = 1@ load. Hence from
equation (1.2.11) we can write,
Normalized power, pi) = v(t) =i2@)
* Significance of using normalized Power
Let v(t) or i(f) be denoted by x(t). Then normalized power will be,
pw) = x20) (1.2.12)
‘Thus for current as well as voltage the equation for normalized power is same.
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* Definition of Energy and Power
1. Energy of CT and DT signals : It is given by following equations,
Energy, E= | |x|? dt for CT signal (1.2.13)
and, E= 3 |x|? for DT signal (12.44)
2. Power of CT and DT signals : It is given by following equations,
1?
Power, P= lim 7 J lx? at for CT signal
raat i,
Ae
=> J [x /? at if x16) is periodic +-o(1.2.15)
0
N
and, p= > [x09|? for DT signal (1.2.16)
no-N
"
Nat
= ¥'|.x02) |? if x(0) is periodic
aD
If the signal is periodic, then the period (T or N) have finite value. Hence there is no
need to take limits.
* Definition of Power signal
A signal is said to be Power signal if its normalized power is non zero and fi
For Power signal, 0 < P <=
+ Definition of Energy signal
A signal is said to be Energy signal if its total energy is finite and non-zero. ie,
For Energy signal, 0< E <=
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1-14
Examples of Energy signal and Power signal
Introduction
x(t) = sin oot | x(n) =e "ny
aE ‘
Ve 3] 9 |
| lati E +
POE E Creer
/ TPS es eT e
Power, P= 3 | [I Energy, = 1.156
Hi | i
Fig. 1.2.6 Examples of energy and power signals
© Comparison between Power signal and Energy signal
| sn Parameter Power signal Energy signal
No.
| 4. Definition O f=" = a5 = 5
Here f is expressed as ratio of two integers with k = 1 and N = 200. Hence the signal
is, periodic with N = 200.
ii) x(n)=cos 3nn
Compare with x(01) = cos 2n fn
Qnfn=3nn => f= é = 3 ie. ratio of two integers.
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Hence this signal is, periodic with N = 2
iii) x(n) = sin3n
Compare with x(11)=cos 2nfn
Qnfn=3n > f= 4 = 54 which is not ratio of two integers.
Hence this signal is, _non-periodic
iv) x(n) = cos on us cos?"
Compare with, x(n) = cos 2n fy +cos 2n fon
2nfin =
and Qnfon =
Here since Mt = : is the ratio of two integers, the sequence is periodic. The period
2
of x(n) is least common multiple of Nj and N>. Here least common multiple of N
and N> =7 is 35. Therefore this sequence is, periodic with N = 35.
v) #{0) =c00| is eos
3s
Here 2f\n = 37 fi sine which is not rational
and nfon = which is rational
Thus cos 3 } is non-periodic and oF] is periodic. x(n) is non-periodic since it is
the product of periodic and non-periodic signal.
vi) x(n)=sin (x +0.2 n)
Compare with, x(1) = sin(2nf 1 +0)
*. O=mi.e. phase shift
02” 2
oR” TOE which is not rational.
and 2nfn=0.2n= f=
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Hence this signal is non-periodic.
(j"\o
vii) x(n)=e 4 I
= cos" n+ jsin tn
a) } 4
Compare with, x(n) = cos 2nfn-+ j sin 2nfn
Here 2nfn= Tus f=5= ‘, which is rational.
Hence this signal is, periodic with N = 8
Determine whether the following CT signals are periodic or not ? If periodic
determine fundamental period.
i) cost +sin ¥2t ii) 2cos100nt +5sin 50E iii) cos 100nt +sin 50nt
iv) 2eost+3cos$ 0) cos? (2nt) vi) et
Solution : i) a(t) =cost +sin V2 ¢
Compare with, x)
Fs aft=t = fy
u
cos nfl +sin 2nfot
1 1 Hence Ty =2n
Qn Ty
i
and 2nfyt= 2t = fy = SE = a Hence Ta = v2n
The ratio of two periods is, zn = a = V2. Since the ratio p is not ratio of two
2 t 2
integers (ic. not rational number), the signal is_non-periodic.
ii) x(t) =2cos100nt + 5sin50t
Compare with, x) = Ay cos2afit+ Ao sin 2nfyt
Qnfyl = WORE > fy = = 50 = be Hence T; =
2 1
1
, Hence T) =
Bla ge
and Infyt = 50 =
LS = 1 which is not rational. Therefore this
T) 25 2m
The ratio of two periods is,
signal is_non-periodic.
