MODULE 2

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FOUNDATIONS

OF EDUCATION

Introduction.

In this module Educational Psychology and Social Justice as a foundation for teacher education
will be introduced. Topics to be discussed include: What Makes a Good Teacher, The Role of Research
in Educational Psychology, and Research Methods Used in Educational Psychology. In addition, Piaget’s
and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development will be discussed and analyzed along with language and
literacy development. Teacher education for social justice will be analyzed as a learning and political
problem.

In this unit, we are going to define Psychology, Psychology of Learning

and Education - Learning. We are also going to discuss the nature, scope and
importance of Educational Psychology, and its significance to classroom teacher.
At the end of this unit we are going to discuss the schools, Branches and
Research methods of Psychology.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Objectives:

At the end of this module, the students shall be able to:

 Define Psychology, Education and Educational Psychology.

 Describe the relationship between Psychology and Education.
 Understand Educational Psychology as Applied Psychology.
 Explain the nature, scope and importance of Educational
 Psychology.
 Describe significance of Educational Psychology to classroom
teacher.
 Discuss schools and methods of Psychology

.3.1 Definition of Psychology

Etymologically the word Psychology means the study of soul on account
of its derivation from the two Greek words- Psyche (soul) and logos (science of
or study of). What is sou

Definition of Psychology
Etymologically the word Psychology means the study of soul on account
of its derivation from the two Greek words- Psyche (soul) and logos (science of
or study of). What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to answer such
questions leads some ancient Greek philosophers to define Psychology as a
‘study of mind’. Although the word mind was loss mysterious and vague than
soul, it also faced the same question such as : What is mind? How can it be
studied? Etc. and consequently this definition was also rejected and failure to
define to search for some other suitable definitions. William James defined
Psychology the term soul and mind persuaded the Philosophers and
Psychologists as the description and explanation of state of consciousness as
such. By consciousness, the Psychologist meant awareness of wakefulness.
There were several interpretations of consciousness and this concept was
rejected. The latest and modern concept of Psychology is in terms of behaviour.
J.B. Weston defined Psychology as the ‘Science of Behaviour.’ McDougal
defines Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and
control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole. The above account of the
definitions regarding the subject Psychology clearly reveals that the meaning and
concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its dependence
upon philosophical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect
Woodworth says, “First Psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its
Definition of Psychology
Etymologically the word Psychology means the study of soul on account
of its derivation from the two Greek words- Psyche (soul) and logos (science of
or study of). What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to answer such
questions leads some ancient Greek philosophers to define Psychology as a
‘study of mind’. Although the word mind was loss mysterious and vague than
soul, it also faced the same question such as : What is mind? How can it be
studied? Etc. and consequently this definition was also rejected and failure to
define to search for some other suitable definitions. William James defined
Psychology the term soul and mind persuaded the Philosophers and
Psychologists as the description and explanation of state of consciousness as
such. By consciousness, the Psychologist meant awareness of wakefulness.
There were several interpretations of consciousness and this concept was
rejected. The latest and modern concept of Psychology is in terms of behaviour.
J.B. Weston defined Psychology as the ‘Science of Behaviour.’ McDougal
defines Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and
control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole. The above account of the
definitions regarding the subject Psychology clearly reveals that the meaning and
concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its dependence
upon philosophical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect
Woodworth says, “First Psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its
Definition of Psychology
Etymologically the word Psychology means the study of soul on account
of its derivation from the two Greek words- Psyche (soul) and logos (science of
or study of). What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to answer such
questions leads some ancient Greek philosophers to define Psychology as a
‘study of mind’. Although the word mind was loss mysterious and vague than
soul, it also faced the same question such as : What is mind? How can it be
studied? Etc. and consequently this definition was also rejected and failure to
define to search for some other suitable definitions. William James defined
Psychology the term soul and mind persuaded the Philosophers and
Psychologists as the description and explanation of state of consciousness as
such. By consciousness, the Psychologist meant awareness of wakefulness.
There were several interpretations of consciousness and this concept was
rejected. The latest and modern concept of Psychology is in terms of behaviour.
J.B. Weston defined Psychology as the ‘Science of Behaviour.’ McDougal
defines Psychology is a science which aims to give us better understanding and
control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole. The above account of the
definitions regarding the subject Psychology clearly reveals that the meaning and
concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its dependence
upon philosophical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect
Woodworth says, “First Psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost its
Definition of Psychology
 Etymologically, the word Psychology means the study of the soul on account of its derivation from
the two Greek words Psyche (soul) logos (science or study of). What is soul? How can it be studied? The
inability to answer such questions leads some ancient Greek Philosophers to define Psychology as the
“study of minds”. Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, but it faced the same
questions. What is mind? How can it be studied? Etc….and consequently the definition was also rejected
and failure to define to search for some other suitable definitions.

William James define psychology the term soul and mind persuaded the early Philosophers and
Psychologists as the description and explanation of the state of consciousness as such. By
consciousness, the Psychologist mean awareness of wakefulness. There were several interpretations of
consciousness and these concepts were rejected. The latest and modern concept of Psychology is in
terms of Behavior. J.B. Weston defines Psychology as the science of Behavior. Mc Dougal defines
psychology as the science which aims to give us a better understanding and control of the behavior of the
organism as a whole. This reveals that the meaning and concept of the subject has frequently changed its
shape based on its dependence upon philosophical or scientific thinking. So the definition now may be
viewed in the light of human behavior. It may then be concluded that Psychology is the science of
human behavior or a scientific study of behavioral activities and experiences. Psychologists define
psychology in various ways. The nature of Psychology is understood by the following definitions;

 Crow and Crow – Psychology is the study of human behavior and human relationships.
 Dewey – Psychology is the science of the facts or phenomena of itself.
 Feldman – Psychology is the science of human behavior and mental processes.
 Koffka - Psychology is the scientific study of behavior of living creatures in their contact with the
outer world.
 McDougal – Psychology is the science which gives us better understanding and control of
behavior and experience.
 Skinner - Psychology is the science of behavior and experience.
 Woodworth – Psychology undertakes to make scientific study of the individual considered as a
unit as he really is in his dealings with other individuals and with the world.

