Formulas and Theorems for Reference

I. Trigonometric Formulas

1. sin 2 ! " cos2 ! # 1

2. 1 " tan 2 ! # sec2 !
3. 1 " cot 2 ! # csc2 !
4. sin $ &! % # & sin !
5. cos $ &! % # cos !
6. tan $ &! % # & tan !
7. sin $ A " B % # sin A cos B " sin B cos A
8. sin $ A & B % # sin A cos B & sin B cos A
9. cos $ A " B % # cos A cos B & sin A sin B
10. cos $ A & B % # cos A cos B " sin A sin B
11. sin 2! # 2 sin ! cos !
'cos2 ! & sin 2 !
(
12. cos 2! # )2 cos 2 ! & 1
(1 & 2 sin 2 !
*
sin ! 1
13. tan ! # #
cos ! cot !
cos ! 1
14. cot ! # #
sin ! tan !
1
15. sec ! #
cos !
1
16. csc ! #
sin !
,+ -
17. cos . & ! / # sin !
02 1
,+ -
18. sin . & ! / # cos !
02 1
II. Differentiation Formulas
1.
d
dx
$ x % # nx
n n &1

d
2. $ fg % # fg '" gf '
dx
d ,f - gf ' & fg '
3. . /#
dx 0g 1 g2

f $ g $ x %% # f ' $ g $ x %% g ' $ x %
d
4.
dx
d
5. $ sin x % # cos x
dx
d
6. $ cos x % # & sin x
dx
d
7. $ tan x % # sec2 x
dx
d
8. $ csc x % # & csc x cot x
dx
d
9. $ sec x % # sec x tan x
dx
d
10. $ cot x % # & csc2 x
dx

11.
d
dx
$e % # e
x x

12.
d
dx
$a % # a
x x
ln a

d 1
13. $ ln x % #
dx x

14.
d
dx
$ tan &1
x%#
1
1" x 2

15.
d
$ sin &1
x%#
1
dx 1& x 2
16.
d
$ sec x % #
&1 1
dx x x 2 &1
III. Integration Formulas
1. 2 adx # ax " C
x n "1
2. 2 x dx #
n
"C , n 3 1
n "1
1
3. 2 x dx # ln x "C

2e dx # e x " C
x
4.

ax
2 a dx # "C
x
5.
ln a
6. 2 ln xdx # x ln x & x " C
7. 2 sin xdx # & cos x " C
8. 2 cos xdx # sin x " C
9. 2 tan xdx # ln sec x " C or & ln cos x " C

10. 2 cot xdx # ln sin x " C

11. 2 sec xdx # ln sec x " tan x " C

12. 2 csc xdx # ln csc x & cot x " C

13. 2 sec2 xdx # tan x " C

14. 2 sec x tan x # sec x " C

15. 2 csc2 xdx # & cot x " C

16. 2 csc x cot xdx # & csc x " C

17. 2 tan 2 xdx # tan x & x " C

4 dx 1 ,x -
18. 5 2 # tan &1 . / " C
6 a "x 0a1
2
a
4 dx ,x -
19. 5 # sin &1 . / " C
6 a2 & x 2 0a1
4 dx 1 x
20. 5 # sec&1 "C
6 x x &a
2 2 a a
 IV. Formulas and Theorems
1. Limits and Continuity
A function y # f $ x % is continuous at x = a if:
i) f $ a % is defined (exists)
ii) lim f $ x % exists, and
x 7a

iii) lim f $ x % # f $ a %
x 7a
Otherwise, f is discontinuous at x = a .
The limit lim f $ x % exists if and only if both corresponding one-sided limits exist and are
x 7a

equal – that is, lim f $ x % # L 8 lim" f $ x % # L # lim& f $ x %

x 7a x 7a x 7a

2. Intermediate Value Theorem

A function y # f $ x % that is continuous on a closed interval 9 a , b : takes on every value
between f $ a % and f $ b % .
Note: If f is continuous on 9 a , b : and f $ a % and f $ b % differ in sign, then the equation
f $ x % # 0 has at least one solution in the open interval $ a , b % .

