Int. J. Vehicle Noise and Vibration, Vol. 5, Nos.

1/2, 2009 1

Overview of automotive noise and vibration

Mohamad S. Qatu*
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Mississippi State University,
105 Carpenter,
P.O. Box 9552,
Mississippi, MS 39762, USA
E-mail: [email protected]
*Corresponding author

Mohamed Khalid Abdelhamid

Robert Bosch LLC,
38000 Hills Tech Drive,
Farmington Hills, MI 48331, USA
E-mail: [email protected]

Jian Pang
Automobile Engineering Institute,
Chongqing Changan Automobile Co. Ltd,
589 Kong Gang Da Dao,
Shuang Feng Qiao, Yubei District Choingqing, PR China
E-mail: [email protected]

Gang Sheng
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, AK 99775 5905, USA
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Vehicle noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) is an important

vehicle attribute. It is usually among the top five attributes in terms of its
priority in the design of any vehicle type. Like other attributes of
safety, performance, dynamics and fuel economy, this attribute has to
be considered closely in the design process. This manuscript presents an
overview of automotive NVH engineering. It classifies the interior noise into
powertrain-related NVH, road- and tyre-related NVH and wind-related NVH.
This paper also discusses brake- and chassis-related NVH, squeak and rattle
and electromechanical-related NVH. In addition, the paper addresses exterior
NVH, frequently described as drive-by NVH. The phenomenon is divided into
usual or expected NVH and unusual or unexpected NVH. The paper provides a
review of some of the recent literature in the field of automotive NVH.

Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

2 M.S. Qatu et al.

Keywords: air-borne noise; automotive; fluid-borne noise; noise; NVH;

operating conditions; research; root-cause; structure-borne noise; unusual
NVH; usual NVH; vehicle; vibration.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Qatu, M.S., Abdelhamid,

M.K., Pang, J. and Sheng, G. (2009) ‘Overview of automotive noise and
vibration’, Int. J. Vehicle Noise and Vibration, Vol. 5, Nos. 1/2, pp.1–35.

Biographical notes: Mohamad S. Qatu received his BEng from Jordan (1985)
and his MS and PhD from the Ohio State University in 1986 and 1989,
respectively. His academic experience includes working as a Professor and
Chairman of Mechanical Engineering at Franklin University, Lake Superior
State University, An-Najah National University and recently Mississippi State
University. His industrial experience includes working for Dresser Industries,
Honda of America, Dana Corporation and Ford Motor Company. He is the
author of one book, and more than 100 research papers, review papers and
book reviews. He has two patents and is a Fellow of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Mohamed Khalid Abdelhamid received his BSc from Cairo University and his
MS and PhD from the Iowa State University. He held positions at Helwan
University, Iowa State University and the University of Maryland at College
Park, he later joined Allied Signal as Staff Scientist and is currently Technical
Expert of NVH and Manager at Robert Bosch LLC. He has contributed to the
Society of Experimental Mechanics, ASME and SAE as associate editor,
reviewer and member of conference committees and standardisation
committees and participating in a book on brake squeal. He is also a Co-editor
in chief of the IJVNV.

Jian Pang received his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the University of
Oklahoma in 1996. He received his BS (1985) and MS (1991) in Mechanical
Engineering from Wuhan University of Technology and Shanghai Jiao Tong
University, respectively. He worked as a Senior Engineer in Ford Motor
Company in Michigan and a Technical Specialist in Stewart & Steven Service,
Inc., Texas. He joined Changan Automobile Company in Chongqing, China, in
2008 where he is presently a Vice President and Chief Engineer of the
Automobile Engineering Institute of this company. He has over 20 experience,
forty papers, and two books.

Gang Sheng is an Assistant Professor in the University of Alaska Fairbanks. He

has 19 years of working experiences in the area of vibration, noise, dynamics
and tribology. He holds five patents and has published over 100 technical
papers with 50 in journals and 50 in conferences. He is the author or co-author
of several books on vibrations, noise and dynamics. He is a Fellow of
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. He received both his BS and MS
from Shanghai Jiao-Tong University and his PhD from Singapore Nangyang
Technological University.

1 Introduction

Vehicles are mobile structures that move people and/or goods. Vehicles can be space
vehicles, airplanes, submarines, trains, road, off-road (including construction vehicles)
and others. The focus of this manuscript is on road or automotive vehicles.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 3

Modern engineering of automobiles focuses on vehicle attributes that potential buyers

look for when they make the decision of purchasing an automobile. Some of these
attributes are led in design by artists and designers (like vehicle styling) or by marketing
(like vehicle agility). Most of the vehicles attributes, however, are led in the design
process by engineers. Some of the main attributes consumers look for when they
purchase a vehicle are cost, reliability, durability, styling, safety, agility, performance,
fuel economy, noise, vibrations and handling. Customers prioritise the importance of
each of these attributes as they shop for a vehicle. Based on profile of the perspective
customers, original equipment manufacturers (OEM) rate these attributes and their
relevance in the design process. For the automobile customer, some of these attributes
(like cost and weight) can be assessed by reviewing data regarding the vehicle form
information sources (e.g. the manufacturer’s website), while other attributes (like styling)
are better assessed in a dealership visit.
Vehicle noise and vibration is one of the major attributes customers look for when
they purchase a vehicle. It is a measure of ride comfort and perceived quality and
reliability. Automotive noise and vibrations has received much attention by researchers,
particularly since the 1980s. One of the major professional societies (society of
automotive engineers or SAE) has been organising a biannual conference since the 1980s
with attendance of more than 1000 engineers and researchers and more than 200
manuscripts published and presentations made. In addition, this Journal (Int. J. Vehicle
Noise and Vibration) has been established since 2004 with more than 20 publications
each year.
This manuscript provides an overview of this attribute and the relevant research and
engineering issues that it deals with on a frequent basis. Automotive NVH is probably the
first attribute through which the customer has the opportunity to assess vehicle quality.
Afaneh et al. (2007) presented the engineering challenges with vehicle noise and
vibration in engineering product development Hauser and Clausing (1988) included
vehicle NVH in what they called the house of quality.
This manuscript presents an overview of different aspects of engineering automotive
NVH. It classifies the interior noise based mainly on the root cause of the NVH
phenomenon into powertrain-related NVH, road- and tyre-related NVH and wind-related
NVH. In addition, the paper covers brake and chassis-related NVH, squeak and rattle,
and electromechanical-related NVH.
Interior sound assessment has been the focus of much research. In a more recent
literature, Avitabile et al. (2004) studied the reallocation of system mass and stiffness for
achieving target specifications. They used a superelement/substructuring methodology in
another study (Avitabile et al., 2005), Lee (2006a) described a multivariate statistical
analyses of idle noise and vehicle positioning. Lee (2006b) studied the characterisation of
multiple interior noise metrics and translation of the voice of the customer in another
study. Dai and Cao (2007) looked at a numerical structural-acoustic approach to analysis
of interior booming noise and noise reduction in an all-terrain tractor cabin. Antelis and
Huertas (2006) investigated using neural networks to identify annoying noises in
vehicles. Huertas and Antelis (2006) characterised of adaptive filters used in the
identification process of annoying noises in vehicles. Shouyuan et al. (2008) identified
noise modes for automobiles using operational modal analysis. In order to obtain better
modelling of interior vibrations, Pang et al. (2004) developed a nonlinear automotive seat
cushion structure model and another nonlinear seat cushion and human body model (Pang
et al., 2005). Perception of interior NVH quality is better analysed when divided into
4 M.S. Qatu et al.

expected NVH events and unexpected NVH events as will be elaborated in later parts of
this paper. Advanced on sound quality will be discussed in the next section. In addition,
the paper addresses exterior NVH, frequently described as drive-by NVH.
It should be stated here that this paper is not meant to be a comprehensive review
of the subject as that is outside the scope of this effort. Instead, it is highlighting areas of
on-going research in the field and point to significant recent publications in this area.

