THEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 4. S, PRZEMIENIECKI PROFESSOR OF MECHANICS AND. ASSISTANT DEAN FOR RESEARCH AIR. FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY o7 1968 MeGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK ST. LOUIS SAN FRANCISCO TORONTO LONDON SYDNEY vital ‘pid cone ural om. reks the tual The trix ple? oad pre- ost ysis her sity, trix‘THEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Copyright © 1968 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, ‘or transmitted, in any form of by any means, electronic, ‘mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Libvary of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-1915 50904 1234567890MAMM7432106987 TO FIONA AND ANITA PREFACE ‘The matrix methods of structural analysis developed for use on modern digital computers, universally accepted in structural design, provide a means for rapid and accurate analysis of complex structures under both static and dynamic loading conditions. ‘The matrix methods are based on the concept of replacing the actual con- tinuous structure by an equivalent model made up from discrete structural elements having known elastic and inertial properties expressible in matrix form. ‘The matrices representing these properties are considered as building blocks which, when fitted together in accordance with a set of rules derived from the theory of elasticity, provide the static and dynamic properties of the actual struciure, In this text the general theory of matrix structural analysis is presented. The following fundamental principies and theorems and their applications to matrix theory are discussed: principles of virtual displacements and virtual forces, Castighiano’s theorems, minimum-strainenergy theorem, minimum-comple- ‘mentary-strain-energy theorem, and the unit-displacement and unit-load theorems. The matrix displacement and force methods of analysis are pre- sented together with the elastic, thermal, and inertial properties of the most commonly used structural elements. Matrix formulation of dynamic analysis of structures, calculation of vibration frequencies and modes, and dynamic response of undamped and damped structural systems are included, Further ‘more, structural synthesis, nonlinear effects due to large deflections, inelastcity, creep, and buckling are also discussed. ‘The examples illustrating the various applications of the theory of matrixstructural analysis have been chosen so that.a slide rule is sufficient to carry out the numerical calculations. For the benefit of the reader who may be un- familiar with the matrix algebra, Appendix A discusses the matrix operations and their applications to structural analysis. Appendix B gives an extensive bib- liography on matrix methods of structural analysis. This book originated as lecture notes prepared for a graduate course in Matrix Structural Analysis, taught by the author at the Air Force Institute of ‘Technology and at the Ohio State University. The book is intended for both the graduate student and the structural engineer who wish to study modern ‘methods of structural analysis; it should also be valuable as a reference source for the practicing structural engineer. Dr. Peter J. Torvik, Associate Professor of Mechanics, Air Force Institute of ‘Technology, and Walter J. Mykytow, Assistant for Rescarch and Technology, Vehicle Dynamics Division, Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, carefully read the manuscript and made many valuable suggestions for improving the contents. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged. Wholehearted thanks are also extended to Sharon Coates for her great patience and cooperation in typing the entire manuscript. J. 8, PRZEMIENIECKI CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 MATRIX METHODS 1 LL Ineduetion 1 12 Design Herations 3 13 Methods of Analysis. 7 14 Areas of Structural Analysis 9 CHAPTER 2 ‘BASIC EQUATIONS OF ELASTICITY 10 21 Seainaplaement Equations 11 22 Suen Bgeton 12 23 Suet Equator for nial Sins 20 24 Equations o lr, 21 25 Compattity Equations, 23 (CHAPTER 3 ENERGY THEOREMS 25 341 Introduction 25 32 Work and Complementary Work; Strain Energy and Complementary Strain Energy 27 33° Green's Mdentity 32 34 Energy Theorems Based on the Principle of Virtual Work 34 35 Energy Theorems Based on the Principle of Complementary Viral Work 3836 —Clapeyron's Theorem 42 37 Belts Theorem 43 38 Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem 44 39° Summary of Energy Theorems and Definitions 44 Prowess 46 CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURAL IDEALIZATION 49 441 Structural Kdcalization 49 42 Energy Equivalence 53, 43 Structural Elements 56 CHAPTER s STIFFNESS PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS. 61 5.1 Methods of Determining Element Force-displacement Relationships 6 5.2 Determination