Computer

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and operations based
on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It has the ability to accept data
(input), process it, and then produce outputs.
OR

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data from the user, processes it,
produces results, displays them to the users, and stores the results for future usage.
Data is a collection of unorganized facts & figures and does not provide any further
information regarding patterns, context, etc. Hence data means "unstructured facts and
figures".
Information is a structured data i.e. organized meaningful and processed data. To
process the data and convert into information, a computer is used.

Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital
pens, etc. Input can also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the
programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world
through output devices like monitor, printer, etc

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Advantages of Computers / Characteristics of Computer
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who
will spend many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability
 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.

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  Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
 The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in
paper work and results in speeding up the process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
 A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
 A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
 It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
 The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
 Computers have no feelings or emotions.
 It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

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Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities
and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is
continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We
can say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values
always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without
first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and
continuous representation of all data within the rage of the analogue
machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the
help of transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic
form and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the
analogue computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps
understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue
computers. It was developed to perform basic mathematical
calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation, the hashed
rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.

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 o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential
calculations. It performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to
solve differential calculations.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0
and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output.
All modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at
home or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily
whenever you need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the
program without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like
an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It
can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and
convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a
processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the
analogue subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.

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 o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be

of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering

applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy
research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security
reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather
conditions. It can run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) that can execute any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for
their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centers or cloud
system. For example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock
market and bit coin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate
results in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained
from exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and
other pollutants in the atmosphere.

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2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It
means they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of
mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and
telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume of data that
requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second
in the banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper
installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors
and input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe
computers. If any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the
performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of
information and data.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors
and can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in
institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory
management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.

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 o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or
scientific applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and
high speed graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great
expertise; accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation,
music workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for
business or professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than
a personal computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and
editing.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose
computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and
desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office
work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at
a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching
videos, etc.

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 Components of Computer System
Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central
Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data input
to processor, which processes data and generates useful information that’s displayed to
the user through output devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called "the brain of computer" as it controls
operation of all parts of computer. It consists of two components: Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), and Control Unit.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to ALU, where rest
of data processing takes place. All types of processing, such as comparisons, decision-
making and processing of non-numeric information takes place here and once again
data is moved to RAM.
This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

Control Unit
As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution, maintains
and directs operations of entire system.

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Functions of Control Unit
Control unit performs following functions −

 It controls all activities of computer

 Supervises flow of data within CPU
 Directs flow of data within CPU
 Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Transfers results to memory
 Fetches results from memory to output devices

Memory Unit
This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as well as results given by
computer are stored. Unit of memory is "Byte".
1 Byte = 8 Bits

Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting. Booting takes
place in two steps −

 Switching on power supply

 Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
 Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is switched on is
called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware, i.e. a piece of software
permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting. Rebooting
may be required if a software or hardware has been installed or system is unusually
slow.
There are two types of booting −
 Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it
is called cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.
 Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted
or rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold booting
because BIOS is not reloaded.

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Computer – Applications / uses
The application of computers in various fields.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility
which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −
 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making
deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer
Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.

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Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following −
 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics,
write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit
direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They
are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used
in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans,
etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.
 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause
of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry
dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −
 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

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Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is
received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some
main areas in this category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

History of Computers
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and
bones as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more
computing devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with
the first to recent ones are described below;

Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 5,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads were
moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic calculations.
Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An image of this tool is
shown below;

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Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-
1614) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones
marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's
Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.

Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between
1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it
was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only perform
addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a
wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is
given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

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Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel
It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in
1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical
calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted
drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine
In the early 1822s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern
Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a
steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

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Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1834. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical
tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or
information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the

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Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became International Business Machine
(IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an
analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken
planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In

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1943, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first
programmable digital computer.

Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with
time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting.
It replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing
machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous
generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of
computers. There are five generations of computers which are described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These
computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic
tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

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Second Generation Computers
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These
computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made
transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and
tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages
like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems
were used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers (1965-1971) used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of
transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a
computer and reduced the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient and
smaller in size. These generation computers used remote processing, time-sharing, multi
programming as operating system. Also, the high-level programming languages like
FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI)
circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips
made this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These
generation computers used real time, time sharing and distributed operating system. The
programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this generation.