1.4 History of Psychology

The word psychology comes from the two Greek words, ‘psyche’(soul) and ‘logus’ (science). So
the root meaning of the word Psychology is that it is a science of soul. When we are not sure about the
location of the soul, attempting to investigate its nature is impossible. So the definition of psychology as
the study of soul was given up. Then it was defined as a science of mind. Mind functions in three
domains viz. Cognitive (thinking), Affective (feeling) and Conative (willing). A mental act is different from
a physical act. If a piece of iron is placed near a magnet, the iron moves towards magnet. This is a
physical and no thinking, feeling or willing is involved on the part of iron or magnet. But on the contrary,
when we place a dish of milk before a cat, the cat moves towards the milk and drink it. This is a mental
act because the cat driven by hunger motive, knowing (thinking) the white liquid is milk, which it likes
(feeling part) to drink, it actually moves (willing part) towards the milk. Thus every human act or
behaviour emanates from an internal motive, as the British psychologist McDougal puts it.

According to William Mcdougall, (Purposivism), every response of man is due to a purpose or

inner motive called ‘instinct’. He stated that response occurs, not always due to the occurrence of a
stimulus. According to McDougall, it is the instinct that motivates human behaviour. He further believes
that an emotion is present in any instinctive activity. Each instinct associated with some emotions
otherwise known as ‘sentiments’. Without them no activity is possible. Our behavior depends upon the
modification of the instincts or our sentiments. In other words, sentiments are the motives of our
behaviour and these sentiments may be analyzed into instincts and emotions.

Titchner, (‘Structuralism’) believed that mind is the basis of all human actions. According to
him there are three states of mind- Cognitive, affective and conative. The mind was regarded as
consciousness and the ultimate elements of it are sensation, feelings and images. The nature and
structure of consciousness can be studied through introspection. To introspect means to look within.
Psychology thus came to be defined as a science of consciousness.

J.B. Watson (U.S.A) a behavior psychologists and others questioned the validity of introspection
and said that psychology should be an objective science. They defined psychology as a science of
behavior in terms of stimulus and response, popularity known as S-R formula. For behaviourists,
environment is the determinant of one’s response or behavior and heredity has no influence what so
ever.

Kohler and Koffka contributed a lot to the development of Gestalt school of Psychology. The
German word ‘Gestalt’ refers to ‘configuration’, ‘Whole’, or ‘totality’. We generally perceive the whole
and not its parts. The ‘whole’ is not the addition of the parts but something more than that. When we
purchase a bicycle, we only perceive it as a whole cycle and not as spokes, wheel, saddle, chain,
mudguard etc. Sometimes we fail to notice even some missing parts like bell or lock. According to
Gestalists perception is unified and learning is nothing but reorganization of the field of perception.
Their main areas of investigation are perception and learning. To perceive an object or event, apart from
our sensation of the object or event, our previous experiences about them are also called into play.
Gestalist’s advocate that human behaviour is based on one’s perception and perception is influenced by
our past experiences stored in our mind. For them behaviour is physical as well as mental or cognitive.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) on the scene with a bang proclaiming the school of psychology
called ‘Psycho-analysis’. Psycho-analysis emphasized the role of unconscious mind in the actions of
individuals. Since psycho-analysis goes deep into the subterranean level of the mind, this is also known
as depth psychology. The other schools of psychology deal only with surface activities. But psycho-
analysis develops deep into the roots and springs of human behavior. The unconscious mind is the seat
of repressed tendencies and desires, not approved by the society. Sex plays an important role.
According to Freud in the drama of human existence, sex is the villain of the peace. Freud holds that
early childhood experiences determine the development of personality. He speaks of human personality
made up of three major systems- Id (operating at unconscious level), Ego (operating at conscious and
sub-conscious levels) Super Ego (operating at conscious level).

Adler and Car Jung founded their own schools of psychology viz., Individual Psychology’ and
‘Analytical Psychology’ respectively. Jung stresses past experiences of the individual. He thinks
religion has a lot of therapeutic value. According to Adler, birth order of an individual in the family has
much influence in determining one’s way of life.

Carl Rogers, Maslow and others have also significantly contributed to the growth of psychology
and made it attain today the status of positive behavioral science. As a pure science, psychology is
concerned with systematic study of behaviour and verification through experimentation. We can bring
psychology under the category of ‘Bio-Social science’. The components of behavior are:

i. The conscious experiences of which the organism is aware of, like that of being hungry or having
pain when injured, etc. and
ii. The unconscious process: (eg) without any specific reason we get irritated with some people,
become friendly with others etc.

To attain this significant status, many had contributed to the growth of psychology, of whom the
following are notable.
1. E.H.Weber: Forerunner for conducting psychology experiments: examined the methods of
measuring sensory experiences based on which formed the Weber’s Law.
2. G.T.Fechner (1860): Published his book Elements of Psycho-physics which investigated
problems in sensation and perception.
 3. Wilhelm Wundt (1879). He is called as Father of Psychology. He established the first psychology
laboratory at ‘Leipzig’ in Germany. He investigated on attention, reaction time, memory
association, emotions etc. He established the method of introspection as a technique of data
collection. He is the founder of Structuralist school of psychology.
4. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911): Studied individual differences using statistical techniques (use
of correlation coefficients).
5. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936): Studied conditioned reflexes.
6. E.L. Thorndike (1874-1947): Formed the Trial and Error theory of learning and laws of learning:
advocated the Multifactor theory of intelligence.
7. J.M. Cattell (1860-1944): Developed quantitative methods in psychology: was a assistant to
Wundt established his psychology laboratory at Columbia in America
8. E.B. Titchner (1867-1929): Represented structural school in America
9. G. Stanley Halt (1846-1924): Wundt’s famous American student: began systematic study in
child psychology in the U.S.
10. Mesmer: Clinical-psychological methods.
11. Jean Piaget: Theory of cognitive development in children.
12. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Founding father of psycho-analysis and known as
Father of Modern Psychology.
13. Alfred Binnet (1905): Developed the concept of mental age; constructed the first intelligence
test.
14. B.F. Skinner: Operant conditioning in learning.
15. Wechsler: Developed Adult Intelligence Scale

1.5. BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

There is hardly any sphere of human life where psychology is not being used in modern times to
understand and improve the existing conditions. Important branches of psychology are mentioned below:

 General Psychology
 Child Psychology
 Clinical Psychology
 Development Psychology
 Social psychology
 Industrial Psychology

1.5.1. General Psychology

This deals with the basic principles underlying in different branches of psychology. General
behavior of normal adults forms the subject matter of general psychology. General psychology deals with
such concepts as perception, emotions, motivation, learning, thinking, sources of individual differences
and their measurement etc.