3. Limits of Rational Functions as x 7 ;<

f $x %
1. lim # 0 if the degree of f $ x % = the degree of g $ x %
x 7;< g $ x %

x 2 & 2x
Example: lim 3 #0
x 7< x " 3

f $x %
2. lim is infinite if the degree of f $ x % > the degree of g $ x %
x 7;< g $ x %

x 3 " 2x
Example: lim #<
x 7"< x 2 " 8

f $x %
3. lim is finite if the degree of f $ x % = the degree of g $ x %
x 7;< g $ x %

Note: The limit will be the ratio of the leading coefficient of f $ x % to g $ x %

2x 2 & 3x " 2 2
Example: lim #&
x 7< 10 x & 5x 2
5

4. Horizontal and Vertical Asymptotes

1. A line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y # f $ x % if either
lim f $ x % # b or lim f $ x % # b .
x 7< x 7&<

2. A line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y # f $ x % if either

lim f $ x % # ;< or lim& f $ x % # ;<
x 7a " x 7a
5. Average and Instantaneous Rate of Change
1. Average Rate of Change: If $ x 0 , y 0 % and $ x 1 , y 1 % are points on the graph of y # f $ x % ,
then the average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval 9 x 0 , x 1 : is
f $ x 1 % & f $ x 0 % y 1 & y 0 >y
# #
x1 & x 0 x 1 & x 0 >x
2. Instantaneous Rate of Change: If $ x 0 , y 0 % is a point on the graph of y # f $ x % , then the
instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x 0 is f ' $ x 0 % .

6. Definition of Derivative
f $x " h % & f $x % f $x % & f $a %
f ' $ x % # lim or f ' $ a % # lim
h 70 h x 7a x &a
The latter definition of the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of f $ x % with
respect to x at x = a .
Geometrically, the derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of the function at that point.

7. The number e as a limit

n
, 1-
1. lim . 1 " / # e
n 7"<
0 n1
1
2. lim $1 " n % n # e
n 70

8. Rolle’s Theorem
If f is continuous on 9 a , b : and differentiable on $ a , b % such that f $ a % # f $ b % , then there
is at least one number c in the open interval $ a , b % such that f ' $ c % # 0 .

9. Mean Value Theorem

If f is continuous on 9 a , b : and differentiable on $ a , b % , then there is at least one number c
f $b % & f $a %
in the open interval $ a , b % such that # f ' $c % .
b &a
10. Extreme Value Theorem
If f is continuous on the closed interval 9 a , b : , then f $ x % has both a maximum and a
minimum on 9 a , b : .

11. To find the maximum and minimum values on a function y # f $ x % , locate

1. the points where f ' $ x % is zero or where f ' $ x % fails to exist
2. the end points, if any, on the domain of f $ x % .
Note: These are the only candidates for the value of x where f $ x % may have a maximum or a
minimum.
12. Let f be differentiable for a < x < b and continuous for a ? x ? b .
1. f is increasing on 9 a , b : if and only if f ' $ x % @ 0 for every x in $ a , b % .
2. f is decreasing on 9 a , b : if and only if f ' $ x % = 0 for every x in $ a , b % .

13. Suppose that f '' $ x % exists on the interval $ a , b % .

1. f is concave upward on $ a , b % if and only if f '' $ x % @ 0 for every x in $ a , b % .
2. f is concave downward on $ a , b % if and only if f '' $ x % = 0 for every x in $ a , b % .
To locate the points of inflection of y # f $ x % , find the points where f '' $ x % # 0 OR where f '' $ x %
fails to exist. These are the only candidates where f $ x % may have a point of inflection. Then test
these points to make sure that f '' $ x % = 0 on one side and f '' $ x % @ 0 on the other.