2 Sound quality

Sound quality is the science and engineering of sounds that impact the appeal to the
driver of the vehicle. This will be looked at from the automotive engineering perspective.
The study of sound quality goes deeper than overall noise level to study the content of the
sound and distinguish the sounds that are desirable by the customer.
Although sound quality is most often related to powertrain-related NVH, sound
quality actually covers all possible sounds inside the vehicles or outside the vehicle. The
quality of sounds related to door closure, sounds of motors used in power windows and
power seats and others have been the subject of interesting research.
A certain level of noise and/or vibration while the vehicle is idling may be needed to
assure the driver that the vehicle is still running (i.e. the engine did not stall). Also,
particular sound tones may be needed to create the image desired for the vehicle. These
may include sporty, luxurious, responsive and others (e.g. Genuit, 2004; Genuit and
Fiebig, 2007). Ljungberg (2007) studied cognitive degradation after exposure to
combined noise and whole-body vibration in a simulated vehicle ride. Parizet et al.
(2007) focused on vibro-acoustical comfort in cars at idle and the human perception of
simulated sounds and vibrations from 3- and 4-cylinder diesel engines. Other studies
(Amman et al., 2007) researched noise and vibration perceptual contributions during
vehicle transient and steady-state road inputs. Interestingly, Genell and Vastfjall (2007)
found that vibrations can have both negative and positive effects on the perception of
sound. Mansfield et al. (2007) studied changes in subjective ratings of impulsive steering
wheel vibration due to changes in noise level. Effect of automobile operating condition
on the subjective equivalence of steering wheel vibration and sound was studied by
Ajovalasit and Giacomin (2007).

3 Powertrain-related NVH

The powertrain consists of the power source and the rotating components of a typical
vehicle. Figure 1 shows the main components of a typical; rear-wheel drive (RWD)
vehicle. These components contribute the overall NVH rating of a vehicle as will be
discussed later.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 5

Figure 1 Typical components of a RWD powertrain (see online version for colours)

3.1 Usual powertrain NVH phenomenon

Usual NVH is that class of NVH that is expected by the driver at a normal level. The
level and/or quality of the NVH may need to be controlled to reflect good customer
perceptions and satisfy his/her wants and needs. This constitutes most of the NVH-related
issues in a typical vehicle. The NVH of the vehicle powertrain is noticed in almost all
driving conditions. Powertrain-related NVH is probably the phenomenon receiving most
attention by researchers. Wang and Ren (2007) discussed vehicle powertrain noise
refinement using the Taguchi method. Calvo et al. (2005) researched controlling
combustion noise in diesel engines.
Yu and Yang (2005) investigated vibration diagnosis of main journal bearings for
diesel engines. Zhang et al. (2006a, 2006b) reported on the dynamic characteristics of the
cylinder block. Ebrahimi et al. (2006) presented research on optimum crankshaft damper
selection. Liang and Shu (2008) investigated the axial vibration of high-speed vehicle
engine crankshaft based on Rayleigh differential method.
Engine isolation through proper mount design has received considerable attention as
well. Vahid et al. (2007) worked on in situ identification of vehicle engine inertia
properties. This is important for the engine mount design (location and stiffness) and
engine isolation studies. Madjlesi et al. (2005) performed optimisation of engine
mounting systems using experimental frequency response functions vehicle model.
Wu et al. (2005) studied vibration isolation for engine mount systems using an active
hybrid robust controller. Qatu and Sirafi (2002) studied the robustness of powertrain
mount system for NVH at idle condition. They presented accurate modelling for the
powertrain and sub-frame modes (Qatu and Sirafi, 2003). Sirafi et al. (2006a,b) studied
robustness of mount systems for idle NVH using both centre of gravity (CG) and
pendulum mounts. Asiri (2007) researched vibration attenuation of automotive vehicle
engine using periodic mounts. Darsivan et al. (2008) studied active engine mounting
6 M.S. Qatu et al.

control using extended minimal resource allocating networks. Dynamic characteristic

simulation of hydraulically damped rubber mount based on finite element parameter
estimation for vehicle powertrain is taken up by Wang et al. (2008).
There are possibly tens of distinctly different noises in a typical road vehicle. Some of
these noises are expected by the customer and considered as part of the normal operation
of the vehicle. In fact, they may also be wanted by the customer. The conditions for usual
(i.e. expected) powertrain related NVH are
1 Idle conditions: The vehicle can be put in idle condition while jammed in traffic or
waiting for a fast food or a bank transaction in a service lane or other conditions.
During the idle condition, the vehicle can be idled with and without electric loads
(stereo, lights, …), with and without operating the air conditioning system, with
brakes on and off and finally with the gear in drive (automatic transmission) or in
neutral (manual transmission). All these conditions and their combinations must be
evaluated to have a comprehensive NVH assessment of the vehicle at idle.
2 Partial throttle condition: The vehicle is accelerated with the throttle partially
opened. The acceleration is relatively small and the vehicle spends enough time at
a particular speed to bring out all related noises and vibrations like resonance.
3 Wide Open Throttle: The vehicle is accelerated at maximum possible accelerations.
In this condition, combustion noise is brought up to maximum levels and many of
the resonances will be surpassed or masked.
Although this condition is only experienced in limited experiences by drivers, it leaves a
lasting impression about the vehicle, its performance, power and other attributes. That is
probably why there is a significant emphasis on this condition. Figure 2 shows the best
and worst NVH performance of the four major classes of road vehicles (cars, sport utility
vehicles or SUVs, pick-up truck and minivans). This information is based on many
vehicles tested in each segment. It can be used for target setting. It is not comprehensive
of all vehicles in each segment. Cross-over utility vehicles are not included.
4 Cruising condition: This relate to the vehicle driving at a certain constant speed
(usually low for powertrain noise to be dominant). Powertrain NVH is mixed with
that of the road and wind under this condition. Powertrain noises remain dominant at
lower speeds, but tend to have less contribution at higher speeds.
5 Coast down noise: This is done by letting the vehicle reduce its speed either by
friction or by light braking. This usually exposes transmission and other rotating
component mechanical noises like driveline, axles, transfer case, shafts and others.
6 Special testing conditions: These are used to bring out certain possible powertrain
NVH phenomena. There are tens of these tests that have been designed to bring
noises related to specific hardware including transmission, powersteering, air
conditioning compressor, and others. Coast down cruising or deceleration (to bring
out the transmission noise) and parking maneuvers (to bring out the powersteering
noise) are some of these tests.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 7

Figure 2a Interior noise (dB(A)) as a function of engine speeds (rpm) or various classes of
vehicles under WOT condition (see online version for colours)

Figure 2b Interior noise (dB(A)) as a function of engine speeds (rpm) or various classes of
vehicles under WOT Condition (see online version for colours)

The NVH perception is distinguished by the fact that it is sensed by human senses. While
much of the noise and vibration result from periodic (or semi periodic) motion of
surfaces, other noise and vibration result from a transient phenomenon which decays with
time. This vibration energy (form of elastic energy) is ‘born’ at a certain component
and/or location. In most cases, the ‘birth’ of the vibration or noise (i.e. sound) energy
happens at a solid component for which natural frequencies are much higher than the
8 M.S. Qatu et al.

