Experiment C

Measurement of the speed of light

Aims:
1. To measure c, the speed of light, by two similar techniques.

Objectives:
1. To gain experience of precision measurement techniques.
2. To gain further experience with the analysis and elimination of experimental errors.
3. To gain familiarity with modern optical apparatus and equipment alignment methods.

Microscope
Matt
Screen
Laser

Attenuator Digital MR Speed

Micrometer Control

L1 ,
MR
f = 50mm L2 ,
Beam f = 250mm
Splitter

Figure C.1: The Foucault apparatus for measuring the speed of light.

Further reading:
• P.A. Tipler & G. Mosca, Physics for Scientists and Engineers 5th Edn. (W.H. Freeman and
Company, New York, 2004). Chapters 31 and 32.

62
 63

Introduction Quarter-wave
MF
MR plate
(fixed mirror)
The velocity of light in free space is one of the most (rotating
mirror) s
important and intriguing physical constants. Many L2 L1 Laser
methods of measuring it have been devised over the
centuries. At the end of the 19th century the careful PL
measurements of Michelson and Morley demonstrated PM
s'
that it was, perhaps counter-intuitively, constant for all Beam-splitter Measuring
inertial reference frames. This result led to the funda- Microscope
mental postulate of Einstein that the speed of light in
a vacuum c is constant and independent of any uni- Figure C.2: Diagram of the Foucault method
form (non accelerating) motion of the observer. This
led directly to Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity.
Whether the light comes from a laser on a desktop
on the fixed mirror MF , which reflects the light back
or from a star hurtling away at fantastic speed, if you
along the same path to MR . The beam then returns
measure the velocity of the light in a laboratory, you
through the beam-splitter, and is focused to a point at
measure the same constant value. In more precise ter-
position s0 , where it can be viewed through the mea-
minology, the velocity of light is independent of the
suring microscope. This beam of light is reflected from
relative velocities of the light source and the observer.
a particular point on MF which is determined by the
In particular theory shows that:
angle of MR .
(1) the velocity of light establishes an upper limit to Now think of a single short pulse of light leaving the
the velocity that may be imparted to any object, laser. Suppose MR is rotating, and this pulse of light
strikes MR when it is at angle θ. The pulse will then
(2) objects moving near the velocity of light follow a be reflected to a certain point on MF . However, by the
set of physical laws drastically different, not only time the pulse returns to MR , MR will have rotated to
from Newton’s Laws, but from the basic assump- a new angle, say angle θ + δθ. If MR had not been
tions of human intuition. rotating, but had remained stationary, this returning
pulse of light would be refocused at point s0 . Clearly,
A result of the fundamental nature of the velocity since MR is now in a different position, the light pulse
of light was such that in 1983 the S.I. definition of the will be refocused at a different point.
metre was recast in terms of the fundamental definition We can write an expression relating the displacement
of the second and by defining the velocity of light as of the image point, δs0 , to the angle δθ:
exactly 299,792,458 m.s−1 .
The title of this experiment may now seem rather 2DAδθ
δs0 = (C.1)
meaningless - we cannot measure the speed of light as B+D
it is a defined fundamental constant! In a modern con-
text you may think of these experiments as methods of where:
calibrating your length measuring apparatus. The ex-
• A = the distance between lens L2 and lens L1 ,
periments reflect the historical (pre-1983) methods used
minus the focal length of L1 ;
to determine the speed of light. Look into the methods
of Galileo, Römer, Fizeau and especially Foucault. • B = the distance between lens L2 and MR ;
• D = the distance between MR and MF ;
Theory • δs0 = the displacement of the image point, as
viewed through the measuring microscope.
The theory is discussed in more detail on the
DLM; work through it before attending the lab. The angle δθ depends on the rotational velocity of
The experiment you will carry out is a modern ver- MR and on the time it takes the light pulse to travel
sion of the technique established by Jean Foucault. The back and forth between MR and MF , a distance of 2D.
experimental arrangement for the Foucault method is The equation for this relationship is:
shown in Figure 2. PL and PM are polarisers, and
L1 and L2 are lenses. The quarter-wave plate can be 2Dω
δθ = (C.2)
moved in and out of the beam path. When the compo- c
nents are aligned correctly, the polarisers and quarter- where c is the speed of light and ω is the rotational
wave plate do not affect the beam paths in the system. velocity of the mirror MR in radians per second.
Consider a beam of light leaving the laser. First the Using (C.2) to replace δθ in (C.1) gives:
beam is focused by L1 to a point at s, then it passes
through the beam-splitter and L2 and is reflected from 4AD2 ω
the rotating mirror, MR . It is then focused to a point δs0 = . (C.3)
c(B + D)
64 EXPERIMENT C. MEASUREMENT OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT

Method (d) With the beam attenuated (i.e. polarisers

crossed), use the microscope to locate and focus
the reflected beam image. Adjust the microscope
to bring the reflected beam image into the centre
Safety Notice: of the cross-hairs.

This experiment uses a 1 mW laser which has the

potential to cause eye damage if you stare directly Making the measurement:
into the beam. When the mirror is stationary you
should only observe the beam indirectly, either The speed of light measurement is made by rotating
on a piece of paper or through crossed polarisers. the mirror at high speeds and using the microscope and
Do not look into the unattenuated laser beam, micrometer to measure the corresponding deflection of
directly or reflected from a mirror. Ask your the image point.
demonstrator for advice if you are unsure about
any safety aspects.
Important – The Rotating Mirror:
Laser power meters are available from the techni-
cians - you should find that the power exiting the The rotating mirror assembly is delicate and re-
microscope is <10 µW. However you may use a quires care. Before turning on the motor make
webcam to view the image on a computer instead; sure the mirror rotates freely by hand. Whenever
if you find viewing the laser uncomfortable you are the motor is accelerated, the red light on the front
advised to do so. panel of the motor control box will light up. As
the speed stabilizes, this light should go off. If it
does not, turn off the motor and consult a demon-
To align the equipment: strator - something is interfering with the motor
rotation.
Refer to Figure C.1 and Figure C.2. Never depress the MAX REV/SEC button for
more than one minute and always allow one
(a) Unblock the laser beam and use your fingers to minute between runs for the motor to cool.
rotate the drive wheel of the rotating mirror, MR
NEVER touch the rotating mirror mechanism
such that the laser beam is reflected down the lab
when the motor is activated - you may burn your-
towards the fixed wall mirror, MF .
self or, more likely, snap the belt.
(b) Adjust the fixed wall mirror, MF , using the three
screws, such that the incident beam is returned
along the same path to the rotating mirror. This (1) With the apparatus aligned and the beam image
can be a difficult process. It is easiest with two in focus, take a measurement of the position of
people: one adjusting MF , and one watching the the microscope. Use both the Vernier scale on the
beam position on MR . microscope and the digital micrometer attached at
the side. Make sure the digital micrometer has
First, try patiently adjusting the fixed mirror until 2 mm of travel in both directions.
the beam can be seen on the white surround of the
rotating mirror. (2) Check the direction switch on the rotating mirror
power supply is set to CW or CCW and turn on
If the reflected beam cannot be seen on MR hold
the motor. Through the microscope, you should
a small piece of paper in the path of the reflected
see a small, very faint spot that moves as the ro-
beam until you can see it on the edge. Walk to-
tating mirror changes speed. Verify that you are
wards MR using the paper as a guide to the path
looking at the correct point by changing the speed
of the reflected beam. This path can be adjusted
of the rotating mirror, and blocking and unblock-
using the screws on MF until it strikes MR .
ing the beam to MF so that the spot flashes. You
(c) Use the three alignment screws on MF to reflect the can vary the intensity by adjusting the microscope
incident beam directly back to the centre of MR . polariser, PM . For your safety, make sure that
Position the tracing-paper matt screen between the the mirror does not come to a complete stop
beam splitter and the microscope. The reflected whilst you are looking through the micro-
beam should be seen as a point of light. To verify scope.
that this point is the reflection, block the beam It is easy to confuse the correct spot with other
travelling to MF with your hand. The point should brighter spots caused by reflecting surfaces in the
extinguish. N.B. Do not attempt to realign any beam path. In practice, you will not obtain a pin-
other part of the apparatus. If you think there is a sharp beam image when the mirror is rotating; the
problem with the alignment discuss the matter with beam image will be a slightly diffuse spot or a nar-
your demonstrator. row bar.
 65