14. If a function is differentiable at a point x = a , it is continuous at that point. The converse is false,
i.e. continuity does not imply differentiability.

15. Local Linearity and Linear Approximation

The linear approximation to f $ x % near x # x 0 is given by y # f $ x 0 % " f ' $ x 0 %$ x & x 0 % for x
sufficiently close to x 0 .
To estimate the slope of a graph at a point – just draw a tangent line to the graph at that point.
Another way is (by using a graphing calculator) to “zoom in” around the point in question until
the graph “looks” straight. This method will always work. If we “zoom in” and the graph looks
straight at a point, say $ a , f $ a % % , then the function is locally linear at that point.
The graph of y # x has a sharp corner at x = 0. This corner cannot be smoothed out by
“zooming in” repeatedly. Consequently, the derivative of x does not exist at x = 0, hence, is not
locally linear at x = 0.

16. Newton’s Method

Let f be a differentiable function and suppose r is a real zero of f . If x n is an approximation to r,
f $xn %
then the next approximation x n "1 is given by x n "1 # x n & provided f ' $ x n % 3 0 .
f ' $xn %
Successive approximations can be found using this method.

17. Dominance and Comparison of Rates of Change

Logarithmic functions grow slower than any power function x n . $ %
Among power functions, those with higher powers grow faster than those with lower powers.
All power functions grow slower than any exponential function a x , a @ 1 .$ %
Among exponential functions, those with larger bases grow faster than those with smaller bases.
We say, that as x 7 < :
f $x % g $x %
1. f $ x % grows faster than g $ x % if lim # < or lim # 0.
x 7< g $ x % x 7< f $ x %

If f $ x % grows faster than g $ x % as x 7 <, then g $ x % grows slower than f $ x % as x 7 < .

f $x %
2. f $ x % and g $ x % grow at the same rate as x 7 < if lim # L 3 0 (L is finite and
x 7< g $ x %

nonzero).
 For example,
ex
1. e x grows faster than x 3 as x 7 < since lim #<
x 7< x 3

x4
2. x 4 grows faster than lnx as x 7 < since lim #<
x 7< ln x

x 2 " 2x
3. x 2 " 2x grows at the same rate as x 2 as x 7 < since lim #1
x 7< x2
To find some of these limits as x 7 < , you may use a graphing calculator. Make sure that an
appropriate window is used.

18. Inverse Functions

1. If f and g are two functions such that f $ g $ x % % # x for every x in the domain of g , and,
g $ f $ x % % # x , for every x in the domain of f , then, f and g are inverse functions of each
other.
2. A function f has an inverse function if and only if no horizontal like intersects its graph
more than once.
3. If f is either increasing or decreasing in an interval, then f has an inverse function over
that interval.
4. If f is differentiable at every point on an interval I , and f ' $ x % 3 0 on I , then g # f &1 $ x %

is differentiable at every point of the interior of the interval f $ I % and g ' $ f $ x % % #

1
.
f '$x %
19. Properties of y # e x
1. The exponential function y # e x is the inverse function of y = lnx .
2. The domain is the set of all real numbers, &< = x = < .
3. The range is the set of all positive numbers, y > 0.
4.
d x
dx
$ e % # ex .
5. e x A e x # e x " x .
1 2 1 2

6. y # e x is continuous, increasing, and concave up for all x .

7. lim e x # "< and lim e x # 0
x 7"< x 7&<

8. e ln x
$ %
# x , for x @ 0; ln e x for all x .