of Element Stiffness Properties by the Unit-lisplacement Theorem 62 53° Application of Castigliano’s Theorem (Part 1) to Derive Stiffness Properties 66 SA Transformation of Coordinate Axes: % Matrices 67 55° Pin-jointed Bar Elements 69 36 Dear Elements 70 5.7 Triangular Plate Elements (In-plane Forces) 83 58 Rectangular Plate Elements (In-plane Forces) 89 59 Quadrilateral Plate Elements (In-plane Forees) 102 S10 Tetrahedron Elements 107 S.LL Triangular Plates in Bending 111 S12 Rectangular Phtes in Bending 115 S13 Method for Improving Stifiness Matrices 122 PROMLENS 128 CHAPTER 6 ‘THE MATRIX DISPLACEMENT METHOD 129 6.1 Matrix Formulation ofthe Displacement Analysis 129, 62 Elimination of the Rigid-body Degrees of Freedom: Choice of Resetions 137 63. Derivation of the Transformation Matrix V from Equilibrium Equations 139 64 Derivation of the Transformation Matrix T from Kinematics 143 65 Condensation of Stiffness Matrices 147 66 Derivation of Stifitess Matsices from Flexibility 148 67 Stifnss Matrix for Constantshearslow Panels 150 68 Stifess Matrix for Linearly Varying Axil-force Members 153, 69 Analysis ofa Pin-jointed Truss by the Displacement Method 155 6.10 Analysis of a Cantilever Beam by the Displacement Method 159) 6.11 Equivalent Concentrated Forces 161 omens 163 CHAPTER 7 FLEXIBILITY PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 166 74 Methods of Determining Element Displacement-foree Relationships 166 72. Inversion of the Foree-displacement Equations: Flexibility Properties of Pin-jointed Bars and Beam Elements "167 Determination of Element Flexibility Properties by the Unit-toad Theorem 171 Application of Castigliano’s ‘Theorem (Part It) to Derive Flexibility Properties 173 Solution of Differential Equations for Element Displacements to Derive Flexibility Properties 174 Pin-jointed Bar Elements. 174 Beam Elements 175 ‘eiangular Pate Elements (Insplane Forces) 177 Reciangular Plate Elements (Incplane Forees) 181 “Tetrahedron Elements 184 Constantshearslow Pancls 188 LLinearly Varying Axial-foree Members 188 Rectangular Plates in Bending 188 romuins 192 CHAPTER & THE MATRIX FORCE METHOD 193 8.1 Matrix Formulation of the Unit-load Theorem for External-force Systems 193) 82 Matrix Formulation of the Unitoad Theorem for Internal force Systems; ‘Self- equilibrating Force Systems 197 83 Matrix Formulation of the Force Analysis: Jordanian Flimination Technique 200 8A Matrix Foree Analysis of a Pin-jinted Truss. 206 85 Matrix Foree Analysis of a Cantilever Beam 219) 86 Comparison ofthe Foree and Displacement Methods 226 Pronuims 229 CHAPTER 9 ANALYSIS OF SUBSTRUCTURES. 231 9.1 Substructure Analysis by the Matrix Displacement Method 231 92 Substructure Displacement Analysis of a Two-Bay Truss 241 913 Substructure Analysis by the Matrix Force Method 246 94 Substructure Force Analysis ofa Two-bay Truss 257 Promuens 263 CHAPTER 10 DYNAMICS OF ELASTIC SYSTEMS. 264 104 10.2 03 104 105 106 or 108 109 Formulation of the Dynamical Problems 264 Principle of Virtual Work in Dynamics of Elastic Systems 266 Hamilton's Principle 267 Power-Balance Equation 269 Equations of Motion and Equilibrium 269 Static and Dynamic Displacements in a Uniform Bar 273 Equivalent Masses in Mateix Analysis 278 FFrequency-dependent Mass and Stifiness Matrices for Bar Elements 281 Frequeney-dependent Mass and Stifiness Matrices for Ream Elements 284 Prowuens 287 4CHAPTER 11 INERTIA PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 288, 11.1 Equivalent Mass Matrices in Datum Coordinate System 288, 112 Equivalent Mass Matrix for an Assembled Structure 290 113 Condensed Mass Matrix 291 Lid Pinjointed Bar 292 11S Uniform Beam 292 116 Triangular Plate with Translational Displacements 297 117 Rectangular Pate with Translational Displacements 299 118 Solid Tetrahedron 300 119 Solid Parallelepiped 301 11.10 Triangular Plate with Bending Displacements 302 1111 Rectangular Plate with Bending Displacements 305 11.12 Lumped-mass Representation 309 PRowiews 309 CHAPTER 12 VIBRATIONS OF ELASTIC SYSTEMS 310 12.1 Vibration Analysis Based on Stiffness 310 122 Properties of the Eigenmodes: Orthogonality Relations. 315 123 Vibration Analysis Based on Flexibility 318 124 Vibration of Damped Structural Systems 320, 125 Critical Damping 321 126 Longitudinal Vibrations of an Unconstrained Bar 322 127 Longitudinal Vibrations of a Constrained Bar 327 128 Transverse Vibrations of a Fuselags-Wing Combination 328 129 Determination of Vibration Frequencies from the Quadratic Matrix Equation 336 Ronen 339 CHAPTER 15 [DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF FLASTIC SYSTEMS 341 13.1 Response of a Single-degreeoffreedom System: Duhamel’ Integrals M2 132 Dynamic Response of an Unconsrained (Free) Structure 345 133 Response Resulting from Impulsive Forces 349 134 Dynamic Response of a Constrained Structure 350 133 Sieady.state Harmonie Motion 350 136 — Duhamel’s Integrals for Typical Forcing Functions 351 137 Dynamic Response to Forced Displacements: Response to Earthquakes 351 138 Determination of Frequencies and Modes of Unconsteained (Free) Structures Using “Experimental Data for the Constrained Structures 357 139 Dynamic Response of Structural Systems with Damping 359 1310 Damping Matrix Proportional to Mass 361 13.11 Damping Matcix Proportional to Stifness 363. 