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Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI
(Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips
with ten million electronic components. This generation computers used parallel processing
hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. The programming languages used in this
generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

Computer Hardware:
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer Hardware is
any part of the computer that we can touch these parts. These are the primary
electronic devices used to build up the computer.
Examples of hardware in a computer are the Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor,
Printer, Keyboard, Mouse, and the Central Processing Unit.

Computer Software:
Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, documentation that performs
different tasks on a computer system. we can say also Computer Software is a
programming code executed on a computer processor. The code can be machine-
level code or the code written for an operating system.
Examples of software are Ms Word, Excel, Power Point, Google Chrome,
Photoshop, MySQL etc.

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Difference Between Hardware and Software:
HARDWARE SOFTWARE

Hardware is a physical parts computer that Software is a set of instruction that tells a

cause processing of data. computer exactly what to do.

It is manufactured. It is developed and engineered.

Hardware can not perform any task without software can not be executed without

software. hardware.

As Hardware are physical electronic We can see and also use the software but

devices, we can see and touch hardware. can’t actually touch them.

It has four main categories: input device, It is mainly divided into System software,

output devices, storage, and internal Programming software and Application

components. software.

Hardware is not affected by computer Software is affected by computer viruses.

viruses.

It can not be transferred from one place to But, it can be transferred.

another electrically through network.

If hardware is damaged, it is replaced with If software is damaged, its backup copy

new one. can be reinstalled.

Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, Ex: Ms Word, Excel, Power Point,

CPU, Hard disk, RAM, ROM etc. Photoshop, MySQL etc.

The two major types of computer software are:

 Application Software
 System Software

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 Programming Languages
A program is a set of instructions that help computer to perform tasks. This set of
instructions is also called as scripts. Programs are executed by processor whereas
scripts are interpreted. The languages that are used to write a program or set of
instructions are called "Programming languages". Programming languages are broadly
categorized into three types −

 Machine level language

 Assembly level language
 High-level language

Machine Level Language

Machine language is lowest level of programming language. It handles binary data
i.e. 0’s and 1’s. It directly interacts with system. Machine language is difficult for human
beings to understand as it comprises combination of 0’s and 1’s. There is software which
translate programs into machine level language. Examples include operating systems
like Linux, UNIX, Windows, etc. In this language, there is no need of compilers and

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interpreters for conversion and hence the time consumption is less. However, it is not
portable and non-readable to humans.

Assembly Level Language

Assembly language is a middle-level language. It consists of a set of instructions in a
specific format called commands. It uses symbols to represent field of instructions. It is
very close to machine level language. The computer should have assembler to translate
assembly level program to machine level program. Examples include ADA, PASCAL,
etc. It is in human-readable format and takes lesser time to write a program and debug
it. However, it is a machine dependent language.
Assembly Language Machine Code
SUB AX, BX 0010101110000011
MOV CX, AX 100010111001000
MOV DX, 0 10111010000000000000000

High-level Language
High-level language uses format or language that is most familiar to users. The
instructions in this language are called codes or scripts. The computer needs a compiler
and interpreter to convert high-level language program to machine level language.
Examples include C++, Python, Java, etc. It is easy to write a program using high level
language and is less time-consuming. Debugging is also easy and is a human-readable
language. Main disadvantages of this are that it takes lot of time for execution and
occupies more space when compared to Assembly- or Machine-level languages.
Following is a simple example for a high level language −
if age < 18 {
printf("You are not eligible to vote");
} else{
printf("You are eligible to vote");
}

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System Software
The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend
the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared
by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written
in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System
software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.
Types of system software
1. Operating system
2. Translator
Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is
the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched on
and this is called booting. OS manages a computer’s basic functions like storing data in
memory, retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc

Translator
A program written in high-level language is called as source code. To convert the
source code into machine code, translators are needed.
A translator takes a program written in source language as input and converts it into
a program in target language as output.
It also detects and reports the error during translation.

Roles of translator are:

• Translating the high-level language program input into an equivalent
machine language program.
• Providing diagnostic messages wherever the programmer violates
specification of the high-level language program.