NVH frequency of concern. This could be a rotating component like the crank shaft of
the engine, the vanes in a pump, the magnets/brush in an electric motor or a stationary
component like the vehicle mirrors for wind noise. Such energy can migrate to the driver
through air, structure or fluid. If the energy is transformed from the source through the
structure to the customer as vibrations and it manifests itself potentially as noise sensed
by the driver’s ears, it is referred to structure-borne noise (SBN). If the energy path from
the source was a fluid, where the noise was or had become pulsation in the fluid, the
noise is then referred to as fluid-borne noise (FBN). Also, if the noise is directly borne as
air pressure pulsations at the source, then it is referred to as air-borne noise (ABN).
To distinguish these three types of noises, one needs to think of any component
and/or subsystem as a ‘black box’, that emits energy in a periodic (or semi periodic)
fashion to its surroundings. If it emits this energy as pulsation in fluids (like pumps), the
noise perceived at the customer is FBN, if it emits this energy as vibration traveling
through solid connections like brackets, the noise is referred to as SBN, and finally if it
emits this energy as pulsation in the surrounding air, the noise is ABN.
Overall interior usual powertrain noise comes from contribution of the powerplant
unit (engine and transmission), exhaust tailpipe and induction inlet. The noise
contributions from the powerplant unit can be either air borne or structure borne. Figure 3
below shows the overall interior sound level under a wide open throttle condition for a
typical 3.5 L, V6, 200 horsepower vehicle. Figure 4 shows the overall interior sound level
under a wide open throttle condition for a 2.5 L, I4, 150 horsepower vehicle. Note here
the SBN contribution to the overall NVH. Figure 5 shows the overall interior sound level
under a wide open throttle condition for a 3.0 L, V6, 250 horsepower vehicle with a
diesel engine. Note here the higher levels of noise at lower engine speeds. In these
figures, the x-axis is the engine speed and the y-axis is the sound or vibration level.

Figure 3 Interior noise (dB(A)) contribution vs. engine speed (rpm) for a typical V6 gasoline
vehicle under WOT conditions (see online version for colours)
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 9

Figure 4 Interior noise (dB(A)) contribution vs. engine speed (rpm) for a typical I4 gasoline
vehicle under WOT conditions (see online version for colours)

Figure 5 Interior noise (dB(A)) contribution vs. engine speed (rpm) for a typical V6 diesel
vehicle under WOT conditions (see online version for colours)
10 M.S. Qatu et al.

As shown from Figures 4 and 5, there are four main contributors to interior noise:
1 Overall radiated noise from the engine. This is mainly a function of several engine
parameters and the acoustic package around the engine and transmission
(powerplant). Among the key engine and transmission parameters are
a basic engine design parameters (in line vs. V, bore, stroke, displacement, etc.)
b engine torque and power
c presence of pressurised systems (e.g. turbo)
d ignition type (spark for gasoline, compressed for diesel)
d characteristics of the acoustic package
2 SBNs. These are waves produced by the engine and transmitted to the vehicle
interior through engine mounts. The key design parameters to control these are
a roll angle for the engine
b presence of balance shaft
c location, type and size of the engine mounts
3 Air induction inlet noise. The main contributors to this noise are
a engine characteristics
b intake inlet and piping diameters
c air box volume and presence of resonators
d inlet location and shape
4 Exhaust system noises. While there are some SBNs coming from the exhaust
hangers, the main contributor to the interior usual sound is the exhaust outlet. This is
a factor of
a size and type of the muffler
b diameters and overall design of the exhaust piping system
c muffler attenuation
The impact of exhaust and induction volume for a basic V6 engine system is given in
Table 1. The characteristics of the engine used are described in the table. It should be
noted here that the reported noises here are the contributions of each of the components
to interior noise and not the overall interior noise. Studies similar to this should be made
early on in the design process to determine the volumes needed to secure competitive
noise characteristics. Often, package constraints limit the size of both induction and
exhaust systems.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 11

Table 1 Impact of induction and exhaust volume on interior noises (sound levels reported
in dB(A))

Engine Displacment 3.5 L Cyl. Config: V

Peak Horsepower 200 HP # Cyl: 6
Peak Torque 251 Ft Lb Bank Angle 60 deg
Bore 92.5 mm Valves/Cyl. 3 or more
Stroke 87 mm Ignition Spark
Acoustic package Hood and engine side
Intake Exhaust
RPM 10 L Volume 12 L Volume 20 L Volume 27 L Volume
1000 37.4 35.2 46.8 43.6
1500 45.3 43.0 52.8 49.6
2000 50.9 48.5 57.1 53.9
2500 55.1 52.8 60.3 57.1
3000 58.5 56.1 62.8 59.6
3500 61.2 58.8 64.8 61.6
4000 63.4 61.0 66.4 63.2
4500 65.7 63.3 68.1 65.0
5000 67.8 65.3 69.6 66.5
5500 69.5 67.1 70.9 67.8
6000 71.1 68.6 72.1 68.9

3.2 Unusual powertrain NVH phenomenon

Unusual NVH is probably the most annoying to the customer. Although unusual
vibration annoys the customer but it happens less frequently than annoying noises.
Drivers name these unexpected noises based on their feeling. They assign names like
whine, moan, boom and similar names to these unusual noises. Engineers associate these
noises with specific hardware that relate to specific noises based on testing, root-cause
analysis and other techniques. Many of these noises are listed in the literature and
research has been done on their control. Among these are
1 Engine noises: Engine is the source of the basic motion of the vehicles. It is there
where the chemical energy is transformed into mechanical energy. Engine can be the
source of several unwanted noises. This can be due to misfiring, poor ignition and
other issues related to the combustion process. In addition, unwanted engine noises
can be due to resonances of any of the many components in the engine. Order-related
noises can be due to the imbalance of the crank shaft or faulty bearings.
Among the most occurring and probably most annoying engine noise is engine tick.
Engine tick is a transient phenomenon and is difficult to relate to specific frequency.
Research has been done on developing an engine tick metric that correlates with drivers’
annoyance levels. In addition, research has been done on the root causes of the engine
tick phenomenon and its control. Engine tick is particularly noticeable at idle condition. It
is also more present in diesel engines. The root cause of the phenomenon can be injector
12 M.S. Qatu et al.