1312 Matsix € Proportional to Ceitcal Damping 364 1313 Orthonormalizaion of the Modal Matrix p_ 366 13144 Dynamic Response of an Elastic Rocket Subjected to Pulse Loading 367 1315 _ Response Due to Forced Displacement at One End of a Uniform Bar 371 pronuens 373 CHAPTER 14 STRUCTURAL SYNTHESIS 375 14,1 Mathematical Formulation of the Optimization Problem 376 4142 Structural Optimization 380 CHAPTER 15 NONLINEAR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 383 15.1 Matrix Displacement Analysis for Large Deflections 384 15:2 Geometrical Stiffness for Bar Elements 386 153 Geometrical Stiffness for Beam Elements 388 154 Matrix Force Analysis for Large Deflections 392 15.5 Inelastic Analysis and Creep 395 1516 Stability Analysis of a Simple Truss 396 157 Stability Analjss of a Column 400 158 Influence of a Constant Axial Force on Transverse Vibrations of Beams 403 routes 406 APPENDIX A MATRIX ALGEBRA. 409 APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY 445 INDEX 465CHAPTER | MATRIX METHODS A. INTRODUCTION Recent advances in structural technology have required greater accuracy and speed in the analysis of structural systems. This is particularly true in acro- space applications, where great technological advances have been made in the development of efficient lightweight structures for reliable and safe operation in severe environments. ‘The structural design for these applications requires consideration of the interaction of aerodynamic, inertial, elastic, and thermal forces. The environmental parameters used in aerospace design calculations now include not only the aerodynamic pressures and temperature distributions but also the previous load and temperature history in order to account for plastic low, ereep, and strain hardening. Furthermore, geometrienonlinearities must also be considered in order to predict structural instabilities and determine large deflections. It is therefore not surprising that new methods have been developed for the analysis of the complex structural configurations and designs used in aerospace engineering. In other ficlds of structural engineering, too, ‘more refined methods of analysis have been developed. Just to mention a few examples, in nuclear-reactor structures many challenging problems for the structures engineer call for special methods of analysis; in architecture new structural-design concepts require reliable and accurate methods; and in ship ‘construction accurate methods are necessary for greater strength and efficiency. ‘The requirement of accuracy in analysis has been brought about by a need for demonstrating structural safety. Consequently, accurate methods of analysis had to be developed since the conventional methods, although perfectly satis- factory when used on simple structures, have been found inadequate whenTHEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 2 applied to complex structures, Another reason why greater accuracy is re- quired results from the need to establish the fatigue strength level of structures; therefore, itis necessary to employ methods of analysis capable of predicting accurately any stress concentrations so that we may avoid structural fatigue failures. The requirement of speed, on the other hand, is imposed by the need of having comprehensive information on the structure sufficiently early in the design cycle so that any structural modifications deemed necessary can be incorporated before the final design is decided upon and the structure enters into the production stages. Furthermore, in order to achieve the most efficient design a large number of different structural configurations may have to be analyzed rapidly before a particular configuration is selected for detailed study. The methods of analysis which meet the requirements mentioned above use ‘matrix algebra, which is ideally suited for automatic computation on high-speed digital computers. Numerous papers on the subject have been published, but it is comparatively recently that the scope and power of matrix methods have been brought out by the formulation of general matrix equations for the analysis of complex structures. In these methods the digital computer is used not only for the solution of simultaneous equations but also for the whole process of structural analysis from the initial input data to the final output, which repre- sents stress and force distributions, deflections, influence coefficients, character- istic