Different type of translators

Compiler
Compiler is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to
low-level language. It translates the entire program and also reports the errors in
source program encountered during the translation.

25 | ICT NOTES
Interpreter
Interpreter is a translator which is used to convert programs in high-level language to
low-level language. Interpreter translates line by line and reports the error once it
encountered during the translation process.

It directly executes the operations specified in the source program when the input is
given by the user.
It gives better error diagnostics than a compiler.

Differences between compiler and interpreter

SI. Compiler Interpreter

No

1 Performs the translation of a program Performs statement by statement

as a whole. translation.

2 Execution is faster. Execution is slower.

3 Requires more memory as linking is Memory usage is efficient as no

needed for the generated intermediate intermediate object code is
object code. generated.

4 Debugging is hard as the error messages It stops translation when the first
are generated after scanning the entire error is met. Hence, debugging is
program only. easy.

26 | ICT NOTES
 5 Programming languages like C, C++ uses Programming languages like Python,
compilers. BASIC, and Ruby uses interpreters.

Assembler
Assembler is a translator which is used to translate the assembly language code into
machine language code.

Application software;

Application software is a term which is used for software created for a specific
purpose. It is generally a program or collection of programs used by end users.
It can be called an application or simply an app.

In fact all the software other than system software and programming
software are application software.

Application software definition

A software which is developed to help the user to perform specific tasks
is called application software.
Various Examples Of Application Software Are:

 Word processing software

 Database programs
 Entertainment software
 Business software
 Educational software
 Computer-aided design(CAD) software
 Spreadsheet software etc.

Types of application software

27 | ICT NOTES
Packaged Software:
Packaged software that is often called software package is a commercial
program that’s obtainable to the general public and sold to them at explicit
costs. Package software is developed by computer technicians. it is the
compilation of programs which are grouped together in order to provide
publicly with different tools in the same group. It can’t be modified or altered
even if there is need. The essential definition says that, once several software
package are grouped during a bundle and supply solutions to people, then it
gets the specified name.

The best example of package software is Microsoft Office, that has many tools
grouped together for example Office, Access, Excel, Note and Power Point.

Customized software
Custom software development is the designing of software applications for
a specific user or group of users within an organization.
Such software is designed to specifically address these users' needs better
than more traditional and widespread off-the-shelf software can. Custom
software is typically created just for these specific users by a third-party or
in-house group of developers and is not packaged for resale.

Programming Software
Programming software is a software which helps the programmer in developing
other software. Compilers, assemblers, debuggers, interpreters etc. are
examples of programming software. Integrated development environments
(IDEs) are combinations of all these software.

Programming software is also known as programming to ol or software

development tool.

Programming software definition

28 | ICT NOTES
 Programming software is a program or set of programs which helps the
software developers by assisting them in creating, debugging and
maintaining other programs and applications.

Programming software is a sub-category of system software but according to

some sources it is stated as a separate category of software along with
application and system software.

Storage Devices
The storage devices of computer is a useful technology, created
to save or archive digital information according to the
requirements of the user. This data and files are stored in an
organized way so that the user can access it more easily.

Without computer storage devices in computers system, laptops,

and smartphones would not be very helpful. Well, every device
needs a storage unit to work. The information or data can be text
files, videos, programs, documents, images, applications, among
others.

29 | ICT NOTES
What is Primary Memory of Computer

Primary memory;
The Primary memory processes the data and instructions while the computer unit is
being processing. Primary memory stores the data or instructions for quick access.
Semiconductor chips are the main component used in primary memory.

The primary memory of computer is known as the main memory or temporary

memory on the computer.
The main purpose of primary memory used to store frequently used programs that
can be directly accessed by the processor for further processing. It is volatile
memory, meaning that data is stored temporarily and can be lost when the power
is switched off.
This memory is present in the CPU of the computer, from where the device
receives the data and instructions. RAM and ROM are examples of Primary
Memory of computers.

30 | ICT NOTES
Primary Memory’s Characteristics:
 The primary memory of computer is also called main memory, temporary
memory, or prime memory.
 It is a volatile memory.
 This memory is made of semiconductors technology.
 Data is automatically deleted in the event of power failure.
 Thie processing speed is faster than secondary memory.
 This is the main working memory of the computer.
 A computer is not able to process without primary memory.