event excitation, fuel pulse generated by the high pressure pump, fuel pump radiated
noise, mechanical excitation of the pump, sensitivity (structural amplification and modal
alignment), fuel rail fluid resonance (pulse magnification), fuel rail structural resonance
(pulse excited) or structural excitation of engine components (cylinder head, intake
manifold, engine covers, oil pan). Several counter-measures can be implemented. French
et al. (2004) reported on a method for reducing noise from gasoline engine injectors.
Engine knock is another unusual engine NVH phenomenon. It is detrimental to engine
durability. It is known to be a function of the compression ratio and engine speed. It can
be controlled through spark timing and retardation.
Piston slap is another unwanted noise. Siavoshani (2006) worked on analytical
modelling of the piston slap in conjunction with engine block vibration. Chain noise can
also be another source of unwanted engine noises. Calvo et al. (2006b) researched
controlling timing chain noise in diesel engines. Pressurised systems like turbocharged
engines can also cause a significant number of unwanted engine noises.
If the engine has a turbo system, various noises may appear (in addition to the overall
increase on the usual noises. Turbo whine (due to turbo blade passing) is an air-borne,
high frequency (narrow band or tonal). This noise is radiated normally from the induction
orifice. Turbo moan is a structure borne (bracket resonances). In this case, the brackets
need to be optimised for frequency. Turbo sigh is another noise that may come from
exhaust and intake. It is an air-borne (broad band) noise. Its root cause is high mean mass
flow. Calvo et al. (2006a) researched controlling turbocharger whistling in diesel
engines.
2 Engine accessories noises: Front-end accessory drive systems (FEAD) consist of
several components in a typical vehicle run by a belt or a system of belts. These
components are the alternator, the powersteering pump, the air conditioning (AC)
compressor, idler pulleys and possibly other components. The mechanism of
powersteering pumps and AC systems is changing. There is a direction towards
having more electrical systems that are more fuel efficient. Noises in a FEAD system
can be caused by any of the components. It can also be due to system interactions.
Among the annoying noises is powersteering moan. This is a medium frequency noise
(100–600 Hz) where the fluid pulse that originates at the powersteering pump (due to
vane passing) transfers through the fluid lines to the steering gear. It will then manifest
itself as an unusual noise at the driver’s level. Control of this noise is usually done
through control of the pulse in the fluid lines. Another typical powersteering noise is
whine. This is usually in the 1500–2000 Hz frequency range. It is mostly due to the pulse
occurring at the same natural frequency of the pump pulley, housing or bracket. Rohilla
and Qatu (2003) presented finite element vibration studies of as-installed power steering
pumps. Qatu and Dougherty (1999a,b) discussed the repeatability of impedance and
ripple tests for automotive pumps and presented measurement of fluid bulk modulus
using impedance of hydraulic circuits. The pump valves may also cause a powersteering
hiss noise.
The belt system can cause several annoying noises. These include belt squeal and/or
chirp. Belt squeal is due to the slippage of the belt over the pulley either due to high
speed changes or high torque or inertia requirements of and of the systems. Belt chirp is
mostly due to misalignments between the different pulleys that make the FEAD system.
In addition, the alternator can cause significant noises and annoyances to the customer.
These include alternator whine, moan and others (Kumar et al., 1999).
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 13

The AC compressor can also generate several unwanted noises. AC moan has been
reported in the literature.
Qie et al. (2008) discussed the vibrations and instability of front-end accessory drive
belt system. Sheng et al. (2004, 2006a) presented a model and delivered an experimental
investigation of belt noise in automotive accessory belt drive system and presented a new
mechanism of belt slip dynamic instability and noise in automotive accessory belt drive
systems. Sheng et al. (2006b) also researched wet belt friction-induced dynamic
instability and noise in automotive belt drives, Chirp, squeal and dynamic instability of
misaligned V-ribbed belts in automotive accessory belt drive systems are discussed by
Sheng et al. (2007). Friction-induced noise of timing belt is modelled in another
investigation (Sheng et al., 2008). Fedala et al. (2007) modelled the broadband noise
radiated by an airfoil application. Other studies include that of Sorli et al. (2006). Huang
(2005) studied cooling fan noises and optimised the natural frequencies of a fan shroud in
a powertrain cooling system with modal iteration method. Note here that the cooling fan
can be mounted on the engine (as in larger engines) or operated by a motor.
3 Transmission noises: Transmission controls the torque–speed relationship for the
powertrain. It consists of various gearing structures, shafts and bearings. Helical
gears are used for manual transmission and planetary gears are used for automatic
transmission.
Transmission whine is probably the most occurring transmission related noise problem.
Transmission whine is a high-frequency problem (2–15 kHz). This is due to the number
of teeth in the transmission and having possible high-frequency excitation to the case of
the transmission or some adjacent structure. As torque transmitted through these teeth,
they will deform leading to variation between the profile kinematics requires and actual
profile due to deformation. This is referred to as transmission error (TE) and is known to
be the root cause of many transmission noises. Transmission whine occurs (and is
probably expected) for most vehicles when they are in reverse. Low gear whine in partial
throttle conditions occurs frequently and is annoying to the drivers. In addition, slowing
the vehicle by only friction (no gas or brake) will expose the transmission whine
problem.
Transmission NVH can be due tooth impacts (engagement and separation), mesh
stiffness variation (contact ratio > 2), TE due to design, manufacturing and durability. It
can also be due to change of mesh force direction, friction, air and lubricant entrapment,
gear tooth geometry and gear train dynamics.
4 Driveline noises: The drive line is the mechanism that transfers both motion and
torque to the wheels. The driveline consists of the drive shaft, half shafts, mounted
gear systems, bearings and brackets in addition to other components. Mounted
gears are
a Rear axles in rear wheel drive vehicles (typically with north-south engine
configurations) or in all-wheel drive versions (AWD) of originally front wheel
drive vehicles (FWD).
b Transfer case. The transfer case is a mechanism that exists in the AWD version
of RWD vehicles. It consists of gears and a chain system.
c The power take-off unit. This is a bevel gear that exists in AWD versions of a
FWD vehicle. It is close to the transmission.
14 M.S. Qatu et al.