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x(t)=cos100nt + sin 50x ¢
Compare with, x(t) = cos 2nf;t+sin 2nfyt
2nf\t = 100m! => fy = 50 = 2, Hence T; 4
1 1
and Qnft = Ont => fy = 25 = gy Hence Ta = 35
The ratio of two periods is, z = ims = 5 which is rational. Therefore this signal is
yD
periodic.
To determine fundamental period
Step 1: Multiply T, and 7; by a number such that they are full integers. Here,
multiply by 100. ie.
T, = A xt00 = 2 and
= pio = 4
Step 2: Now least common multiple of 7, =2 and T; =4 is ‘4°
Step 3: Now divide this least common multiple by 100. It gives fundamental period.
eee
be T= 199-25
, t
iv) x(t) -2e0st + 3cos $
Compare with, x(8) = A cos 2nfyt+B cos 2nfst
1
wir=t = has = hy Hence Ty =2x
ae Ts
and 2nfyt = : => fre Hence T) = 6
The ratio of two periods is, a = a = 3 which is rational.
Hence the signal is periodic . The fundamental period is least common multiple of
. It will be T = 6m.
T, =2mand T,
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v) x(t) = cos?(2nt)
= LHOAEE ince cost g = 1460820
2 2
= 54 peasant
Here 3 is the DC shift added to the signal x(t) = 5 cos4zt,
But x() is periodic. It will remain periodic after adding the DC shift. Hence the
signal is periodic -
And, 2nft=4nt = Hence period T= 1,
vi) x(t}= e128
= cos 2t~j sin 2 by Euler's identity, e/° = cos6 +jsin@
Compare with’ x(!) = cos2nft+jsin2nft. Here observe that cos 2aft and sin 2nft
both are periodic. Hence x(t) is also periodic. And,
anfi=a > f=L=2. Therefore period T= x.
x
Find and sketch the even and odd components of the following :
t Ocosmt
5 cost
Compare this equation with x(t) = A+A cos2nft. Hence 2nf1=ml = fey or T=2
Fig. 1.29 shows the waveform of x(!). Even and odd parts are given as,
Even part, x,(0) = Eat) +x(-0) and
Odd part, x9() = Fiat)
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Signals and Systems 1-19 Introduction
x= SB +3e0
i Ever pat
f Zoro oa pat}
|
|
co
Thus, Energy of the power signal is infinite over infinite time
GEREIRET) Determine whether the following signals are energy signals or power signals
and calculate their energy or power:
#) x(n) =| All un} i) x = real al Td) Mii cost onse
iv) a(t) =
ea{ 7 Joos v) x(n) = win) i) Aeu(, a>0
: en eras
Solution; When solving such examples we don't know whether the signal have finite
power or finite energy. Hence follow the steps as given below :
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Important tips :
(serve he signal calypso and inf duton
» power signal. Hence calculate its power dirétly.
IC the signal is periodic but of fate duration, then st can be
_ energy signal. Hence calculate its energy jirectly.
gal not pein then can Be energy signal Hee
Step 1:
e= ¥ ix?
> (aij > (3) since u(n) = 1 for n = 0 to °
n= n=0
Here use a” =
;, for |a| <1. The above equation will be
n=0
4
Since energy is finite and non-zero, it is energy signal with E = 3.
ii) x) =r0et{ re }
fit
lie | function is given as,
x(t)
‘The 7e
1
or oes
real } Oe tates
° 0 elsewhere
. (1.2.17)
Fig, 1.2.11 shows this function,
Fig. 1.2.11 rect function
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It is non-periodic. Hence it can be energy signal as per step 3. Hence calculate
energy directly,
E= J lk@P dt By definition
a
= fora From Fig, 1.2.11
ary
Tol
=
Tol
The energy is finite and non-zero. It is energy signal with E=T,.
iii) x8) = cos? wot
This is squared cosine wave, hence it is periodic. Therefore this can be periodic
signal. As per step 1, calculate power of this signal directly,
17
P= tim 5 i} |a(y |? at By definition squar foot
TES Safe:
The given signal x(!) = cos* wt has some period T,, and it is real signal. Their above
equation will be,
Tol
P= tim L 2 «3,432
P lim, Te J [cos? wt at
; ~To2
Here [cos? w,f]?
follows :
cos @,t . It can be expanded by standard trigonometric relations as
1 Ay
P = lim [344 cos2ugt+cos4 wgt]dé
1 Tof2 To (2 Tol?
= lim — f guts lim 5 [ Acos2m,tdt+ lim | cosdu,tdt
Torn"? ip At eae 9" type
This term will be vero "This term will be alo zero
sae pare Orel al yikeg sc .cbane wade ones haleyeas
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iv) x(t) rect, ¢ - free Wot
wsae ] > ]
‘Two full eyclos
of cos wt
Fig. 1.2.12 Sketch of x(t)
The given function is the product of cosine wave and rect function. Fig, 1.2.12 shows
how x(!) is derived.