Types Primary Memory

RAM
RAM stands for ‘Random Access Memory‘. RAM is a primary memory example
that stores operating system software, software applications, instructions, and other
information for (CPU) the central processing unit for direct and quick access when
needed to perform tasks.
RAM is one of the fastest types of memory, and it has the ability to be read and
write the data, but as long as there is Power Supply to the device. When the
computer is off, all the processed data of RAM automatically goes to trash.
The RAM is mainly used to running software, playing games, and media like audio
and videos.

Characteristics of RAM
 RAM is Volatile Memory i.e temporary memory.
 The storage of RAM is usually low as compared to secondary memory.
 RAM is much faster and Expensive than Secondary Memory.

31 | ICT NOTES
  All programs, Applications, Games, Graphics, and Instruction processes through RAM
Memory.
 RAM memory important component of CPU.
Examples of primary memory’s RAM Further has in two Types:
DRAM
The full form of DRAM is ‘Dynamic Random Access Memory‘. ROM is another
primary memory example.
Here, the word “Dynamic” means moving or always changing. So this RAM is
constantly refreshed. It is the most common type of main memory in a computer.
DRAM is used as the CPU’s main memory. It is a prevalent memory source in PCs
as well as workstations.

Dynamic random access memory is constantly restoring all the data that is being
stored in memory.

SRAM
The SRAM stands for ‘Static Random Access Memory‘. Here, the word “Static”
indicates that it does not have to be continually refreshed, as the information in this
memory remains constant until it is overwritten or deleted when the computer is
switched off.
It is a better choice than DRAM for certain uses such as memory caches located on
CPUs. Conversely, the density of DRAM makes it a better choice for the main
memory than SRAM.

It consists of 6 transistors and doesn’t have a capacitor, the transistors do not need
the power to prevent the leakage.

ROM
The full form of ROM is “Read Only Memory“. This is Permanent memory in
which information is entered into it once and stored permanently (even the
computer turned on and off).
The Stored programs and data cannot be modified and deleted in this memory, they
can only be read. Therefore this memory is called read-only memory. Even after
the computer is turned off, the stored data in ROM doesn’t destroy. Thus, ROM is
called non-volatile or permanent memory.

32 | ICT NOTES
ROM memory is used in all types of electronic devices such as Calculator,
Smartphone, Video Game, Digital Camera, etc. Most personal computers need
to have high ROM memory for storage.

Features Of ROM
ROM is a permanent memory.
 It stores all the basic Functionality instructions of the computer.
 In terms of price, ROMs are cheaper than RAM.
 ROM not only uses less energy but is also very reliable.
 It is used in embedded systems or where there is no need to
change any programming.
 They are mainly used in calculators and peripheral devices.
ROM Types:
PROM
PROM stands for ‘Programmable Read-Only Memory‘. It is a memory in which
once the data is stored they cannot be deleted but can modify. PROM memory is
used in cases where the data needs to be changed in all or most of the cases. It is
also used when the data that want to be permanently stored does not exceed the
ROM data.

EPROM
The full form of EPROM is ‘Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory‘. It is
similar to PROM but the memory can be erased only if it is exposed to ultraviolet
lights. It is non-volatile memory, meaning that the stored data remains there
indefinitely

33 | ICT NOTES
The stored can be erased and reprogrammed with the use of high voltage levels.
These disadvantages of EPROM have been overcome by flash memory and
EEPROM, which is why EPROMs are falling down the use in certain designs and
applications.

EEPROM
The full form of EEPROM is ‘Electrical Programmable Read-Only Memory‘.
There is also a new technology EEPROM in which the program can be
programmed, erased, and reprogrammed electrically and not with ultraviolet rays.
This makes them nonvolatile memory.
The above are the ROM’s 4 primary memory example.