20. Properties of y # ln x
1. The natural logarithm function y # ln x is the inverse of the exponential function y # e x .
2. The domain of y # ln x is the set of all positive numbers, x > 0.
3. The range of y # ln x is the set of all real numbers, &< = y = < .
4. y # ln x is continuous and increasing everywhere on its domain.
5. ln $ ab % # ln a " ln b .
,a-
6. ln . / # ln a & ln b .
0b 1
7. ln a r # r ln a .
8. y # ln x < 0 if 0 < x < 1.
 9. lim ln x # "< and lim" ln x # &< .
x 7"< x 70
ln x
10. log a x # .
ln a

21. L’Hopital’s Rule

f $x % 0 < f '$x % f $x % f '$x %
If lim is of the form or , and if lim exists, then lim = lim .
x 7a g $x % 0 < x 7a g ' $ x % x 7a g $ x % x 7a g ' $ x %

.
22. Trapezoidal Rule
If a function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b ], where [a, b ] has been partitioned
b &a
into n subintevals 9 x 0 , x 1 : , 9 x 1 , x 2 : ,.., 9 x n &1 , x n : , each length of , then
n
b &a
2a f $ x % dx D Bf $ x 0 % " 2f $ x 1 % " 2f $ x 2 % " ... " 2f $ x n &1 % " f $ x n % CF .
b

n E
The Trapezoidal Rule is the average of the Left and Right hand sums.

23. Simpson’s Rule

Let f be continuous on [a, b ].
b &a
Then 2 f $ x % dx D Bf $ x 0 % " 4f $ x 1 % " 2f $ x 2 % " 4f $ x 3 % " ... " 4f $ x n &1 % " f $ x n % CF ,
b

a 3n E
where n is an even number of subintervals of equal length on [a, b ].

24. Properties of the Definite Integral

Let f $ x % and g $ x % be continuous on 9 a , b : .

2a c A f $ x % dx # c 2a f $ x % dx for any constant x .

b b
1.

2a f $ x % dx # 0
a
2.

2b f $ x % dx # & 2a f $ x % dx
a b
3.

2a f $ x % dx # 2a f $ x % dx " 2c f $ x % dx , where f is continuous on an interval containing the

b c b
4.
numbers a, b, and c, regardless of the order of a, b, and c.
5. If f $ x % is an odd function, then 2 a f $ x % dx # 0
a

&

If f $ x % is an even function, then 2 f $ x % dx #22 f $ x % dx

a a
6.
a & 0

If f $ x % G 0 on 9 a , b : , then 2 f $ x % dx G 0
b
7.
a

If g $ x % G f $ x % on 9 a , b : , then 2 g $ x % dx G 2 f $ x % dx
b b
8.
a a

25. Definition of Definite Integral as the Limit of a Sum

Suppose that a function f $ x % is continuous on the closed interval [a, b ]. Divide the
b &a
interval into n equal subintervals, of length >x # . Choose one number in each
n
subinterval, i.e. x 1 in the first, x 2 in the second, …, x k in the kth, …, and x n in the nth.
n
Then lim H f $ x k % >x # 2 f $ x % dx # F $ b % & F $ a % .
b

n 7< a
k #1
26. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
d
f $ x % dx # F $ b % & F $ a % , where F ' $ x % # f $ x % , or 2a f $ x % dx # f $ x % .
b x
2a dx
27. Velocity, Speed, and Acceleration
1. The velocity of an object tells how fast it is going and in which direction. Velocity is an
instantaneous rate of change.
2. The speed of an object is the absolute value of the velocity, v $t % . It tells how fast it is
going disregarding its direction.
The speed of a particle increases (speeds up) when the velocity and acceleration have the
same signs. The speed decreases (slows down) when the velocity and acceleration have
opposite signs.
3. The acceleration is the instantaneous rate of change of velocity – it is the derivative of the
velocity – that is, a $t % # v ' $t % . Negative acceleration (deceleration) means that the velocity
is decreasing. The acceleration gives the rate at which the velocity is changing.
Therefore, it x is the displacement of a moving object and t is time, then:
dx
i). velocity = v $t % # x ' $t % #
dt
dv d 2 x
ii). acceleration = a $t % # x '' $t % # v ' $t % # #
dt dt 2
iii). v $t % # 2 a $t % dt
iv). x $t % # 2v $t % dt
Note: The average velocity of a particle over the time interval from t 0 to another time t, is Average
Change in position s $ t % & s $t 0 %
Velocity = # , where a $t % is the position of the particle at time t .
Length of time t &t 0

