Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2

*Note: it is best toZ have students review this portion on an introduction to functions
x
of the form g(x) = f (t) dt before class, either by providing notes or a video.
a

Z x
Today we will consider functions of the form g(x) = f (t) dt.
a
* Key Point: g is a function of x, the upper limit of integration.
Z x√
Example: g(x) = 1 + t4 dt.
1

• What is g(1)?
Z 1√
g(1) = 1 + t4 dt = 0
1

• What is the geometric interpretation of g(x)?

√
It is the area under 1 + t4 , between t = 1 and t = x.

– g(x) > 0 when x > 1

– g(x) < 0 when x < 1

(
2 − t, t ≤ 3
Example: Consider the graph of the function f (t) =
t − 4, t > 3
Z x
Sketch a graph of g(x) = f (t) dt.
0
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
3 3 3
g(x) 0 2
2 2
1 2

*Note the relationship between the two graphs. f Looks like the graph of the derivative of g.

Recall:

The Extreme Value Theorem: If f (x) is continuous on [a, b], then f (x) must obtain both a
minimum value and a maximum value in that closed interval.

• We will use this Theorem to Prove the folowing:

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2: If f be continuous on an interval. Then for any a

in that interval, Z x
d
f (t) dt = f (x)
dx a

1
 Z x
Proof: Let g(x) = f (t) dt. Then we need to show that g 0 (x) = f (x).
a
R x+h Rx R x+h
0 g(x + h) − g(x) a
f (t) dt − a
f (t) dt x
f (t) dt
• g (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
• Because f is continuous, the Extreme Value Theorem implies that on the closed interval
[x, x + h], there exist values m and M such that m ≤ f (t) ≤ M for all x ≤ t ≤ x + h. This
means
Z x+h Z x+h Z x+h
mh = (m) dt ≤ f (t) dt ≤ (M ) dt = M h =⇒
x x x
R x+h
f (t) dt
m≤ x
≤ M =⇒ m ≤ g 0 (x) ≤ M
h
• As h → 0, the interval [x, x + h] closes in on the point x, and both m → f (x) and M → f (x).
R x+h
f (t) dt
Thus, g 0 (x) = lim x = f (x) by the Squeeze Theorem.
h→0 h

Z x 
d 2
Example: Find t dt
dx 1

• Approach 1: Using FTC 1

Z x
d t3 x d x3 13
    
d 2
Solution: t dt =  = − = x2
dx 1 dx 3 1 dx 3 3
• Approach 2: Using FTC 2
Z x 
d
Solution: t dt = x2
2
dx 1

Note that you can’t use FTC 1 when you don’t know an antiderivative of f (t), but you
can still use FTC 2!

Z x √
Example: Let g(x) = 1 + t2 dt. Find:
1

d
Z x √
(a) 1 + t2 dt
dx 1
√
Solution: = 1 + x2
Z 1√
d
(b) 1 + t2 dt
dx x
√ √
 Z x 
d
Solution: = − 1 + t2 dt = − 1 + x2
dx 1

2
 d
Z cos(x) √
(c) 1 + t2 dt
dx 1
d  d p
Solution: = g(cos(x)) = g 0 (cos(x)) (cos(x)) = 1 + cos2 (x)(− sin(x))
dx dx
Z x3 √
d
(d) 1 + t2 dt
dx x2
Z x3 √ ! Z x2 √ ! !
Z 0√ Z x3 √
d d d
Solution: 1 + t2 dt + 1 + t2 dt = − 1 + t2 dt + 1 + t2 dt
dx x2 0 dx 0 dx 0
√ √
= −2x 1 + x4 + 3x2 1 + x6

2
Example: Find a function, g(x), such that g 0 (x) = e−x and g(2) = 3.

−x 2
Solution:
Z x There are infinitely many functions with derivative e . These are functions of the
2
form e−t dt + C, where we can choose any constants a and C. We choose a so that it is possi-
a Z x
2
ble to compute g(2) =⇒ choose a = 2. Then g(x) = e−t dt + C =⇒ g(2) = C. Finally, choose
Z x 2
−t2
C = 3 so that g(x) = e dt + 3, and g(2) = 3.
2

!
Z x Z sin(t) √
Example: Suppose f (x) = 1 + u4 du dt.
0 1

(a) Is f increasing or decreasing at x = π?

0
Z sin(x) √ 0
Z 0 √ Z 1 √
Solution: f (x) = 1+ u4 du ⇒ f (π) = 1+ u4 du = − 1 + u4 du < 0, be-
1 1 0
cause the integrand is always positive. Thus, f is decreasing at x = π.

(b) Find f 00 (x).

!
d
Z sin(x) √ q
Solution: Find f 00 (x) = 1 + u4 du = 1 + sin4 (x) cos(x) .
dx 1

Z x Z x2
t4 2
Example: Which function is more dominant: f (x) = e dt or g(x) = et dt?
0 0

Solution: Using the definition of dominance:

4
f (x) LH f 0 (x) ex
lim = lim 0 = lim 4 = 0
x→∞ g(x) x→∞ g (x) x→∞ 2xex

Thus, g(x) is more dominant .