frequencies, and mode shapes. ‘Matrix methods are based on the concept of replacing the actual continuous structure by a mathematical model made up from structural elements of finite size (also referred to as discrete elements) having known elastic and inertial properties that can be expressed in matrix form. The matrices representing these properties are considered as building blocks, which, when fitted together according to a set of rules detived from the theory of elasticity, provide the static and dynamic properties of the actual structural system. In order to put matrix methods in the correct perspective, itis important to emphasize the relationship between matrix methods and classical methods as used in the ‘theory of deformations in continuous media, In the classical theory we are concerned with the deformational behavior on the macroscopic scale without regard to the size or shape of the particles confined within the prescribed boundary of the structure. In the matrix methods particles are of finite size and have a specified shape. Such finite-sized particles are referred to as the structural elements, and they are specified somewhat arbitrarily by the analyst in the process of defining the mathematical model of the continuous structure. The properties of each element are calculated, using the theory of continuous clastic media, while the analysis of the entire structure is carried out for the assembly of the individual structural elements, When the size of the elements is decreased, the deformational behavior of the mathematical model converges to that of the continuous structure. MATRIX METHODS 3 Matrix methods represent the most powerful design tool in structural engineering. Matrix structural-analysis programs for digital computers are now available which can be applied to general types of built-up structures. Not only can these programs be used for routine stress and deflection analysis ‘of complex structures, but they ean also be employed very effectively for studies in applied elasticity. Although this text deals primarily with matrix methods of structural analysis of aircraft and space-vehicle structures, it should be recognized that these methods are also applicable to other types of structures. ‘The general theory for the matrix methods is developed here on the basis of the algebraic symbolism ‘of the various matrix operations; however, the computer programmiig and ‘computational procedures for the high-speed electronic computers are not dis- cussed. The basic theory of matrix algebra necessary for understanding matrix structural analysis is presented in Appendix A with a view to convenient reference rather than as an exhaustive treatment of the subject. For rigorous proofs of the various theorems in matrix algebra and further details of the theory of matrices, standard textbooks on the subject should be consulted. 4.2. DESIGN ITERATIONS ‘The primary function of any structure is to support and transfer externally applied loads to the reaction points while at the same time being subjected to some specified constraints and a known temperature distribution. In civil ‘engineering the reaction points are those points on the structure which are attached to a rigid foundation, On a flight-vehicle structure the concept of reaction points is not required, and the points can now be chosen somewhat arbitrarily. ‘The structures designer is therefore concerned mainly with the analysis of known structural configurations which are subjected to known distributions of static or dynamic loads, displacements, and temperatures. From his point of view, however, what is really required is not the analysis but structural synthesis leading to the most efficient design (optimum design) for the specified Toad and temperature environment. Consequently, the ultimate objective in structural design should not be the analysis of given structural configuration but the automated generation of a structure, ic, structural synthesis, which will satisy the specified design criteria In general, structural synthesis applied to aerospace structures requires selection of configuration, member sizes, and materials. At present, however, not economically feasible to consider all parameters. For this reason, in ‘developing synthesis methods attention has been focused mainly on the variation of member sizes to achieve minimum weight subject to restrictions on the stresses, deflections, and stability. Naturally, in any structural synthesis all design conditions must be considered. Some significant progress has already‘THEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 4 been made in the development of structural-synthesis methods. This has been prompted by the accomplishments in the fields of computer technology, strue- ‘tural theory, and operations research, all of which could be amalgamated and developed into automated