© cos wot is periodic and infinite duration signal.
«Basically it is power signal.
= coso,t is multiplied with the rectangular pulse. Hence the resultant signal is a
yy be
2 cts 0.
cosine wave of duration ~—3 .
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* It is assumed that there are multiple number of cycles of cosine wave in
To
sts,
2
a =
The final signal is periodic but of finite duration. Hence it can be energy signal.
‘Therefore calculate as per step 2, energy directly,
E = f [xp|at By definition
Told Tof2 J
=f lcostotPar = f (Sse)
Tof2 ~To/2
Tol? Tof2
1 1 T,
= i dbe | COs 20 6t
~Tf2 Tof2
This term will be zero
cosine wave over "ull cycles”
Here energy is finite and non-zero, hence it is Energy signal with E = te
v) x(n) = u(n)
This signal is periodic (since u(n) repeats after every sample) and of inifinite
duration. Hence it may be power signal. Therefore let us calculate power directly,
P | x(n |?
F
ae
Ms
x
lim sq YO)? Since un) = 1 for 0s nse
Noe
n=0
x
Here}. (1)? means 1 + 141+ 1... form =0 to N. In other words,
neo
1414141... (N+ 1) times = (N + 1). Therefore above equation will be,
1
Ps ne mart)
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N+
= lim St = tim —
Niobe 2NtT N30 9,1 2
a
N
The power is finite and non-zero, hence unit step function is power signal with
1
z
vi) x(t) = Ae “fu(t), a>
‘This signal is non periodic and of infinite duration. It can be energy signal.
Therefore calculate its energy directly as per step 3.
Jira
m
"
fiaec@Pat Since u(t) = 1 for 0s ts =
°
= APf eta = A?
a
a
oa
2
‘The energy is finite and non-zero, hence the given signal is energy signal with F=
Important comment :
i) As a0, e~ 1, x(f) becomes unit step and E>
ii) Unit step is a power signal whose energy becomes infinite as stated above. This
confirms to our earlier statement that energy of power signal is infinite over infinite
time.
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Se heise cas
. Find whether the following signals are periodic. If yes, find the periodicity.
xt) =2awt +304; ii) x(t) = 2 cos nt+ 7 cos t ;
iii) x(t) = 2 cos 1.5 nt + sin 3.5 mt; — iv) xf] = cos [2n] ;
cos [2 nn} ; vi) aln] = [cos 2nt P.
‘o) xt
Solutio
i) x(t) = 2eost +3cos
Here w, = 1 and w = ‘
oT; = 2m and wT, =2"
T, = 2m and T, =6n
2n_1
TT, 6n 3
*. x(0) is periodic,
Here Ty = 3T; =T) = 6mis the period of xq).
ii) x(t)= 2cosxt+7cost
Here w, = wand w = 1
@;T; = 2m and )T, =2"
T, = 2 and Tz =2"
iy 2 ee
Tz On
Since y 1 is not the ratio of two integers x(!) is not periodic.
2
ili) x(t) = 2cos1.5xt+sin3. 5nt
15
T ==
and T =
Ty s/n
T, 3.5/2 7
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._ x(0) is periodic.
iv) x(n) = cos 2n
Here w= 2
anf = 2 fet
1
Here f is not the ratio of two integers, hence x(n) is not periodic
v)_ x(n) = cos(2xn)
1
Here f
x(n) is periodic.
vi) x(n) = [cos 2 xf]*
= B(l+cos4ni)
Here f =
Hence the signal is periodic.
A O 1
are periodic.
i) x(t) = v(t) + of B, where , oft) = sin (ul)
mm sil 3")
Solution : i) a(t) = o(f) + 0 D
ii) ct
TOMER
Pinte micudes
x() = sin () u(t) + sin) uC
= sin (t) u(t) ~ sin tu t)
sin t [u(t) - u 0]
This signal u(t) - ut) = 0. Hence the signal will be non-periodic:
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Signals and Systems 41-33 Introduction
cf mn). (mit
x(n) = cos) — |sin| ~,
ii) x(n) = c { = | in|
ol 5-5}
2Qnn
= wie tsin perf = A fsin2nf m+sin 2mf>n}
4_k
Here Lage Ni = N,=15
i ake
and &= BoA 7? Nr
Since both frequencies are rational, and ay = 1, the signal is periodic. The
2
fundamental period is,
N Np = 15
Fig. 1.2.16 shows part of the signal x(t) and its even part for t 2 0 only. a(t)
‘and even part for t < 0 is not shown. Complete the plots of x(t) and x,(t). Also obtain the
odd part of x(t).