Secondary Storage Devices:

 The secondary memory is also called external, or permanent
memory.
 It is non-volatile memory but also a backup memory for the
computer.
 Secondary memory is made up of magnetic and optical devices.
 Secondary memory stores the data permanently, even if you have
switched off the power it doesn’t lose the data.
 The processing speed is slower than the primary memory.
 A computer is able to work without a secondary memory but not
without a primary one

34 | ICT NOTES
Storage Devices of Computer
1. USB Drive

A USB drive is a small, light, ultra-portable storage device, and

compatible with Windows, Mac, and Linux.

The pen drive, also known as a USB memory device, memory stick, USB
flash drive, memory unit, data stick, pen drive, kitchen drive, and thumb
drive, USB keychain, USB stick, or simply USB is a portable data
storage unit.
The pen drive replaced floppy drives and became one of the most
popular portable data storage devices on the market. It is small,
lightweight, practical, and can be easily carried anywhere as opposed
to an optical drive or a traditional hard disk drive.
These types of storage devices in computer used to store documents,
photos, music files, videos, among others. Its range is from 2 GB to 1
TB.
The main components of USB flash drives are:
Standard USB plug – This part connects the flash drive to a device.
USB Mass Storage Controller – This is a microcontroller for USB. It
has a small amount of RAM and ROM.
NAND flash memory chip – The data stores in this component.
Crystal Oscillator – The output data is controlled by this component.

35 | ICT NOTES
Hard Disk Drive
The short form of the hard disk drive is HDD. A hard drive is a
computer-accessible storage device based on the made of magnetic
recording technology. They are used in the vast majority to store all
types of small or big files or data of computers, storing backup copies of
data, like file storage, etc. on our digital computer or Laptop.
A round-shaped disk consists inside the hard disk, the disk rotates inside
the hard disk, the faster the speed of rotates, the faster it can store or read
data.

There are four types of Hard Disk Drive.

1. PATA (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment)
2. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)

3. SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)

Solid State Drive

36 | ICT NOTES
SSD stands for “Solid State Drive“, are computer storage devices bit
similar like a hard disk drive., but it has storage capacity more than a
hard disk and more sophisticated device.
It neither has a motor nor a spinning disk as a hard disk has. It uses the
integrated circuit memory made of semiconductors technology like
RAM but it is used to store data permanently.
Hard Disk read/ write the data with the help of a mechanical arm. While
an SSD does not have a mechanical arm, so an embedded processor, also
known as a Controller, is used to read and write data. This difference
makes SSD faster than HDD.
The better quality of the controller will be of a good SSD for the
computers. Just like flash and USB drive, and memory card store the
data, in the same way, SSD stores the data.

Memory Card
A memory card is also known as a flash memory card or SD
Card (Secure Digital Card) is an external storage medium that allows us
to save and delete information. We use memory cards as secondary
storage for our device to store data such as photos, videos, files, etc.
A memory card is considered a small storage medium that is commonly
used for temporary storage. A memory card is a type of storage media
often used to store photos, videos, or other data in electronic devices.

37 | ICT NOTES
Devices that typically use memory cards include DSLR cameras,
digital Camco orders, smartphones, MP3 players, PDFs, and
printers. It is also used for small, portable and remote computer storage
devices.
The amount of storage capacity can vary depending on the type of
memory card. However, in general, most memory cards today range in
size from 4 GB (gigabytes) to 256 GB. These numbers will increase in

the future.
Optical Devices
Optical devices are nothing but CD and DVD we were used to watching
videos and many more. Both are storage devices of computer are still
used to store data.

CD Compact Disc
A ‘Compact Disc‘ is an abbreviated form of CD, it is a flat, round,
optical storage medium used to store data like audio. They are actually
made to replace the floppy disks that were used to store files and
programs from the computer. CDs eventually made floppy disks
obsolete.
There are two sides of Compact Disc one side contains the data, while
on the other side there is a label made for reading data is in the disc. It is
an optical medium that saves our digital data.

38 | ICT NOTES
Discs can store up to 700 MB of data, which equates to approximately
80 minutes of audio. Mini-discs have also been recorded that can store
about 24 minutes of audio or software drivers. Originally, CDs offered
more data than a computer’s hard drive, although, in modern technology,
hard drives outperform CDs by a mile.