design procedures. Synthesis computer programs are now available for relatively simple structures, but one can foresee that in the near future these programs will be extended to the synthesis of large structural configurations. In present-day structural designs the structure is designed initially on the basis of experience with similar types of structures, using perhaps some simple analytical calculations, then the structure is analyzed in detail by numerical methods, and subsequently the structure is modified by the designer after examination of the numerical results. The modified structure is then re- analyzed, the analysis examined, and the structure modified again, and so on, until a satisfactory structural design is obtained. Each design cycle may introduce some feedback on the applied loading if dynamic and aeroelastic conditions are also considered. ‘This is due to the dynamie-loading dependence on the mass and elastic distributions and to the aerodynamic-loading dependence ‘on elastic deformations of the structure. To focus attention on the design criteria, the subsequent discussion will be restricted to structures for aerospace applications; however, the general con- clusions are equally applicable to other types of structures. ‘The complexity of structural configurations used on modern supersonic aircraft and aerospace vehicles is illustrated in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2 with perspective cutaway views of the structure of the XB-70 supersonic aircraft and the Titan IIL launch vehicle. These structures are typical of modern methods of construction for aerospace applications. The magnitude of the task facing the structures designer can bbe appreciated only if we consider the many design criteria which must all be satisfied when designing these structures, The structural design criteria are related mainly to two characteristics of the structure, structural strength and structural stiffness. The design criteria must specify the required strength to vio, 11 Structural details of the XB-70 supersonic aireraft. (North American Aofation Company, Ine.) MATRIX METHODS 5 NG. 12 Structural details of the Titan I tauren, vehicle. (Marzin Company) ka mT ensure structural integrity under any loading and environment to which the structure may be subjected in service and the required stiffness necessary to prevent such adverse aeroclastic effects as flutter, divergence, and reversal of controls. Whether or not these criteria are satisfied in a specific design is usually verified through detailed stress and aeroelastic analysis, Naturally, experimental verification of design criteria is also used extensively.THEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 6 ‘The structural design criteria are formed on the basis of aircraft performance and the aerodynamic characteristics in terms of maneuvers and other conditions, e.g., aerodynamic heating, appropriate to the intended use of the structure, and they are specified as the so-called design conditions. Before the actual struc- tural analysis ean be started, itis necessary to calculate the loading systems due to the dynamic loads, pressures, and temperatures for each design condition. Once the design conditions and the corresponding loading systems have been formulated, the structural and aeroelastic analyses of the structure can be performed provided its elastic properties and mass distributions are known, Crested — o formance = Dponie aes “Sa istration aati dieriaton Tretagl Sra wa Terma Sai — ne Ae requirements 1 i ‘Aeroelastic. i cea Sate or dramie ! oe tests ord ! gure — | ' 1 ' L | Dann cosets | ' sgn eon! | ' “ames waned ' ‘optimization 1 ' T \ a J va. 1.3 Analysis eyce for aieraft structural design, MATRIX METHODS 7 The structural analysis gives stress distributions which can be compared with the maximum allowable stresses, and if the stress levels are unsatisfactory (ither to0 high or too low), structural modifications are necessary to achieve the optimum structural design. This usually implies a minimum-weight struc- ture, although in the optimization process economic aspects may also have a decisive influence in selecting materials or methods of construction. It should also be mentioned that factors of safety are used in establishing design con- ions. ‘These factors are necessary because of the possibility that (1) the loads in service exceed the design values and (2) the structure is actually less strong than determined by the design calculations. Similarly, the aeroelastic analysis must demonstrate adequate margins of safety in terms of structural stiffness for the specified performance and environment to avoid adverse aero- clastic phenomena and ensue flight safety. The structural modifications deemed necessary for reasons of strength ot stiffness may be so extensive as to require another complete cycle of structural