You may be able to improve the beam image by ad- system. (If you block first MR then L2 you should see
justing the microscope, after which you must stop some spots disappear.) They are an indicator of how
the mirror and repeat your zero point reading. If well-aligned the system is - a perfect alignment would
this fails to work, then you must make your best result in one single spot coincident with the spot from
estimate of the centre of the ’spot’ and use this in the rest position of MR . Clearly this perfect alignment
your measurements. would make the desired spot impossible to detect so
a slight mis-alignment is actually necessary. However,
(3) Let the motor warm up for 3 minutes at about 600 this extra light does mean that when MR is rotating the
revolutions per second then record the rotational correct spot can be hard to discern.
frequency at ten second intervals for a couple of
By using more sophisticated optical components the
minutes to determine the error in rotational veloc-
unwanted light can be eliminated from the microscope.
ity, ∆ω. N.B. if you find large fluctuations in the
You will set up these components and then obtain the
speed, i.e. greater than the least significant digit of
displacement vs. rotational speed data in the same
the display, the readout may be faulty; notify your
manner as before. Using this new technique you can
demonstrator.
assess whether the new components improve the accu-
(4) Now establish the error in a single reading of s0 , racy of the data or the ease of data collection.
(∆s0 ). To do this, keep the mirror rotating at The potential improvement is outlined below. Optics
a constant speed and repeatedly bring the cross- textbooks should provide more information if you wish
hairs onto the beam image and record the reading to improve your understanding.
on both the microscope and the digital microme-
ter. • The system already includes a polariser, PL , di-
rectly in front of the laser. This ensures that the
(5) Record the beam deflection for rotational speeds
light from the laser is linearly polarised. This po-
between 100 and 1000 rev/sec.
lariser should not be rotated.
(6) For one final reading, use the ADJUST knob
• A quarter-wave plate is fixed to the bench on a
to bring the rotational speed up to about 1,000
hinged support between MR and MF , and should
rev/sec. Then push the MAX REV/SEC but-
be carefully moved upright into the path of the
ton and hold it down. When the rotation speed
beam. The wave plate is tuned to the laser light at
stabilizes:
633nm, and positioned so that the the light leaving
• move the travelling microscope to bring the PL is aligned at 45o to both the slow and fast axes
beam image into the centre of the cross-hairs; of the wave plate. This has the effect of converting
the light to a circularly-polarised state.
• record the rotational speed and release the
MAX REV/SEC button; • When the light reflects from MF it experiences a
• record the position of the travelling micro- shift in handedness. As a result, when it passes
scope, using both the Vernier scale and the back through the quarter-wave plate it is converted
digital micrometer. to linearly polarised light that is rotated by 90o
with respect to the original beam.
When the mirror rotates at high speeds the image
may widen slightly in the direction of displacement. • The polariser in front of the microscope, PM , can
Position the microscope cross-hair in the centre of the now be rotated to eliminate most background light,
resulting image. whilst allowing the spot that travels to MF to re-
main unaffected.
The optical components used in this set-up are rea-
sonably simple - even the polarisers are used solely to
Set up your system with MR stationary, so that the
reduce the light intensity to a comfortable level. In the
spot travelling to MF is the only one visible in the mi-
next section, more complicated optical components are
croscope, then turn on the motor. You may need to ro-
introduced. These make use of the polarized state of
tate the microscope polariser, PM , slightly to improve
the laser to isolate a portion of the beam. Repeating
the image.
the experiment using these components should allow
you to assess whether they improve the data. Repeat your estimate of the error in the microscope
reading, then obtain values of the displacement vs. mo-
tor speed as before.
Improving the data collection with mod- Finally, take measurements of the distances A, B and
ern optical techniques D, defined earlier. Use Equation C.3 to determine c
and its error, both with the quarter-wave plate and
Whilst taking your first set of readings you will proba-
without. Remember that the rotational frequencies are
bly have observed a red background in the microscope,
different to angular velocities.
possibly with extra laser spots which do not deflect as
the mirror speed is varied. Compare and discuss both sets of results.
The extra spots and background light are reflections
from the surfaces of the other optical components in the