1.5.2. Child Psychology

That branch of psychology which deals with growth and development of children, role of heredity
and environment in child development, different potentials found in children and their measurement,
different aspects of adjustment in behavior with environment that children achieve etc. is known as child
Psychology. Today, infant psychology and adolescent psychology have also emerged out of child
psychology

1.5.3. Clinical Psychology

 The branch of psychology is an applied one is popular among the professional psychologists. In
society there are people whose behavior is abnormal in the sense that they manifest significant
behavioral deviations from the norms of the society or the groups in which they live. There are various
forms of behavioral disorders like that of psychosis (which refer to serious forms of mental illness), the
neurosis (mild forms of functional disorders which can be treated without the patient being hospitalized)
and feeble mindedness (which points to persons who are poorly endowed with intellectual capacities
making them incompetent to make efficient and effective adjustments to the demand of reality and to
come up socially). Besides these, there are other forms of abnormal behavior. Some people may be
emotionally unstable, some may find it difficult to establish healthy interpersonal relations with people,
adapt themselves vocationally to the work situations, etc.

1.5.4. Development Psychology

Development Psychology deals with all aspects of growth and development of the individual
throughout his life span. Right from the time of fertilization in the Womb, up to the time of old age and
death, all aspects of human development are studied in great depth and detail. Different stages of
development, ranging from pre-natal period, through the stages of infancy and childhood to that of middle
age and old age are studied. There is a concentration of studies in childhood and adolescence.

1.5.5. Social Psychology

Social psychology has two aspects. The first one is a pure science which applies itself to
problems such as the role of society and culture in influencing the development of personality of the
individual, social motives, development of communication and language and problems of competitions,
co-operation, imitation and role-playing. The second one, i.e. social psychology, as a applied science is
concerned with attitudes and preferences as they exist and as to how they are modified or changed. In
short, as an applied science, social psychology is interested in helping people to solve public problems of
high importance.

1.5.6. Industrial Psychology

This is another applied branch of psychology which concerns itself with industrial and business
situations. It deals with all kinds of problems in industry such as selection of right men for various jobs,
promotions or supervision and interpersonal relationship among the employees. It also studies such
aspects as fatigue, accidents and working conditions and their improvement in industry. Another division
of industrial psychology which is known as ‘consumer psychology’ deals with such problems as
techniques of marketing, advertising and propaganda.

1.6. RESEARCH METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Educational Psychology employs various methods to improve teaching-learning process in the

classroom. It uses methods of research in order to gather facts about the nature of children: and how
they learn. It employs methods to know how they develop. It employs methods to know how child’s
personalities like learning, social adjustment, or skill grow from the elementary stage to a complex one. It
studies how a group of children passes through the several stages of growth and development.

What is Research?
 According to Kerlinger (1973) “Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations
among such social phenomena”

Galero – Tejero E. (2011) citing the The Philippine Social Science Council, Inc., (2000) defines
social science research as the systematic observation, documentation, and analysis of social
phenomena

Facets/Characteristics of Research

 Empirical. It rests on data; it is concerned with a knowable real world. Scientific claims
must be assessed on the basis of evidence. It involves testing and retesting in an effort to
discover the validity and the limits of propositions or the conditions under which they or they
may not hold.
 Propositional. It deals with statements which share a truth-value about things, but these
propositions may be rejected or modified in the future (its assumptions, definitions and
procedural rules are all subject to re –examination.)
 Logical. It makes use of the rules of logic in reasoning and drawing conclusions and
inferences. The structure of a scientific argument follows the rules of logic.
 Operational. While logic is completely formal, science requires that its logical arguments
are connected with reference to specific aspects of the real world. The process of
establishing the connections and correspondence between logical and abstract thinking
with that which is empirical or directly observable is termed as “operational procedure”.
 Public. Science can be communicated from one scientist to another. Symbols utilized in
science must be well represented for the scientists to judge the correctness of the
inferences drawn. This allows other scientists to replicate any research study.
 Objective. Scientific inquiry is marked by impartiality and disinterestedness. Scientists
are expected to be objective and to have no vested interest in their findings.
 Self-correcting and Cumulative. Because scientific research studies can be replicated,
the social science research process offers a system or revalidating available findings under
different times and circumstances, and therefore of correcting and improving on existing
knowledge

Stages of Research
Stage 1. Social Problem /Theory. The research always starts with a problem felt by people
or individuals in a social setting. The problem is actually the “gap” between “what is” and
“what ought to be”. This concept maybe illustrated as follows:

What is the actual scenario? What is the Problem Statement?

What is the Gap? What is the objective?
What is ought to be? What is the research question?

When research is conducted to solve the problem, the “gap” is then filled. New
knowledge is then evolved through the conduct of research.The Problem has been solved
The Gap has already been filled. New knowledge has been evolved or has been
generated.

For instance, a problem about the increase number of out of school youth is felt by the
people in the community which may be the result of some factors such as Parent, Student,
 School, Teacher and the like. General questions relative to the problem at hand may be
raised:

The problem should be hinged with a theory. Theories may be cited in connection with
the problems such as the Motivation theory of Maslow which exert the hierarchy of needs among
individuals. The theory on individual differences may also be cited.
Stage 2. The Research Problem. The Social problems identified in stage 1 are too broad in
scope. So the problem statement should be narrowed – down to zero – in on a specific research
problem in a specific setting. Questions relative to the problem may be raised.
Components of Research Problem
• There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
• There must be some objectives to be obtained.
• There must be alternative means for obtaining the objectives one wishes to obtain.
• There must be some doubt in the mind of the researcher with regard to the selection of the
alternative.
• There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Stage 3. Research Goals and Objectives. The goals and objectives of the research are then
stated. The goals of a specific research study are broader in scope. These are translated into
more specific terms. These become the objectives of the study. The objectives of the study are
stated in behavioural terms following the acronym SMART.
Specific - the research tackles a specific problem in a
specific setting at a specific time.
Measurable - there is a way of measuring the constructs or concepts.
Attainable - there is the possibility of achieving what you intend to do at the start of
the research.
Result-Oriented- the research should yield results that will be useful to the proponent,
the research locale, and society in general.
Time-Bounded- the research undertaking should be accomplished within the time frame
specified for its completion.