Several noises can originate in the driveline. These include the gear whine which is
referred to as axle whine (when it originates at the rear axle). Axle whine occurs when the
forcing functions due to TE resonates with any of the natural frequencies (driveline shell
modes, axle case). In addition, the chain in the transfer case can originate chain noise.
Torsional vibration in the driveline system can cause unusual and unwanted rattle noise.
The clearance in the gear systems between the teeth in idle condition becomes the
amplitude for such vibrations.
One of the most problematic issues with driveline systems is the critical speed of the
shaft. If the shafts are driven at their bending frequency, resonance will occur leading
shaft failure and possible separation from the vehicle. This can cause rollover and safety
concern. Thus shafts are designed such that their first bending frequency is at least 20%
higher than the maximum speed.
Another phenomenon that is frequently occurring is powertrain bending. This is
fundamentally driven by the shaft bending. It is known to cause vibration fatigue concern
in the powertrain system. It will lead to durability concerns and higher warranty cost.
Powertrain bending is required to exceed the firing frequency by some margin to avoid
durability problems. Iqbal et al. (2005) worked on improving powerplant and powertrain
bending in east-west engine configurations. Iqbal et al. (2008) studied the optimisation of
frequencies of a two-span shaft system joined with a hinge. The mass of the hinge is
included in the model.
There are other problems that can be caused by the driveline system. These include
driveline boom and driveline shudder. Table 2 summarises the driveline related NVH
phenomenon in a typical application
Qatu et al. (2008) presented exact solution for finding the frequencies of a two-span
shaft system joined with a hinge. Qatu and Iqbal (2009) performed a vibration analysis of
a composite shaft. Iqbal and Qatu (2009) presented exact solution to the vibration of
three-piece shaft system. In another study, Iqbal and Qatu (2003) studied the robustness
of axle mount system for driveline.
Wu and Lin (2006) performed an experimental investigation of active vibration
control for gear set shaft. Zeitlin and Legler (2006) developed a new method of
monitoring transmission accuracy in automotive gear mechanisms. Radzevich (2006)
presented technological methods for noise/vibration reduction in driveline/transmission
of trucks and all-wheel-drive vehicles. Rajapakse and Happawana (2006) performed
non-linear analysis of an AWD vehicle seat due to driveline vibration for driver comfort.
Alnefaie (2007) discussed the effect of servomotor control parameters on the dynamic
behaviour of a coupled elastic shaft-elastic beam system in various applications.
Table 2 Summary of the driveline NVH issues, their frequency ranges and possible root cause

NVH Phenomena Range of Frequency Root Cause

boom 30-80 Hz Imbalance
Roughness/vibration 20-80 Hz Imbalance
Moan 80-300 Hz Imbalance / D/L Angles
whine 300- 2000 Hz Gear meshing force
Take-off shudder 10-30 Hz Susp/Axle wind-up / Excessive D/L Angle
Clunk Broad Band Vibro-impact
FWD idle shake 20-40 Hz idle firing order Engine firing
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 15

5 Exhaust noises: The exhaust system is the system where the combusted air
(including pollutants, referred to as NOx) is to leave the vehicle. It consists of the
exhaust manifold where the temperature is very high, the catalytic converter (to burn
toxic fuels), piping, muffler and resonators.
Tail pipe noise is one of the main contributors to interior noise. It is sometimes required
to drive the sound quality of the vehicle. However, the exhaust system can be the source
of other unwanted noises. These include order related noises that can be damaging to the
sound quality metrics of the vehicle and/or exterior noise requirements. Control of the tail
pipe noise is known to be directly related to the muffler volume, the architecture of the
exhaust system (equal pipe vs. unequal pipe for V6 and V8 engines), internal muffler
design and the energy losses. Engineers can typically control the noise levels with limited
volumes of the muffler but sacrifices are made in the restriction needed for the flow and
the higher power loss obtained as a result. It remains a significant challenge to have the
needed noise control with the specific volume constrains and least power losses. In
addition, tail pipe noise can also include rush noise which has negative impact to sound
quality. Natural frequencies of the exhaust structure can be overall bending and shell
modes. These can also cause other vibrations and noises.
Wu and Lee (2005) studied the application of H-infinity hybrid active controller for
acoustic duct noise cancellation. Selamet et al. (2005) researched dissipative expansion
chambers with two concentric layers of fibrous material. Selamet et al. (2006) studied the
effect of voids on the acoustics of perforated dissipative silencers.
Pang et al. (2003) performed an attribute analysis and criteria for automotive exhaust
showing the importance of NVH. In another study, Pang et al. (2003b) studied the
influence of vehicle exhaust y-pipe on tailpipe noise. Pang and Qatu (2003), studied the
exhaust system robustness analysis due to flex de-coupler stiffness variation. In addition,
Pang et al. (2005) performed flow excited noise analysis of exhaust.
6 Induction system noises: The induction system is the system that brings clean,
filtered air to the engine. It consists of various piping, an air box, and the intake
manifold to distribute air to the various combustion chambers.
The induction system (including the intake manifold) is another source of wanted and
unwanted noises. Wanted noises are typically engine order related noises and can be a
contributor to sound quality. Unwanted noises can be detrimental to sound quality. These
noises are controlled by resonators along the air flow. A typical induction system can
have at least one resonator and possibly a handful of them. The diameter of the pipe,
characteristics of the air-filter box and the intake manifold design are key design
parameters to control the intake noise. Air Whistle can also be due to the induction
system.
Siavoshani and Converse (2006) developed a methodology to determine component
shell noise targets of vehicle induction systems.

4 Road and tyre-related NVH

Road-related noises may constitute the dominating NVH source in various low to mid
speed ranges, particularly on rough roads and under cruising or partial throttle conditions.
Of particular interest is the level of NVH at various speeds on various types of roads.
16 M.S. Qatu et al.

Vehicles are tested on smooth and coarse roads and at speeds ranging from 40 to 90
km/hour (in 15 km/hour or similar segments).
Road and tyre NVH received considerable attention by researchers in many fields
including city planners. This is mainly due to the contribution of traffic noise to the
general noise pollution phenomenon many communities are suffering from.
Generally speaking, road and tyre NVH is an expected or usual NVH phenomenon.
As is the case for expected powertrain-related NVH, the level and quality of the sensed
noise and/or vibration is of concern in design. Sandberg (2001) addressed many issues on
tyre and road related NVH. He pointed out that road and tyre NVH has always been a
concern (and reported as an issue as early as 1955). He also found that the range speed on
noise concern actually starts at lower speeds than commonly perceived. His concern was
that OEMs can actually do significantly more to reduce this important NVH concern than
is being done.
Attention to traffic noise received considerable attention including medical
researcher. It has a significant impact on human health. Babisch et al. (2008) discussed
the associations between road traffic noise level, road traffic noise annoyance and high
blood pressure. Babisch and Kim (2008) researched the burden of cardiovascular diseases
due to road traffic noise. van Kempen et al. (2009) discussed children’s annoyance
reactions to aircraft and road traffic noise. Clark et al. (2006) investigated exposure effect
relations between aircraft and road traffic noise. Bluhm et al. (2007) looked at road traffic
noise and hypertension.
In addition, noise emotion for a tyre road interaction received considerable attention
(Kropp, 1992). Sandberg and Descornet (1980) and Sandberg (1980) investigated road
surface influence on tyre/road noise. Sandberg (1999) reviewed low noise surfaces.
Domenichini (1999) developed relationship between road surface characteristics and
noise. von Meier (1992) studied the influence of texture and sound absorption on the
noise of porous road surfaces. Bennerhult (1979) discussed the acoustical and mechanical
impedances of road surfaces and the influence on tyre noise. Sandberg (1987) studied
road traffic noise and emphasised the influence of the road surface and its
characterisation. Huschek (1996) described the characterisation of pavement surface
texture and its influence on tyre/road noise. Clapp (1984) described the spectral
correlation of the surface profile in the development of a tyre and pavement interaction
force model. Gelosa and Cervi (1999) developed a predictive model of noise due to tyre
structural vibrations.
Sakata et al. (1990) addressed the effects of tyre cavity resonance on vehicle road
noise. Chang (2006) studied the tyre vertical transmissibility transient response.
Significantly more research is available in the literature than is being reported here.