and aeroslastic analysis, In fact, it is not uncommon to have several design iterations before achieving a satisfactory design which meets the required criteria of strength and stiffness. A typical structural-analysis eyele in aireraft design is presented in Fig. 1.3, where some of the main steps in the analysis are indicated, The dotted lines represent the feedback of design information, which is evaluated against the specified requirements (design criteria) so that any necessary modifications in the structural layout or structural details can bbe introduced in each design cycle, 13 METHODS OF ANALYSIS Methods of structural analysis can be divided into two groups (see Fig. 1.4), analytical methods and numerical methods. ‘The limitations imposed by the analytical methods are well known. Only in special cases are closed-form solutions possible. Approximate solutions can be found for some simple structural configurations, but, in general, for complex structures analytical methods cannot be used, and numerical methods must invariably be employed. ‘The numerical methods of structural analysis can be subdivided into two types, () numerical solutions of differential equations for displacements or stresses and (2) matrix methods based on discrete-clement idealization. Inthe first type the equations of elasticity are solved for a particular structural configuration, either by finite-difference techniques or by direct numerical integration, In this approach the analysis is based on a mathematical approxi- mation of differential equations. Practical limitations, however, restrict the application of these methods to simple structures. “Although the various ‘operations in the finite-difference or numerical-integration techniques could be cast into matrix notation and the matrix algebra applied to the solution of the governing equations for the unknowns, these techniques are generally notTHEORY OF MATRIX STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS. & Structural onal ‘ancy tice! methods Numerical mates ‘Bikiect Matrix methods Sitter Distro element Finteaterrce | [ Numeraat Diptocamont| Force ‘wcrnquos | | integration ‘methods rethoce io, 14 Methods of structural analysis deseribed as matrix methods since matrices are not essential in formulating the analysis. In the second type the complete structural theory is developed ab initio in ‘matrix algebra, through all stages in the analysis. ‘The structure is first idealized into an assembly of diserete structural elements with assumed form of dis- placement or stress distribution, and the complete solution is then obtained by combining these individual approximate displacement or stress distributions in a manner which satisfies the force-equilibrium and displacement compati- bility at the junctions of these elements. Methods based on this approach appear to be suitable for the analysis of complex structures. These methods involve appreciable quantities of linear algebra, which must be organized into ‘a systematic sequence of operations, and to this end the use of matrix algebra is a convenient method of defining the various processes involved in the analysis without the necessity of writing out the complete equations in full. Further- ‘more, the formulation of the analysis in matrix algebra is ideally suited for subsequent solution on the digital computer, and it also allows an easy and systematic compilation of the required data. ‘Two complementary matrix methods of formulation of any structural problem are possible: (1) the displacement method (stiffness method), where displace- ‘ments are chosen as unknowns, and (2) the force method (flexibility method), where forces are unknowns. In both these methods the analysis can be thought of as a systematic combination of individual unassembled structural elements into an assembled structure in which the conditions of equilibrium and com- patibility are satisfied. MATRIX METHODS 9 14 AREAS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Structural analysis deals essentially with the determination of stress and dis- placement distributions under prescribed loads, temperatures, and constraints, both under static and dynamic conditions. Numerous other areas, however, must also be explored through detailed analysis in order to ensure structural integrity and efficiency. ‘The main areas of investigation in structural design are summarized below: stress distribution displacement distribution structural stability thermoelasticity (thermal stresses and displacements) plasticity creep creep buckling vibration frequencies normal modes of vibration acroclastcity, eg, flutter, divergence aerothermoclasticity, .g,, loss of stiffness due to aerodynamic heating dynamic response, eg, due to gust loading stress concentrations fatigue and crack propagation, including sonic fatigue ‘optimization of structural configurations