Stage 4. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework. The TF / CF indicates all the constructs /

concepts definitions and propositions that related to the problem. The problem is hinged to
a theory or theories. These theories are then operationalized in the context of the study:

How to Develop a Framework

• Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections and make
predictions. They are based on existing knowledge, observations, and ideas.
• Aspects of the theory must be explained, and convince your reader that it provides a solid
basis for answering your research question.
• The information should consist of the author(s) of the theory and details regarding the
original study, such as the population, purpose, and results.
• The theoretical foundation is important because it will be the lens through which you
evaluate your research problem and research questions.
• Evaluate other relevant theories and discuss why you have chosen this approach and how
you will use the information from it to conduct and evaluate your research and findings
• Strong research often involves drawing on various different theories and combining ideas.
 Goal of Theoretical Framework
 The goal of a theoretical framework is to present and explain the theories and models other
researchers have already developed.
 The theoretical framework also involves evaluating, comparing, and selecting the most
relevant ones.
 Make the reader aware of the assumptions that inform your approach, showing the
rationale behind your choices

Stage 5. Research Questions / Hypotheses . The hypothesis to be tested are

formulated based on the research problems.
General Statement
Specific Questions

As educational psychology is an applied branch of general psychology, it

makes use of methods of general psychology. Some of the most commonly used
methods of psychology or educational psychology are:
1.6.1. Descriptive Research – describe the status and condition of a phenomenon or reality
at a specific point in time. It needs a clearly defined phenomenon of interest (eg.
Teacher’s knowledge of literacy and development)
1.6.2. Causal Comparative - Examine the effect of an independent variable that cannot be
manipulated by the researchers on the dependent variable. Behaviors of two groups of
individuals are compared.
1.6.3. Correlational- examines the relationship between two or more variables within the
same group of people. Determine the relationship between two factors/variables.
Non manipulative type.
1.6.4. Experimental - Cause and Effect of a reality. Examine the effect of an independent
variable that is manipulated by the researcher on a dependent variable. To manipulate
the independent variable, participants are placed in groups: a treatment group that
receives the treatment and a control group that is identical to the treatment group
except that they do not receive the treatment. Then these two groups are compared on
the dependent variable.
1.6.5. Introspection Method- ‘Intro’ means ‘within or’ inward’ and ‘aspection’
means ‘looking’. Hence it implies self-observation or looking ‘within’ or
looking ‘inward’ to experience one’s own mental state. It is a process
for examine one’s own mental process of thought, feeling and motives.
An individual looks within, observes, analyses and reports his own
feelings.
1.6.6. Observation Method - is one of the oldest techniques by seeing things
as they are in their natural setting. It does not mean seeing things as
they were or as they should be. Observation deals with the overt
behavior of persons in appropriate situations. Observation has been
defined as ‘measurement without instruments’.
 Types of observation

Participant Observation: Here the observer plays a double role. He

becomes by and large a member of the group under observation and shares the
situation as a visiting stranger, an eager learner and an attentive listener.
Non-participant Observation: This is used with such groups as
infants, children of abnormal persons. The observer takes such a position as he is able
to observe in detail the behavior of the individual under observation. The position of the
observer is least disturbing to the subject under study.
Structured Observation: Structured observation starts with relatively
specific formulations. The observer in advance set up categories in terms of which he
wishes to analyze the problem.
Unstructured Observation: It mainly takes the form of participant
observation. The observer takes the role of a member of the group.

1.6.7. Interview Method - provides an opportunity for getting information

directly from the subject about his behavior in fact to-face contact or relationship. Here
the subject and the psychologist both engage themselves in the mutual exchange of
idea as and information. For this purpose, the interviewer makes an attempt to fix a fact
–to-face appointment with the person whose behavior he wants to investigate. The
major steps to be followed in this method can be listed as below:

 Preparation for the Interview

 Taking an Interview
 Closure of the interview.

1.6.8. Experimental Method- is the most objective and scientific method for
studying behavior. The investigator studies the cause and effect relationship regarding
human behavior by performing experiments. Experiment may be conducted in a
laboratory or a classroom or other field situations.
Types of Experimental Method

Control Test Method: In this method we try to differentiate by observing the

performance under different conditions. First we observe under normal conditions and
then again with one condition changed. There is no need of having two different groups
of subjects for the experiment. Only the measures can be taken several times under
different conditions.
 Control group Method: Control test method possesses a serious drawback
known ass; positive practice effect. In control group method we can minimize the
practice effect. Here two separate groups, known as experimental group and control
group are taken. They are equated or matched on various traits like age, sex,
intelligence and other personality characteristics.
Rotation Method: This method consists of presenting two or more
stimulating situations to the experimental subjects in as many sequences as necessary
to control the serial effects of fatigue or practice.
1.6.9. Case Study Method- A case study is the study of an individual case.
Case study method is usually used for studying the behavior problems of a maladjusted
or deviant individual. Various steps involved in case study method are:
 Determination of the status of the phenomenon under investigation through direct
observation or measurement.
 Determination of the most probable antecedents of the case
 Formulation of a definite hypothesis or a set of hypotheses through knowledge of
similar cases.
 Verification of the hypothesis
 Remedial steps
 Follow up of the case.

There are three types of case studies:

 Case studies of individuals
 Case studies of institutions.
 Case studies of communities.

1.6.10. Differential Method- Differential method is the method of studying

differences within the same individual or between individuals in different groups. In this
method there are four types:

 In the correlation method, the psychologist takes people as they are and
studies what they usually do, without changing the conditions under which they
respond to the tests or perform the desired tasks.

 In the field survey method, the differences with regard to a particular trait
pattern or characteristics among the individuals are discovered by conducting the
field survey and taking adequate samples, from the studied population.

 In the longitudinal method, the differences in an individual or group of some

individuals are studied over a long span of time.

1.7. Definition of Educational Psychology

 Refers to the branch of psychology which is concerned with psychological
researches as applied to any or all aspects of educational processes and practices. It is
in relation to problems like learning, teaching and training. Classroom is the laboratory
for the educational psychologists. Eucational psychology tries to solve the different
problems faced in the educative process by applying the laws and principles of
psychology (Kolesnik). Psychology is the science of behavior. Education is the
deliberate process of modifying one’s behavior (knowledge, skills and attitude) through
a sequence of systematically planned experiences to achieve the predetermined goals
and objectives (Redden). Therefore educational psychology could be considered as the
science of modifying the learner’s behavior so as to refine his/her personality and make
him/her an efficient and responsible citizen.