4.1 Road NVH and Interaction with powertrain NVH

In low-to-medium speed ranges, powertrain and road are the main sources of interior
noise. Both road and powertrain NVH are strongly related to vehicle speed. Powertrain
NVH depends, in addition to the vehicle speed, on the gear selection. It is recognised that
at lower speeds, powertrain noise contributions are higher than those of the tyre and road
are higher. Thus, there is a speed value at which contributions are the same. This value
used to be (20 or 30 years ago) in the 40–50 km/hour range for cars and 60–70 km/hour
for trucks. Since then, however, major refinement took place with powertrain noise
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 17

reduction that was not paralleled with similar refinement for road NVH (Sandberg, 2001).
This value is lower in today’s vehicles.
Figure 6 shows cruise-by noise of a typical new vehicle cruising at various speeds
(limited throttle condition). It is noticed that gear selection contributes to the interior
noise are significant in lower speeds. Figure 7 shows a comparison between drive-by
(acceleration, wide open throttle condition), cruise-by (limited throttle) and coast-by
(no throttle) conditions. Note that the coast-by condition is dominated by tyre/road noise.
A comparison between the two figures tells us that at lower speeds, powertrain noise
contributions to the total vehicles speed is significant. At higher speeds, gear selection
has little impact on total noise and vibration. This tells us that the noise there is due to
road and tyre (and possibly wind).

Figure 6 Noise (dB(A)) vs. speed (km hr1) of a typical vehicle cruising at various speeds in
various gears (see online version for colours)
18 M.S. Qatu et al.

Figure 7 Noise (db(A)) vs. speed (km hr1) of a typical vehicle in various driving conditions
(see online version for colours)

5 Wind-related NVH

Noise and vibration issues related to wind are normally experienced at vehicle high
speed. Several vehicle level tests can be made to assess wind noise. These tests need to be
performed at high speeds (90 km/hour and higher) where the wind is the dominant source
of noise. To isolate wind noise from other noises, a wind tunnel test is needed. Other tests
can be performed for wind noise assessment. These include special air leakage tests.
They are developed to isolate wind noise coming from the turbulent air around the
vehicle from that entering the vehicle through certain ‘leaks’, Using computational fluid
dynamics to assess wind noise has shown to be an interesting area of research.
It is noted that at idle both road and wind noises do not exist and only powertrain
NVH is dominant. As the vehicle accelerates, road NVH picks up at a higher pace than
that of the powertrain and may indeed, particularly on rough roads, exceed the powertrain
NVH and become the dominant source of NVH in the mid-speed ranges. At higher
speeds, wind noise can become the dominant source of noise as shown in Figure 8.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 19

Figure 8 Various noise contributions at various speeds (see online version for colours)

Wind-related noise in particular, is related to many other attributes. These include styling,
vehicle performance and vehicle fuel economy. It has become one of the corners of
research.
Yamazaki and Takaishi (2007) discussed wind tunnel tests on reduction of
aeroacoustic noise from car gaps and Bogie sections. Hoshino and Kato (2002) described
a new objective evaluation method of wind noise in a car based on human hearing
properties. Tanimoto (2002) presented a study on reduction of low speed booming noise
in a one-box-car. Hoshino and Katoh (1999) evaluated wind noise in passenger car
compartment in consideration of auditory masking and sound localisation. Hoshino and
Kato (2000) studied wind noise in a car based on a model of subjective evaluation.
Nam et al. (2002) researched visualisation of speaker, vortex shedding, engine and wind
noise of a car by partial field decomposition. Mercker and Pengel (1994) worked on
the induced noise of test sections in different wind tunnels and in the cabin of a
passenger car.
20 M.S. Qatu et al.

Dobrzynski and Soja (1994) studied the effect of different A-post configurations on
passenger car wind noise sources. Zhu et al. (1994) presented a numerical study on the
mechanism of wind noise generation about a car-like body. Chen et al. (2009) studied
wind noise measurements for automotive mirrors. Peng (2007) studied statistical energy
analysis (SEA) modelling of vehicle wind noise and load case representation. Walker and
Wei (2007) performed optimisation of mirror angle for front window buffeting and wind
noise using experimental methods. Jeong et al. (2007) studied the parameter of roof rack
and cross bar for the reduction of wind noise. Iacovoni (2003) optimised wind noise and
drag for sail-mounted exterior mirrors. Dejong (2003) studied the validation of sea wind
noise.

6 Other unusual (unwanted) noises

There are many other unexpected NVH phenomena and listing all of them is beyond the
scope of this work. Instead, the major unexpected NVH phenomenon that has received
considerable research recently are described.

6.1 Squeak and rattle

The squeak and rattle phenomenon is mainly due to friction/sliding (squeak) and
rattle/impact induced noises. These noises represent a significant concern for the
automotive industry because they affect both the consumer’s quality perception and
warranty expense. To address the issue, automotive engineers judiciously select mating
material pairs in an effort to avoid unexpected objectionable noises. Unfortunately,
sounds induced during sliding tests and impact rattles are typically of sufficiently low
intensity that both can be masked by background noise. This makes it difficult to
objectively evaluate material pairs and to reliably predict their acoustic performance in a
real car using simple bench tests.
An evaluation of various materials ((polyvinyl chloride or interior grade vinyl), door
trim panel covering, polypropylene (PP), nylon 66 (PA66), aluminium (Al), magnesium
(Mg), brass and steel) used in the automotive sector has been performed (Trapp et al.,
2007; Trapp and Hodgdon, 2008). Experimental tools that are used to identify such
noises include frictional sliding and impact testers with noise measurement capability.

6.2 Brake noises and judder

Judder is the perception of driver of excessive vibration in the steering system or
automobile chassis as brake is applied. Several mechanisms have been identified for
judder vibration. A new automobile that sat at the dealership for several months before
selling might develop corrosion around the brake pad. A sensitive vehicle might transfer
the few microns of rust to perceptible judder. If the pad does not clean this rust within
few brake applies, the customer may conclude that something is wrong with the vehicle
and return it to the dealership causing expensive warrant claim. This judder generation
mechanism is called corrosion judder.
Judder (cold judder) also may arise as brake rotor wears unevenly of extended usage.
Few microns of rotor uneven wear may result in enough brake torque oscillations that if
amplified through the vehicle steering or chassis systems causes the perception of judder
for the driver. Judder mechanisms associated with water wear appear in engineering
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 21

analysis in the form of vibration at frequencies related to wheel rotational speed