1 b
28. The average value of f $ x % on 9 a , b : is f $ x % dx
b & a 2a
29. Area Between Curves
If f and g are continuous functions such that f $ x % G g $ x % on 9 a , b : , then the area between the

2a BEf $ x % & g $ x %CF dx .

b
curves is

30. Integration By Parts

If u # f $ x % and v # g $ x % and if f ' $ x % and g ' $ x % are continuous, then 2 udv # uv & 2vdu .
Note: The goal of the procedure is to choose u and dv so that 2vdu is easier to integrate than
the original problem.
Suggestion:
When “choosing” u, remember L.I.A.T.E, where L is the logarithmic function, I is an inverse
trigonometric function, A is an algebraic function, T is a trigonometric function, and E is the
exponential function. Just choose u as the first expression in L.I.A.T.E (and dv will be the
remaining part of the integrand.) For example, when integrating 2 x ln xdx , choose u = x , since
x is an algebraic function, and A comes before E in L.I.A.T.E., and dv # e x dx . One more example,
when integrating 2 x tan &1 xdx , let u # tan &1 x , since I comes before A in L.I.A.T.E., and
dv # xdx .
31. Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Let f be nonnegative and continuous on 9 a , b : , and let R be the region bounded above by
y # f $ x % , below by the x – axis, and the sides by the lines x = a and x = b .
1. When this region R is revolved about the x – axis, it generates a solid (having circular
2
cross sections) whose volume V # 2 + BEf $ x % CF dx .
b

a
2. When R is revolved about the y – axis, it generates a solid whose volume
V # 2 2+ rf $ x % dx .
b

32. Volumes of Solids with Known Cross Sections

1. For cross sections of area A $ x % , taken perpendicular to the x – axis, volume # 2 A $ x % dx .
b

2. For cross sections of area A $ y % , taken perpendicular to the y – axis, volume # 2 A $ y % dy .

d

33. Trigonometric Substitution

1. For integrals involving a 2 & u 2 , let u # a sin ! . Then a 2 & u 2 # a cos ! where
+ +
& ?! ? .
2 2
2. For integrals involving a 2 " u 2 , let u # a tan ! . Then a 2 " u 2 # a sec ! where
+ +
& =! = .
2 2
Or integrals involving u 2 & a 2 , let u # a sec ! . Then u 2 & a 2 = ; a tan ! where
+ +
0 ?! = or = ! ? + . Use the positive value if u > a ; the negative value if u < – a.
2 2

34. Solving Differential Equations: Graphically and Numerically

Slope Fields
At every point $ x , y % a differential equation of the form dx
dy
# f $ x , y % gives the slope of the
member of family of solutions that contains the point. A slope field is a graphical representation of
this family of curves. At each point in the plane, a short segment is drawn whose slope is equal to
the value of the derivative at that point. These segments are tangent to the solution’s graph at the
point.
The slope field allows you to sketch the graph of the solution curve even though you do not have
its equation. This is done by starting at any point (usually the point given by the initial condition),
and moving from one point to the next in the direction indicated by the segments of the slope field.
Some calculators have built in operations for drawing slope fields; for calculators without this
feature, there are programs available for drawing them.