1.7.1. Nature of Educational Psychology

Child education, diagnostic and remedial education, education for the gifted
and handicapped, factors affecting learning, principles of evaluation, etc. bear proof to
the claim that educational psychology is a special field of study. The study of classroom
climate, techniques of behavior modification, programmed learning, micro-teaching,
software and hardware approaches computer assisted instruction are all the areas
developed by the educational psychologists aimed at improving the interaction between
the teacher and the taught. Advanced techniques of instruction are through and
through psychological by nature.

1.7.2. Scope of Educational Psychology

As Blair, Jones and Simpson say, educational philosophy is primarily

concerned with the question of what should be done and educational psychology
attempts to answer the question how it can be done. As to the scope of educational
psychology. Kolesnik mentions the following problems which are dealt by educational
psychologists:
 Differences among students
 Motivation
 Methods of instruction
 Evaluation
 Classroom management
 Mental health
 Character formation

H.C. Lindgren suggests that the subjects-matter of educational psychology revolves

around three areas:
a) The learner
b) The learning process
c) The learning situation
 In the first area the learner, is included the study of abilities, needs, life-goals,
self-concept, etc. of the individual learner as well as the differences that exist among
different individuals. This area also includes the study of the development of the pupil,
the environmental influences on his personality, the problems of his mental health, etc.
In the second area, i.e. in the learning process, the nature, process and factors of
learning are studied.
In the third area, the learning situation, such factors as classroom management,
discipline, techniques for teaching exceptional children, guidance and counseling, etc.
are studied. The teacher himself is very important in the total learning situation.
Therefore, the psychology of being a teacher (his motivations, conflicts, effectiveness,
professional growth, his mental health etc.) are also included in the scope of
educational psychology.

Garrison et.al. recognize the following as major divisions of educational psychology.

 The child and his development: The course of development, nature of

intelligence, language and thinking, socialization and its role etc.
 Learning and educative process: Learning and motivation, the learning of skills,
knowledge, understanding and problem solving, character development, etc.
 Evaluating Pupil-Growth: Methods of pupil-evaluation, studying the individual
child, learning difficulties at school, evaluating the results of instruction, etc.
 Guiding the child: Personality integration, adjustment problems of the child,
pupil-teacher relations, etc.
 In short, speaking with E.A. Peal, it might be said that educational psychology
broadly deals with the nature of learning, the growth of human personality, the
differences between individuals and the study of the person in relation to society

1.7.3. Need for the Knowledge of Educational Psychology for

Classroom Teachers Educational psychology helps the teacher in the
following ways:

Contribution to theory of Education

 To understand the development characteristics of children: If the prospective

teacher knows these characteristics he can utilize them in imparting instruction
and molding their behavior according to the specified goal of education.
 To understand the nature of classroom learning: The teacher must understand
the principles of learning and various approaches to the learning process,
problems of learning and their remedial measures, knowledge of various
approaches to understand the learning process, factors affecting, and guidance
for effective learning.
  To understand individual differences and adjust his teaching to the needs and the
requirements of the class which has a great range of individual differences.
 To understand effective teaching methods: Classroom teaching is related and
uses several theories of teaching-learning. The teacher must be acquainted with
knowledge of various theories in order to organize his class-room teaching.
 To understand the causes of the problems of children which occur at different
age levels and successfully solve them.

Knowledge of mental health: Mental health of the teacher and the taught
is very important for efficient learning. The teacher from the study of psychology can
know the various factors which are responsible for the mental ill-health and
maladjustment. He can prevent maladjustment in children provided he is equipped with
the fundamental knowledge of mental hygiene.

Curriculum construction: Psychological principles are used in formulating

curriculum for different stages. Needs of the pupils, their developmental characteristics,
Learning pattern and needs of the society, all these are to be incorporated in the
curriculum.
Measurement of learning outcome: Psychological tools help the teacher
to assess the learning outcome of the students. He can also evaluate his teaching
methods and in the light of the performance of the students can modify his strategy of
teaching.

 Guidance for the education of exceptional children

 Helps to develop positive attitude.
 Understanding of group dynamics.

Contribution to Practice of Education:

 Problem of discipline: Traditional teachers believed in the dictum “spare the rod
and spoil the child”. But modern teachers who have the knowledge of
educational psychology realize that the use of corporal punishment is inhumane.
Teachers now tackle the problem of indiscipline by examining the causal factors
leading to them in a more scientific way. The teacher has changed his attitude
from an autocrat to democrat.
 Use of A.V. aids: Teaching with the use of aids that affect multiple senses of the
learner is more effective and lasting. Thus the modern teachers resort to the use
of hardware and software approaches in educational technology to make their
teaching more concrete and stable.
 School and classroom administration has been psychologized and made
participative rather than dictatorial in nature.
  Time table: Now subjects are incorporated in the time table taking into
consideration their difficulty level and fatigue index. No two difficult subjects are
taught in successive periods.
 Co-curricular activities: Teachers used to give undue importance to the
theoretical subjects in schools. Activities like debate, drama, scouting and
games were supposed to be a wastage of time. Now we give these activities due
importance for the harmonious development of the personality of children.
 Use of innovative methods: Several innovative ideas resulting from research
studies in psychology have been introduced to improve the teaching-learning
process. Activity centered teaching, discussion method, micro-teaching,
programmed instruction, and non, graded school classes at the primary stage are
some of the important innovations.
 Production of text books: We now write textbooks taking into consideration the
intellectual development of children, their needs and their interests at different
age levels.
 Undoubtedly the study of educational psychology may be very helpful to equip
our prospective teachers with necessary skills to deal with classroom teaching-
learning problems.

MODULE 3

LEARNING THEORIES

Introduction.

In this module the following learning theories will be researched, analyzed, and discussed:
Behavioral Learning Theories (Skinner), Social Learning Theories (Bandura), Cognitive Learning Theories
(Piaget, Vygotsky), and Progressive Learning Theories (McCarthy, Dewey, Constructivist). Gardner’s
Multiple Intelligences Theory will be analyzed.