(frequency orders).
Judder (hot judder) may also arise if heated brake rotor in a high energy absorption
condition does not deform uniformly. Conditions of high energy non-uniform
deformation feeding back on itself in an unstable manner leading to even permanent rotor
unevenness may deem the phenomenon repeatable and lead to driver complaint. The
spectral signature of this mechanism of judder (hot judder) is also a speed order type but
at higher orders than cold judder.
Low-frequency brake noises are noises below 1 kHz. Judder (hot judder) may exceed
the threshold of hearing and result s booming noise inside the automobile.
Low-frequency groan noise is usually associated with excessive stick slip excitation
between pad and rotor. Perception of creep groan is not comparable with a single tone at
the same sound level. Annoyance of creep groan noise is more than that of a tonal noise
at the same sound pressure level. Creep groan, similar to other low-frequency noise
sources, is influenced with the whole automobile chassis design as well as interior
insulation level.
Low-frequency moan and howl are other noises that automobile customers may
encounter. Brake design, including friction material characteristics, interact with brake
structural mounting characteristics in the vehicle and produce modulated tonal frequency.
Brake noise most frequent complaint is usually brake squeal. Low-frequency squeal is
the category of squeal occurring at frequency lower than the most ear sensitive frequency
(nominally taken as 4 kHz) while high-frequency squeal is a squeal at frequency higher
than the 4 kHz. Low-frequency squeal is usually assumed to be a manifestation of brake
dynamic instability induced by friction forces between pad and rotor. Having rotor out of
plane mode in the low-frequency squeal band close to other components such as anchor
bracket, brake housing, or even knuckle or axle where the brake is mounted all contribute
to the dynamic instability.
High-frequency squeal is the class of squeal with frequency over the 4 kHz and is still
characterised as tonal frequency. High-frequency squeal is the most common between
brake noises, especially when OEM pads are replaced by aftermarket pads. The
mechanism responsible for high-frequency squeal is also thought to be friction induced
dynamic instability.
Noise and vibration associated with brake application is a high warranty item as it
raises doubts in the mind of the driver about the ability of the braking system to brake
correctly in emergencies. Ouyang et al. (2005) reviewed numerical analyses of
automotive disc brake squeal. Dante and Navire (2005) studied cold wear of brake disc
related to brake induced vibrations. VanderLugt et al. (2006) showed experimental
observations of coupled-mode instability in disc brake systems leading to squeal
vibration. AbuBakar and Ouyang (2006) performed complex eigenvalue analysis and
dynamic transient analysis in predicting disc brake squeal.

6.3 Steering and suspension noises

Qatu et al. (2001) presented an experiment for measurement of steering gear impedance.
Qatu and Edwards (2000) performed correlation of hydraulic circuit dynamic simulation
and vehicle. Qatu et al. (1999) studied the effects of tuner parameters on hydraulic noise
and vibration.
22 M.S. Qatu et al.

Black and Rao (2004) performed evaluation and reduction of steering column
vibration of a rear wheel drive sedan. Zheng and Baz (2007) studied the control of
vehicle suspension using a non-linear energy sink controller. Wang et al. (2007)
presented experimental investigation of power-assisted steering pump noise for housing
material change from cast iron to aluminium. Sacramento and Biera (2007) presented a
simulation tool for shock absorber noise prediction in time and frequency domains. Ihsan
et al. (2007) studied the dynamics and control policies analysis of semi-active suspension
systems using a full-car model. Ding et al. (2008) discussed acoustic optimisation design
for suspension characteristics based on the method of dynamic subsystem modification.

7 Drive-by or pass-by noise

In addition to the above in-vehicle assessments, similar assessment can be made for
drive-by noises generated by the vehicle. There are strict urban and environmental
policies for the noise levels emitted by a passing vehicle.
Noise is now recognised to be as much an environmental nuisance as other pollutants.
Environmental factors were considered formally in the early 1960s. Over the past three
decades road transport per head of population has risen dramatically. This resulted in a
dramatic rise in exhaust gas pollution and noise pollution. Legislation now controls both
exhaust gas content and vehicle noise radiation.
The original legislation (70/157/EEC) required an M1 category vehicle to meet the
homologation limit of 82 dB(A). Since the introduction of this original legislation the
level has been steadily reduced to the current 74 dB(A). The character of vehicle noise
has changed considerably as a result of the change in the legislation over the last twenty
years. At the time of the original legislation (70/157/EEC) the urban environment was
affected by vehicles with noisy exhaust systems and power units in a relatively low traffic
density situation. Under these conditions the legislation achieved its objective reasonably
well (i.e. to reduce urban traffic noise). It is now affected by an increased traffic density
and, as other noise sources have become quieter to comply with legislation, is becoming
dominated by tyre and road noise. The basis of the European pass-by noise test is found
in ISO R362 issued in 1964. Many changes to the limit and procedures have been
adopted since then. The most recent of these is (92/97/EEC amendment). The noise
emitted from an M1 vehicle should not exceed 74 dB(A).
From the original European Economic Community Directive (70/157/EEC) to the
current there is a reduction in level of 8 dB(A). The original legislation specified a clear
asphalt surface. Test track surfaces and substructure differences as specified in this
manner gave around a 6 dB(A) variation between sites. The current legislation closely
specifies the test track construction and surface finish in an attempt to provide consistent
acoustic properties across all test tracks (‘ISO surface’). The variation between ‘ISO
surfaces’ is of the order of 3 dB(A). Therefore, in real terms the limit has been reduced
by more than 10 dB(A) since its original introduction.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 23

8 Other studies

There are several other studies that have been done on powertrain NVH. Again, being
comprehensive is beyond the scope of this manuscript. Instead, we will overview three
aspects. These are damping, methods of analysis and product development.

8.1 Damping and noise control

Zhang et al. (2006a, 2006b) presented numerical parametric investigation of loss factor of
laminated composites with interleaved viscoelastic layers. Zhang, (2008) discussed
elastic sound absorption theory of fibrous material. Wentzel and Olsson (2006)
performed studies to predict of damping in structures with frictional joints. Chettah et al.
(2008) performed experimental and numerical investigation of flexural vibration damping
by recycled rubber granulates.

8.2 Methods of analysis

Zhen et al. (2004a,b) discussed the determination of system vibratory response
characteristics applying a spectral-based inverse sub-structuring approach using
analytical formulation and that of motor vehicle structures. Abdallah et al. (2007)
performed effective NVH analysis and optimisation with CAE and computer
experiments. Peng (2007) performed laser Doppler vibrometer studies for mode shape
and power flow analysis in coupled structures. Khoo (2007) used SEA for energy
attenuation factors and coupling loss factors in asymmetric periodic plates. Han et al.
(2008) studied SBN reduction in the compartment of a passenger car using power-based
transfer path analysis. Abdallah and Yang (2008) predicted NVH performance
degradation through fatigue analysis. Peng (2004) performed flexural wave propagation
and dynamic stress concentration in a multi-stepped plate using acoustical wave
propagator method.
Other studies include those of Al-Bassyiouni, (2008), Kumar et al. (2008), Zibdeh
and Abu-Alshaikh (2008), Vardhan and Raj (2008), Kumar et al. (2008) and Zheng et al.
(2008).
As stated earlier, this is not meant to be a comprehensive review. Readers are
encouraged to seek information from recognised Journals and/or conferences in the field.
In SAE’s material sections, tens of papers are presented every other year on the subject.

8.3 NVH and product development

NVH is usually among the top five attributes in terms of its priority in automotive
engineering of any vehicle. This attribute has to be considered closely in the product
development process. This produces significant challenges in automotive engineering.
Challenges like cross functional optimisation, assessment tool limitations, relating the
NVH phenomenon to the hardware (i.e. root-cause analysis) and making the necessary
design changes early in the product development cycle. These challenges were exposed
in a recent study (Afaneh et al., 2007). The work that is being done to study the vehicle
noise and vibration from a system or customer perspective is limited. Automotive vehicle
development is a complicated process. As an initial assessment, the following design
parameters are key towards delivering the required NVH of the vehicle
24 M.S. Qatu et al.