Euler’s Method
Euler’s Method is a way of approximating points on the solution of a differential equation
dx # f $ x , y % . The calculation uses the tangent line approximation to move from point to the next.
dy

That is, starting with the given point $ x 1 , y 1 % – the initial condition, the point
$x 1 " >x , y 1 " f ' $ x 1 , y 1 % >x % approximates a nearby point to calculate a third point and so on.
The accuracy of this method decreases with larger values of >x . The error increases as each
successive point is used to find the next. Calculator programs are available for doing this
calculation.
35. Definition of Arc Length
If the function given by y # f $ x % represents a smooth curve on the interval 9 a , b : , then the arc
b
length of f between a and b is given by s # 4 1 " f ' $ x % dx .
2

6a

36. Work
1. If an object is moved a distance D in the direction of an applied constant force F , then the
work W done by the force is defined as W = FD .
2. If an object is moved along a straight line by a continuously varying force F $ x % , then the
work W done by the force as the object is moved from x = a to x = b is given by
W # 2 F $ x % dx .
b

a
3. Hooke’s Law says that the amount of force F is takes to stretch or compress a spring x
units from its natural length is proportional to x . That is, F = kx , where k is the spring
constant measured in force units per unit length.

37. Improper Integral

2a f $ x % dx is an improper integral if
b

1. f becomes infinite at one or more points of the interval of integration, or

2. one or both of the limits of integration is infinite, or
3. both (1) and (2) hold.

38. Parametric Form of the Derivative

If a smooth curve C is given by the parametric equations x # f $t % and y # g $t % , then the slope
dy dy dx dx
of the curve C at $ x , y % is
# I , 3 0.
dx dt dt dt
d 2 y d B dy C d B dy C dx
Note: The second derivative, # # I .
dx 2 dx JE dx KF dt JE dx KF dt

39. Arc Length in Parametric Form

If a smooth curve C is given by x # f $t % and y # g $t % and these functions have continuous first
derivatives with respect to t for a ? t ? b , and if the point P $ x , y % traces the curve exactly once
as t moves from t = a to t = b , then the length of the curve is given by
b
4 2
, dx - , dy -
2
b
s #5 " dt # 4 Bf ' $t % C 2 " B g ' $t % C 2 dt .
5 . dt / . dt / 6a E F E F
6a 0 1 0 1

40. Polar Coordinates

1. Cartesian vs. Polar Coordinates: The polar coordinates $ r , ! % are related to the Cartesian
coordinates $ x , y % as follows:
x # r cos ! and y # r sin !
y
tan ! #
and x 2 " y 2 # r 2
x
2. Area in Polar Coordinates: If f is continuous and nonnegative on the interval 9L , M : , then
the area of the region bounded by the graph of r # f $! % between the radial lines ! # L
1 M 1 M
2 BE f $! % CF d ! # 2 r 2d ! .
2
and ! # M is given by A #
2 L 2 L
41. Sequences and Series

1. If a sequence Nan O has a limit L , that is lim an # L , then the sequence is said to converge to
n 7<

L . If there is no limit, the series diverges. If the sequence Nan O converges, then its limit is
1
ln n xn
unique. Keep in mind that lim # 0; lim x n # 1; lim n n # 1; lim # 0 . These limits
n 7< n n 7< n 7< n 7< n !

are useful and arise frequently.

< <
1 a
2. The harmonic series H
n n
#1
diverges; the geometric series H
n
ar n
#0
converges to
1& r
if

r = 1 and diverges if r G 1 and a 3 0.

<
1
3. The p – series H
n n
#1
p
converges if p > 1 and diverges if p ! 1.

< <
4. Limit Comparison Test: Let H an and H b n be a series of nonnegative terms, with an 3 0
n #1 n #1

bn
for all sufficiently large n , and suppose that lim # c @ 0 . Then the two series either
n 7< a
n
both converge or both diverge.
<
5. Alternating Series Test: Let H
n
an
#1
be a series such that
i) the series is alternating,
ii) an "1 ? an for all n , and
iii) lim an # 0
n 7<
Then the series converges.