Behavioral learning Theory

Every teacher knows that they will usually have a student in class who is difficult to manage and
work with. Their behavior is usually hard to control and it can be extra work to get them to pay attention
and stop distracting others. Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that
focuses on how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through
interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the
environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior.
Behaviorism is key for educators because it impacts how students react and behave in the
classroom, and suggests that teachers can directly influence how their students behave. It also helps
teachers understand that a student’s home environment and lifestyle can be impacting their behavior,
helping them see it objectively and work to assist with improvement.
A common example of behaviorism is positive reinforcement.  A student gets a small treat if they
get 100% on their spelling test. In the future, students work hard and study for their test in order to get
the reward
History of behaviorism.
 Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner
rejected introspective methods as being subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists wanted to
focus on observable, quantifiable events and behaviors. They helped bring psychology into higher
relevance by showing that it could be accurately measured and understood, and it wasn’t just based off
opinions.
Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they were raised
and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining factor for how they acted, not
their parents or their genetics.
Pavlov’s Dogs is a popular behaviorism experiment. A group of dogs would hear a bell ring and
then they would be given food. After enough time, when the bell would ring the dogs would salivate,
expecting the food before they even saw it. This is exactly what behaviorism argues—that the things we
experience and our environment are the drivers of how we act.  Behavioral learning theory argues that
even complex actions can be broken down into the stimulus-response. 
Behaviorism learning theory.

In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate and
help students. Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response to the right stimulus.
Students are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are giving them the information as an
element of stimulus-response. Teachers use behaviorism to show students how they should react and
respond to certain stimuli. This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what
behavior a teacher is looking for. 
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive reinforcement,
students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be working. For example, if
students are supposed to get a sticker every time they get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving
that positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected
to a reward for them.  Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral
learning theory. Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the
positive reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior. 
Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative reinforcement
can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a good test score is much
more likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives no praise for a good test score.
The student who receives no praise is experiencing negative reinforcement—their brain tells them that
though they got a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of the test becomes unimportant to
them. Conversely students who receive positive reinforcement see a direct correlation to continuing
excellence, completely based on that response to a positive stimulus.  

Behaviorism and social learning theory.

The behavioral learning theory and the social learning theory stem from similar ideas. The social
learning theory agrees with the behavioral learning theory about outside influences on behavior. However,
the social learning theory goes a step further and suggests that internal psychological processes are also
an influence on behavior. Students or individuals may see things being done, but the social learning
theory says that internal thoughts impact what behavior response comes out. 
Behaviorism doesn’t study or feature internal thought processes as an element of actions. Social
learning argues that behavior is much more complicated than the simple stimulus and response of
behaviorism. It suggests that students learn through observation, and then they consciously decide to
imitate behavior. There are underlying emotions like peer pressure and a desire to fit in that impact
behavior.
Behaviorist teaching strategies.
Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in many ways,
including:
 Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the repetition and
reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
 Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response,
gradually getting harder with questions to help students.
 Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to
give them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.
 Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material
and giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.
 Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can
be in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more. 

Social Learning Theory

The Social Learning Theory (SLT), was formulated by Albert Bandura. It encompasses concepts
of traditional learning theory and the operant conditioning of B.F. Skinner. However, the theory strongly
implies that there are types of learning wherein direct reinforcement is not the causal mechanism; rather,
the so called social element can result to the development of new learning among individuals. Social
Learning Theory has been useful in explaining how people can learn new things and develop new
behaviors by observing other people. It is to assume, therefore, that Social Learning Theory is concerned
on observational learning process among people.

A. Basic Concepts

1. Observational Learning: The Social Learning Theory says that people can learn by watching
other people perform the behavior. Observational learning explains the nature of children to
learn behaviors by watching the behavior of the people around them, and eventually, imitating
them.

2. Bandura determined 3 basic models of observational learning, which include:

a. A Live Model, which includes an actual person performing a behavior.
b. A Verbal Instruction Model, which involves telling of details and descriptions of a
behavior.
c. A Symbolic Model, which includes either a real or fictional character demonstrating
the behavior via movies, books, television, radio, online media and other media
sources.
3. The state of mind (mental states) is crucial to learning. Bandura stated that not only
external reinforcement or factors can affect learning and behavior. There is also what he called
intrinsic reinforcement, which is in a form of internal reward or a better feeling after performing
the behavior (e.g. sense of accomplishment, confidence, satisfaction, etc.)

4. Learning does not mean that there will be a change in the behavior of an individual.
B. Modeling Process

The Modeling Process developed by Bandura helps us understand that not all observed
behaviors could be learned effectively, nor learning can necessarily result to behavioral
changes. The modeling process includes the following steps in order for us to determine
whether social learning is successful or not:
Step 1: Attention

Social Cognitive Theory implies that you must pay attention for you to learn. If you want
to learn from the behavior of the model (the person that demonstrates the behavior), then you
should eliminate anything that catches your attention other than him. Also, the more interesting
the model is, the more likely you are to pay full attention to him and learn.
Step 2: Retention

Retention of the newly learned behavior is necessary. Without it, learning of the
behavior would not be established, and you might need to get back to observing the model
again since you were not able to store information about the behavior.

Step 3: Reproduction

When you are successful in paying attention and retaining relevant information, this
step requires you to demonstrate the behavior. In this phase, practice of the behavior by
repeatedly doing it is important for improvement.

Step 4: Motivation

Feeling motivated to repeat the behavior is what you need in order to keep on
performing it. This is where reinforcement and punishment come in. You can be rewarded
by demonstrating the behavior properly, and punished by displaying it inappropriately.

Cognitive Learning Theories

What Do We Think?

Cognitive theories focus on how our mental processes or cognitions change over time. We
will examine the ideas of two cognitive theorists: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
is one of the most influential cognitive theorists inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by
watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in
which children’s intelligence differs from that of adults. He became interested in this area when he was
asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He
believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time and that maturation rather than training brings
about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently

Piaget believed that we are continuously trying to maintain cognitive equilibrium or a

balance or cohesiveness in what we see and what we know. Children have much more of a challenge in
maintaining this balance because they are constantly being confronted with new situations, new words,
new objects, etc. When faced with something new, a child may either fit it into an existing framework
( schema ) and match it with something known ( assimilation ) such as calling all animals with four legs
“doggies” because he or she knows the word doggie, or expand the framework of knowledge to
accommodate the new situation ( accommodation ) by learning a new word to more accurately name the
animal. This is the underlying dynamic in our own cognition. Even as adults we continue to try and “make
sense” of new situations by determining whether they fit into our old way of thinking or whether we need
to modify our thoughts.
 Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget outlined four major stages of cognitive development. The stages are briefly
mentioned here. We will discuss them in detail throughout the course. For about the first two years of life,
the child experiences the world primarily through their senses and motor skills. Piaget referred to this type
of intelligence as sensorimotor intelligence . During the preschool years, the child begins to master the
use of symbols or words and is able to think of the world symbolically but not yet logically. This stage is
the preoperational stage of development. The concrete operational stage in middle childhood is
marked by an ability to use logic in understanding the physical world. In the final stage, the formal
operational stage the adolescent learns to think abstractly and to use logic in both concrete and abstract
ways.