ett)
1 ti] Gas
Fig. 1.2.16 Plots of x(t) and x,(t) for t > 0
a co
Solution : 5 ‘en part, Fig. 1.2.17 shows plot of complete x,(f).
xelt) |
_ ee
Fig. 1.2.17 Complete plot of x,(t)
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We know that,
x0 = Ha ex-9)
2x,{t) = x) + xE t)
XE 1) = elt) — x(t)
Let us evaluate this equation for t 2 0. This will give x(- 0) for t 2 0. Fig. 1.2.18 shows
this waveform.
u
Fig. 1.2.18 x (- 0) for t20
Here x(- 1) for t 2 0 is basically x(t) for ¢ < 0, Hence combining the parts of x(t) for
1 0 gives complete (1). It is shown below in Fig. 1.2.19
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|
| Cr
am eae]
Fig. 1.2.19 Complete plot of x(t)
Odd Part
Odd part is given as, x,(f) = Se)-s0)
Fig. 1.2.20 shows the evaluation of odd part as per above equation.
Fig. 1.2.20 Odd part of x(t)
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PRERELEY Determine the energy or power as applicable for the following signals.
|
|
|
) wan = G y un)
SMEAR eM
Solution : i
= cos(2mf, +0)+jsin (21 fy +8)
Here f= h=1 oN=4
aa |
For the periodic signals power is given as,
i &
P= wai, 2 hor’
Here — |x(n)|
P
ii) xm) -( i | (a
This is energy signal. Energy is given as,
B= S|? .
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GROMER) !s the signal shown in Fig. 1.2.21 is power or energy signal ? Give reasons
{for your answers and further determine its energy or power.
x0) ] Berlei tan
r Top a Pat
L i uf
Fig, 1.2.21 Waveforms of example 1.2.14
Solution : Waveform of Fig. 1.2.21 (a).
This is non periodic signal. It is energy signal.
s forOsts2
xt) = |-143 for2sts4
-1 fora 1
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2
Le ee
At | slot-oe
:(5| ak .
0
Waveform of Fig. 1.3.21 (b)
This is periodic signal. Hence it is power signal. It can be described as,
x(t)
Qsinnt O Nats
4 k.
and fe ae Ne = Np = 15
Thus N, = N) = N = 15, The signal is periodic and fundamental period is N = 15.
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(CREERERERD) ied the even and ord parts of the following signals +
i) x) = [sin(xt)+cos(n)[? ii) att) = (+t) cos*(104)
Solution + i) x(1) = [sin(nt) + costrt)]”
Here x(t) = sin2(nt) +2sin(zt) cos(r) +cos? mt
= 1+2sin(m) cos(mt) since sin?(n#)+cos?(ml) =1
= 1+sin(2x!) since 2sin xcosx = sin 2x
From above equation,
x(t) = 14sin(-2nt) = 1-sin@ni)
xelt) = Sexo) = 5h + sin(2xt)+1~sin(2mi)] = 1
and xo) = AEM) —x-01
BUI +sin(@Qnt)—1+ sina] = sin(2at)
i) x(t) = +85) cos* (08)
= cos? (10t) + cos* (101)
= Xelt) + xo)
From comparison of above two equations we obtain,
xp(f) = cos$(10t) and xo(t) = #9 cos? (108)
(QEEMIRERID find the average power and energy of the following signals Determine
whether they are power / energy signals.
xy = [On frase
a(n) =
0 otherise
| a [eostn) for-asnsa
ere otherwise
wip my = [oD for m=O
m0) otherwise
jo) The raised cosine pulse (positive half cycle) x(t) which is defined as :
yi Sleos(or) +1 Fets Hs
a rT
0 otherwise
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS" An up ust for knowedg0 Signals and Systems 1-44 Introduction
Solution :
[sin(am) for-asnsa
2 ao = vy otherwise
This signal has all samples zero. It is not periodic signal. It's energy is zero. Hence it
is neither energy, nor power signal.
[eostnn) for—4sns4
uy wo) = 16 otherwise
=s(J1ia11114
. i
B= > |x?
4
DX ly =1+ 1414 d+ le ded ete tao
nod
Since energy is finite, this is energy signal.
= _ feostnn) for 20
eh 3 |
2 an * 19 otherwise
Since s(n) is cosine wave for > 0, it must be power signal. Let us evaluate its period
and power. Comparing, x(1t) = cos(mn) with cos(2nfn) we get.
2nfyn
mn
p= Sam? bY awn?
== xn) == an) |*
N co 2 q
= Fx2+x20)] = H(cos(o?? +(cosm?]=1
Since power is finite, x(n) is power signals
1
Zicosot)+11 —Z