DVD Digital Video Disc

A complete form of DVD is “Digital Video Disc” or can “Digital
Versatile Disc“. DVDs are similar to CDs and are also optical storage
devices. But, Prior to this, videos and films were recorded on a Video
CD (VCD), while some DVDs are used to store software and
computer files.
Also, DVD discs can be double-layer and double-sided, which
significantly increases the size of the drive. This allowed users to store
data up to 17.08 GB on a dual-layer, double-sided disc. A single-layer,
single-sided disc contains approximately 4.7 GB of data.
DVDs are in greater demand than CDs, they are used to record and store
all data formats (audio, video, images, and photos), images (img,
iso). However, after the arrival of the DVD, the market saw a huge
reduction in the demand for CDs.

39 | ICT NOTES
Floppy Disk
Floppy Disk is another storage devices of computer. The first floppy was
first created in 1969, this the same year that the Internet was launched
that’s pretty good, isn’t it?. These magnetic disks are very thin and
flexible enclosed in a square or rectangular plastic casing that’s why
they are called floppy disks as well as diskettes.
The floppy disk stores a small amount of data. Earlier it used to be more
on the computer due to its low storage capacity they have been replaced
by CDs as well as by flash memories that are small, portable.
In the 70-90s floppy disks played a much more important role in the
world of computers but they lost the competition to CDs because the
information capacity and lifespan of optical discs were higher. The
floppy disk was the main portable storage medium for data and
programs before the rise in popularity of the CDs.

40 | ICT NOTES
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is also a storage device similar to audio cassettes. It is like
the old-time audio case Magnetic Tape was basically used to store a
large amount of audio data. They were cheap. Even today it is used to
create a data backup.
Magnetic tape has been a major medium to store audio and binary data
storage for many years and is still part of the storage device for some
systems.
Magnetic tape is made of a thin and long plastic strip. A magnetic layer
is applied to it and the data is saved to the layer which is needed to send
the tape to a coil to read, which by a process decodes the data present on
that tape.

This tape was also used to store computer data. But these devices decline
in popularity after the arrival of the hard disk drives in the market.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory

.

Computer memory is classified into two primary and

secondary. The primary memory of computer is the main
memory that is used to store data or information temporarily,
while secondary memory refers to secondary storage devices
that are used to store data or information permanently.
41 | ICT NOTES
 Differences Primary Memory Secondary Memory
1. Nature Primary Memory is Non- Secondary Memory is Volatile i.e.
Volatile i.e. After shutting Even after shutting down the
down the power the data power the data saved don’t get
automatically gets deleted. deleted. Thus, Secondary Memory
Thus, Primary Memory used to stores the information
stores the information permanently.
temporarily.
2. Other Names It is also known It is also known
as Main Memory as Permanent and External Memor
and Internal Memory. y.
3. Accessing Speed Data processing speed Data processing speed
is faster than Secondary is slower than primary memory.
memory.
4. Transferable Information stored in Primary Information stored in Secondary
devices cannot be moved from memory can be easily transferred
one place to another. from one computer to another.
5. Made Primary Memory is made Secondary Memory is made up
of semiconductors technology. of magnetic and optical devices.
6. Size The primary memory of These memories are mainly
computer is mainly available in available in large sizes than the
small sizes starting primary memory up to or more
from 500MB up to 32GB. than 1TB.
7. Cost Primary memory is Secondary memory is cheaper than
more expensive than the primary memory.
secondary one.
8. Examples Examples of primary memory It includes Hard Disk drive, Optical
include RAM and ROM. Disk like CD and DVD, USB Drive,
Memory Cards, etc.

Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up
and synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main

42 | ICT NOTES
memory or disk memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is
an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the
CPU. It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main
memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the
data from frequently used main memory locations. There are various different
independent caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data.

Levels of memory:
 Level 1 or Register –
It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that are
immediately stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is
accumulator, Program counter, address register etc.
 Level 2 or Cache memory –
It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where data is
temporarily stored for faster access.
 Level 3 or Main Memory –
It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small in size and
once power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
Cache Performance:
When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first
checks for a corresponding entry in the cache.

 If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache
hit has occurred and data is read from cache
 If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache
miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and
copies in data from main memory, then the request is fulfilled from the
contents of the cache.
43 | ICT NOTES