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s.
Vygotsky’s work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s and he became more widely known in
the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities,
but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His
sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive
abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable
peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development.
Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing her teeth or preparing food.
Chances are you spoke to her and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and
let her work along with you all through the process. You gave her assistance when she seemed to need it,
but once she knew what to do-you stood back and let her go. This is scaffolding and can be seen
demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators.
Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they
are capable of doing with the proper guidance. 

Progressive education 

The learning theory is based on the belief that students learn best in real-life activities with other
people. A progressivist teacher provides not just reading and drills, but also real-world experiences and
activities that relate to the actual lives of the students. A typical progressivist slogan is "Learn by Doing!"
Although there are various differences of style and emphasis among progressive educators, they
share the point of view that democracy involves dynamic participation in social, political, and economic
decisions. Therefore, education of active citizens involves two principles. First is the respect for diversity
where each person is recognized for his or her unique characteristics. Second, critical, socially
engaged intelligence should be developed so that individuals are able to comprehend the issues
concerning their community and enable them to participate in a collaborative effort for the betterment
of society.
The term progressive in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number
of kinds of educational progressivism, most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period
between the late nineteenth and the middle of the twentieth centuries. Two major theorists influential in
this movement were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Dewey.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau has been called the father of the child-study movement. His principal work on
education, Emile, laid out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn from birth to adulthood.
Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in Plato's Republic and also of
the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it. He
held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the
latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical
withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the
child and its curiosity, teaching by confronting the child with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning
by experience rather than teaching intellectually. Although Rousseau's ideas were rarely implemented
directly, they were influential on later thinkers, particularly Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich
Wilhelm August Froebel, the inventor of the kindergarten.

John Dewey

John Dewey, the American philosopher and educator, influenced approaches to education during the first

four decades of the twentieth century. An important member of the American pragmatist movement, he
carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world. He advocated experiential
education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example
is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a
harsh critic of "dead" knowledge disconnected from practical human life, foreshadowing Paulo Freire's
attack on the "banking concept of education."

Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of
education based on the child-study movement. He presented his educational theories as a synthesis of
the two views. His slogan was that schools should encourage children to "Learn by doing." He wanted
people to realize that children are naturally active and curious. Dewey's understanding of logic is best
presented in his Logic, the Theory of Inquiry (1938). His educational theories were presented in My
Pedagogic Creed, The School and Society, The Child and Curriculum, and Democracy and
Education (1916).

Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process
similar to Dewey's model of learning:

1. Become aware of the problem.

2. Define the problem.
3. Propose hypotheses to solve it.
4. Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience.
5. Test the most likely solution.

Dewey's influence declined in the time after the Second World War and particularly in the Cold
War era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore. Although Dewey's ideas never
gained mainstream acceptance in public schools, progressive education continues to find champions in
the debate about schools. Numerous charter and private schools have continued to implement many of
Dewey's ideas.

Applications of progressive education in schools

John Dewey instructed: "Our schools must teach understanding of difference and goodwill toward others,
as these are essential to a democratic society."[2]

Generally speaking, progressive education values the thoughts and experiences of each individual
student while addressing the needs of society as a whole. Numerous schools have found their own
methods and styles to implement democratic principles while maintaining the ideals of individualized
learning in action.

Principles to guide the development of learning environment:

  Learning should be child centered. The facilities, curriculum, and teaching methods should be
developmentally appropriate and responsive to individual children's strengths, interests, and
learning styles. Experiences in self-direction, making choices, and taking risks help children
develop into confident, independent, life-long learners.
 Learning should be active. Children learn best by doing things themselves. They should be given
opportunities to explore and discover the world, to use a variety of materials, and to participate in
activities and experiences that help them construct knowledge for themselves. Challenges,
questions, encouragement, and time for reflection help them integrate and apply their
understanding. They emerge as critical thinkers and problem solvers.
 Learning should engage the whole child. Children have emotional, social, moral, physical,
intellectual, and creative needs, and all of these needs should be addressed in the learning
environment. Learning that embraces the full scope of children's lives is rich and meaningful.
Children who are encouraged to experience all that the world has to offer develop habits of
openness, curiosity, and joy in learning and doing.
 Learning should have purpose. Children need to master the skills of analysis and communication,
as well as those of living and working with others. Teaching them to respect all living things and
connecting their lives to the larger context of community helps them become sensitive and
informed citizens. They develop perspective and judgment, and are empowered to act.

 People learn best through experience and discovery.

 Promote a deeper, broader purpose for education. Rather than just disseminating facts,
educators strive to “prepare learners to be critical thinkers and thoughtful citizens” and to educate
the “whole child.”
 Since children have different kinds of "intelligences" and learning styles, multiple styles of
teaching should be used in order to address the diversity of intelligences, talents, and learning
styles.

Mission Statement of Progressive Schools:

 To educate students to become independent thinkers and lifelong learners and to pursue
academic excellence and individual achievement, in a context of respect for others and
service to the community.
 To provide learning which must be active and experiential, with the school providing abundant
opportunities for students to excel. Students with a range of abilities and talents are
accepted who can take full advantage of a rich and demanding academic program in which
each student is both challenged and supported.
 To create within the school a community built on understanding and respecting others. Thus,
the curriculum is built on inter-disciplinary studies to promote understanding of many cultures.
While individual achievement is encouraged and rewarded, our program underscores the
value of shared goals, friendship, and cooperation in mastering difficult tasks.

 To aim at the highest development of each pupil’s individual abilities.

 To strive for “total education” through study, work, and social activities.
 To encourage the integrative and individual approach so the learning process paralleled real life.

Theory of Multiple Intelligence

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

  Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born with all of the
intelligence they will ever have.
 This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence,
sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities.
 Gardner introduced eight different types of intelligences consisting of : Logical/Mathematical,
Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal.
 Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed valued in
school and society.
 The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book
“Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines several distinct
types of intellectual competencies.
 Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each "candidate”
intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.
 He writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our profile of these intelligence may differ
individually based on genetics or experience.
 Gardner defines intelligence as a “biopsychological potential to process information that can be
activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture”
(Gardner, 2000, p.28).