6. The n th term test for Divergence: If lim an 3 0 , then the series diverges.
n 7<

Note: The converse if false , that is, if lim an # 0 , then the series may or may not converge.
n 7<

7. A series H an is absolutely convergent if the series H an converges. If H an converges,

but H an does not converge, then the series is conditionally convergent. Keep in mind
< <
that if H an converges, then H an converges.
n #1 n #1

<
8. Direct Comparison Test: If 0 ? an ? b n for all sufficiently large n , and H
n
bn
#1
converges,
< < <
then H an converges. If
n #1
H an diverges, then
n #1
H
n
b n diverges.
#1
9. Integral Test: Let f $ x % be a positive, continuous, and decreasing function on
< <
91, < % and an # f $ n % . The series H an will converge if the improper integral, 2 f $ x % dx
1
n #1
< <
converges. If the improper integral 2 1
f $ x % dx diverges, then the infinite series H
n
an
#1
diverges.

10. Ratio Test: Let H an be a series with nonzero terms.

an "1
i) If lim = 1 then the series converges absolutely.
n 7< an
an "1
ii) If lim @ 1 , then the series is divergent.
n 7< an
an "1
iii) If lim # 1 , then the test is inconclusive (and another test
n 7< an
must be used).

11. Power Series: A power series is of the form

<

H
n
cn x n # c
#0
0 " c1x " c 2 x 2 " ... " c n x n " ... or
<

H cn $ x & a % # c 0 " c1 $ x & a % " c 2 $ x & a % " ... " c n $ x & a % " ...
n 2 n

n#0

in which the center a and the coefficients c 0 , c1 , c 2 , ..., c n , ... are constants.
The set of all numbers x for which the power series converges is called the interval of
convergence.

12. Taylor Series: Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some interval
containing a as an interior point. Then the Taylor series generated by f at a is
$ % x & a k # f a " f ' a x & a " f '' $ a % x & a 2 " ... f $ n % $ a % x & a n " ...
< f $k % a

H a ! $ % $ % $ %$ % 2 ! $ %
k #0 n!
$ %

The remaining terms after the term containing the n th derivative can be expressed as a
remainder to Taylor’s Theorem:
<
1 x
f $ x % # f $ a % " H f $ n % $ a %$ x & a % " R n $ x % # 2 $ x & t % f $ n "1% $t % dt
n n

k #1 n! a

f $ n "1% $ c %$ x & a %
n "1

Lagrange’s Form of the Remainder: R n $ x % # , where c lies between x

$ n " 1% !
and a .
The series will converge for all values of x for which the remainder approaches zero as
x 7 <.
13. Frequently Used Series and Their Interval of Convergence
<
1
P # 1 " x " x 2 " x 3 " AAA " x n " AAA # H x n ; IOC $ &1,1%
1& x n #0

<
1
# 1 & x " x 2 & x 3 " AAA " $ & x % " AAA # H $ &1% x n ; IOC $ &1,1%
n n
P
1" x n #0

<
x2 x3 xn xn
P e x # 1" x " " " AAA " " AAA # H ; IOC $ &<, < %
2! 3! n! n #0 n !

$ &1% x 2 n "1
n
x3 x5 x7 x 2n "1 <
" AAA " $ &1% " AAA # H ; IOC $ &<, < %
n
P sin x # x & " &
3! 5! 7 ! $ 2n " 1% ! n # 0 $ 2n " 1% !

$ &1% x 2n ; IOC &<, <

n
<
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
" AAA " $ &1% " AAA # H $ %
n
P cos x # 1 & " &
2 ! 4! 6 ! $ 2n % ! n #0 $ 2n % !

$ &1% x n
n &1
<
x2 x3 x4 xn
ln $1 " x % # x & " AAA " $ &1% " AAA # H
n &1
P " & , &1 = x ? 1
2 3 4 n n #1 n

$ &1% x 2n "1 ; IOC &1,1

n
x3 x5 x 2n "1
x7 <
" AAA " $ &1% " AAA # H 9 :
&1 n
P tan x # x & " &
3 5 7 2n " 1 n #0 2n " 1