1 Span between the engine mounts (N–S engines only)

2 Volume of all mounts
3 Types of mounts (hydraulic/active mounts ...)
4 Vertical distance between CG of PT and mount elastic centers
5 Engine roll angle
6 No. of shafts (1/2/3) and their diameters
7 3 vs. 4 axle mounts and their sizes
8 Driveline imbalance
9 Assumptions competitive (imbalance/CV joints, ..)
10 Volume of exhaust muffler/resonator and exhaust diameter
11 Volume of induction muffler/resonator and diameter/ inlet
12 Choose competitive (dual exhaust/tip/mode, front inlet)
13 Modal separation between firing frequency and rigid body modes
14 Primary and secondary door and front and rear hood seals
15 Front and rear suspension type and control
16 Rear shock longitudinal and lateral orientation
17 Leaf spring/axle orientation and distance
18 Front and rear jounce bumper type and volume
19 Front frame width (forward of engine) and rear frame width (near B-pillar)
20 Number of body mounts, their type, span and volume
21 Number/type of box mounts
22 Wheel/tyre size
23 Front and rear stabiliser bar diameters.
Vehicle development is a process that can take several years. OEM developed their own
product development systems. All of these product development systems are based on the
following mile stones:
1 Establishing the market need. NVH engineers can be a part of this process. They
want to make sure that NVH targets are achievable. They need to pay close attention
and ensure that the key enablers are there for them to deliver these targets. These
enablers can be financial, package or trade-off with other attributes (like fuel
economy, dynamics and others).
2 Setting attribute targets. NVH engineers will set here the targets for usual noises as
described before. Masking curves are also developed for all other possible noise in
both frequency and engine speed domains. While NVH engineers may expect to
have a reasonable stretch of original assessment to target accounting for optimisation
or new technologies, they should be realistic with such target stretch.
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 25

3 Hardware design. The fundamental design of the hardware is made to deliver the
basic function of the vehicle. This is performed using mainly CAE tools and
surrogate prototypes. While the fundamental function of the hardware is designed,
the heart of the engineering process in vehicle development is to assess and balance
all other attributes that come with the design. These are NVH, fuel economy, safety,
cost … and others.
4 Program approval. At this stage, reasonable confidence that the vehicle designed
with hardware and attribute assumptions is possible. At this point, major funding is
released to build confirmation prototypes. The NVH work here should be mainly for
verification purposes.
5 Launch readiness. Interaction with manufacturing increases rapidly to make sure that
the vehicle design is manufactureable in a rather optimal way.
6 Manufacturing (Job 1). The vehicle is in production. Effort is made to control
variations, solve problems and look for opportunities.
The NVH development process is summarised in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Flow chart of target setting and assessment in product development

Source: Afaneh et al. (2007).

8.4 Failure mechanisms

Table 3 lists the most occurring NVH failure mechanism in both product development
and engineering design. There are seven main failures. Three of these failures are in the
powertrain. These include the engine and FEAD, transmission and driveline. In addition,
tyre and wind noise come next. Squeak and rattle as well as brake noises are also major
concerns. This list is meant to be a design guide for NVH engineers and developers.
26 M.S. Qatu et al.

Table 3a Common NVH failures and possible root cause

Failure hardware Failure Mechanism (possible root cause)

1 Engine and FEAD - loud/whine/boom and idle Combustion
Modal strategy (resonances)
Calibration (lugging, retardation, … )
Sound package
Mounts
Air leakage
Induction
Fan levels
Turbo/Super Charge
Exhaust
Chain noise
Resonances
Isolation Hose/Line/Cable
Modal strategy
Pulley ratio (Modal alighnment)
Mounts / 6DOF/ RB Modes
Noise transfer function and vibration
transfer function
2 Transmission and gears Local panel resonances, P/P transfer
function, local mobilities
Axle gear quality (transmission error)
Gear design strategy
Case radiated noise
Chain noise
Shifter cable isolation
Axle mounts
Bracket resonance
Rear shaft resonance
3 Driveline (boom, shudder, … ) Axle ratio
Modal strategy
RunOut
Local panel resonances, local mobilities
Transfer function,
Isolation
Imbalance
Noint excitation/isolation
Joint angle
Bracket resonances
 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 27

Table 3b Common NVH failures and possible root cause

Failure hardware Failure Mechanism (possible root cause)

4 Road/tyre noise and shake Modal alignment
Isolation
Strut stiffness
Tire carcass mode
Suspension mobility
NTF
Tyre radiated noise
Chock chuckle
Body structure & panel damping
Wheel stiffness dynamics
5 Wind Noise Air leakage
Mirror design
Seal and gaps (sealer)
Surface issue
Climate control
Door seal
6 Squeak and rattle Modal Alignment
Bracket stiffness
Isolation
Clearances (package)
Sealer quality
Bearing rattle
Manufacturing control
Door latch mobility
Springs
Quality control
7 Brake roughness Modal alignment
Isolation
Bushing rates / damping
Faiure in brake lining / pads
imbalance
Rotor flatness
Caliber motion
28 M.S. Qatu et al.

9 Conclusions

Automotive NVH has been receiving considerable attention for the last 30 years. For
more than 20 years a successful bi-annual conference is scheduled with more than a
1,000 attendees and more than 200 publications in every meeting. In addition, an
international journal is established that published refereed publications on the subject.
Automotive NVH can be classified into interior and exterior NVH. Interior NVH is of
great importance to automobile buyers. Exterior NVH received considerable attention
because of its impact on the environment. It is the subject of legislation in various
countries and is recognised to be a source of public health concerns.
Interior NVH is classified into usual and unusual NVH. The main sources of usual
NVH are the powertrain, whose noise are dominant in the low to medium speed ranges,
the road NVH, which may dominate in the medium and high speed ranges and wind noise
which can dominate in the high speed ranges. Unwanted NVH can be classified
according to the root cause of the noise and/or vibration concern. Several engine, FEAD,
transmission, driveline, exhaust and induction noises are reported. In addition, unwanted
road and wind NVH are also reported. Other unwanted NVH can be due to the brake and
suspension systems, the steering system as well as other hardware of the vehicle.
The manuscript also touched on sound quality, an important dimension of NVH
research. It addresses damping and methods of analysis and assessment used frequently
by researchers and/or engineers. Special attention is given to designing for NVH in a
product development environment.
In product development, NVH engineers will have to address the conflicting demands
of the customer to perform proper optimisation or trade-off studies. They should seek
new technologies to increase their speed of producing vehicles to remain competitive.
This makes it necessary to stay at the cutting edge of technology both in NVH control
and NVH assessment technologies like computer-aided engineering. Another challenge
that engineers face is cascading vehicle level NVH requirements into hardware physical
requirements. Also, assessment needs to be delivered early in the development process,
where less information is available. This manuscript addressed the most important
aspects of vehicle design that relate to NVH in early design.

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 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 29

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 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 31

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 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 33

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34 M.S. Qatu et al.

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 Overview of automotive noise and vibration 35

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