Linguistic Intelligence (“word smart”)

Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard Gardner's multiple intelligence theory that deals with sensitivity
to the spoken and written language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals. People with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and Oprah
Winfrey, have an ability to analyze information and create products involving oral and written language
such as speeches, books, and memos.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your linguistic intelligence:
 Lawyer
 Speaker / Host
 Author
 Journalist
 Curator

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)

Logical-mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out
mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. People with logical-mathematical
intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop equations and proofs, make
calculations, and solve abstract problems.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your logical-mathematical intelligence:
 Mathematician
 Accountant
 Statistician
 Scientist
 Computer Analyst

Spatial Intelligence (“picture smart”)

Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those
used, for instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those
of importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects. People with spatial
intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart, have an ability to recognize and manipulate
large-scale and fine-grained spatial images.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your spatial intelligence:
 Pilot
 Surgeon
 Architect
 Graphic Artist
 Interior Decorator

 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“body smart”)

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the hand
or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products. People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such
as Michael Jordan and Simone Biles, have an ability to use one’s own body to create products, perform
skills, or solve problems through mind–body union.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
Dancer
 Athlete
 Surgeon
 Mechanic
 Carpenter

Musical Intelligence (“music smart”)

Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical
patterns. People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have an ability to
recognize and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your musical intelligence:
 Singer
 Composer
 DJ
 Musician

Interpersonal Intelligence (“people smart”)

Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other
people and consequently to work effectively with others. People with interpersonal intelligence, such as
Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have an ability to recognize and understand other people’s moods,
desires, motivations, and intentions.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your interpersonal intelligence:
 Teacher
 Psychologist
 Manager
 Salespeople
 Public Relations

Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart”)

Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of
oneself-including own’s desires, fears, and capacities—and to use such information effectively in
regulating one’s own life. People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya Angelou,
have an ability to recognize and understand his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.
This type of intelligence can help a person to understand which life goals are important and how to
achieve them.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your intrapersonal intelligence:
 Therapist
 Psychologist
 Counselor
 Entrepreneur
 Clergy

Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species—
the flora and fauna—of his or her environment. People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles
Darwin and Jane Goddall, have an ability to identify and distinguish among different types of plants,
animals, and weather formations that are found in the natural world.

Potential Career Choices

Careers you could dominate with your naturalist intelligence:
 Botanist
 Biologist
 Astronomer
 Meteorologist
 Geologist

Implications for Learning

The most important educational implications from the theory of multiple intelligences can be summed up
through individuation and pluralization. Individuation posits that because each person differs from other
another there is no logical reason to teach and assess students identically.
Individualized education has typically been reserved for the wealthy and others who could afford to hire
tutors to address individual students’ needs.
Technology has now made it possible for more people to access a variety of teachings and assessments
depending on their needs. Pluralization, the idea that topics and skills should be taught in more than one
way, activates individual’s multiple intelligences.
Presenting a variety of activities and approaches to learning helps reach all students and encourages
them to be able to think about the subjects from various perspectives, deepening their knowledge of that
topic (Gardner, 2011b).
A common misconception about the theory of multiple intelligences is that it is synonymous with learning
styles. Gardner states that learning styles refer to the way an individual is most comfortable approaching
a range of tasks and materials.
Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight intelligences at varying degrees of
proficiency and an individual’s learning style is unrelated to the areas in which they are the most
intelligent.
For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may not necessarily learn best through writing and
reading. Classifying students by their learning styles or intelligences alone may limit their potential for
learning.
Research shows that students are more engaged and learn best when they are given various ways to
demonstrate their knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers more accurately assess student
learning (Darling-Hammond, 2010).

References:
Marenus, M. (2020, June 09). Gardner's theory of multiple intelligencesy. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/multiple-intelligences.html
Armstrong, T. (2009). Multiple intelligences in the classroom. Ascd

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Readings: “Educational Psychology”, Chapters 5 and 6, and Instructor Handouts

Utililization of Educational Psychology by the Classroom Teacher

 To understand the development characteristics of children, by knowing the

science of behavior and experiences of learners. The development stages of
children have their own characteristics if known by the teacher, he can utilize
them in imparting instruction and molding their behavior according to the
specified goal of education.
 To understand the nature of classroom learning by understanding the principles
of learning and various approaches and problems of the learning process and
their remedial measures and guidance for effective learning.
 To understand individual differences by adjusting teaching approaches to the
needs and the requirements of the class with individual differences.
 To understand effective teaching methods by acquainting with knowledge of
various theories in order to organize his class-room teaching at different age
levels.
 To understand the causes of the problems of children by successfully solving
them.
 To understand maladjustment in children by equipping with the fundamental
knowledge of mental hygiene.
 To understand curriculum construction by knowing psychological principles
such as needs of pupils and society, developmental characteristics, learning
pattern used in formulating curriculum for different stages are to be
incorporated in the curriculum.
  To understand measurement of learning outcome by using some psychological
tools used to assess the learning outcome and evaluate the teaching methods
for modification in the light of the performance of the students.
 To understand the proper guidance for the education of exceptional children by
heping to develop positivie attitude and use of group dynamics

Contribution to Practice of Education

 Problem of discipline: Teachers now tackle the problem of student’s

indiscipline by examining the causal factors leading to them in a more scientific
way. The attitude from an autocrat to democrat.
 Use of A.V. aids: Teaching with the use of aids that affect multiple senses of the
learner is more effective and lasting. Modern teachers resort to the use of
hardware and software approaches in educational technology to make their
teaching more concrete and stable.
 School and classroom administration has been psychologized and made collegial
rather than dictatorial in nature.
 Co-curricular activities: Teachers used to give undue importance to the
theoretical subjects in schools. Activities like debate, drama, scouting and
games were supposed to be a wastage of time. Now we give these activities due
importance for the harmonious development of the personality of children.
 Use of innovative methods: Several innovative ideas resulting from research
studies in psychology have been introduced to improve the teaching-learning
process. Activity centered teaching, discussion method, micro-teaching,
programmed instruction, and non graded school classes at the primary stage are
some of the important innovations.
 Production of text books: We now write textbooks taking into consideration the
intellectual development of children, their needs and their interests at different
age levels.
 Undoubtedly the study of educational psychology may be very helpful to equip
our prospective teachers with necessary skills to deal with classroom teaching-
learning problems.