EXPERIMENT 4 (TWO WEEKS)

OHM'S AND KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS

1. Objective:

To practice making measurements of resistance, current and voltage in DC circuits and to verify
predictions of Kirchhoff s Rules in single and multi-loop circuits with resistors connected in
series and in parallel.

2. Reference: Young and Freedman, University Physics, Chapters 25 and 26.

3. Apparatus:

Voltmeter, ammeter, ohmmeter (may be analog units or parts of a single multi-function digital
unit), power supply (through plugs on the lab bench), circuit board ("bread board"), variable
resistor (decade box), resistors, clip leads.

4. Theory:

A basic discussion of Ohm's law is contained in the notes for Experiment 3 (Capacitors). We

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 will now consider what happens when two or more resistors are combined in various ways in the
same circuit. We consider here direct current.:i. steady state circuits meaning that the current
flows in one direction and is independent of time.

a) Combination- of Resistors:

Figs. 1 and 2 show combinations of two resistors R 1 and R 2 connected in series (Fig. 1) or in

? i
'1
i '2

~ (b)
Fig. I Fig. 2
parallel (Fig. 2). A battery of terminal voltage Vis connected across each combination We can
replace each of these two combinations by a single resistor of an appropriate "equivalent"
resistance R, meaning that the battery will cause the same current I to flow out of its positive
terminal, through the equivalent resistor R, and into its negative terminal as it would through the
combination of the two individual resistors R1 and R2. In these drawings the direction of the
current has been indicated as a flow of positive charge from the positive terminal of the battery
through the two resistors and into the negative terminal of the battery. Actually, negative
. electrons are flowing in the opposite direction. Below, we will compute the equivalent resistance
R for each combination.

Fig. 1 shows two resistors R 1 and R 2 connected in series across a battery. The distinguishing
characteristic of resistors connected in series is that the same current flows through each resistor
of the combination. This is because electrons are nowhere being created or destroyed and they do
not pile up or accumulate anywhere in the circuit.

Imagine that three ideal voltmeters, i.e. voltmeters

with infinite internal resistance, which, therefore,
draw no current, are connected into the circuit of Fig.
1 as shown in Fig. 3. We would find

(1)
~
V=V1+V2

where V is the voltage across the battery (or, Fig. 3

alternately, the voltage across the combination of R1
and R 2 as seen in Fig. 3) and V 1 and V2 are the voltages across R1 and R2 individually. The
equivalent resistance R of the series combination of R1 and R2 is defined by
V= IR (2)

where V and I are identical to those in Fig. 3. Each resistor individually obeys Ohm's law as

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well, therefore:

Vi= IRi and V2=IR2 (3)

_By combining (1), (2) and (3) we find the equivalent resistance R of two resistors in series to be
R=Ri + R2 (4)

Fig. 2 shows two resistors Ri and R2 connected in parallel across the battery. Just as in the case
of capacitors connected in parallel, the distinguishing characteristic here is that voltages Vi
(across Ri) and V2 (across R2) are equal to each other and also equal to the terminal voltage V
across the battery, i.e.

V=Vi=V2

The current I which comes out of the positive terminal of the battery splits at junction (a) into the
two currents Ii and Ii which flow through resistors Ri and R2 and then recombine at junction (b).
Since charge is conserved,

I= Ii+ 12 (5)

Since each resistor individually obeys Ohm's law,

V =Vi= liRi and V = V2= l2R2 (6)

The equivalent resistance R of the combination is again defined by (2). By combining (2), (5),
and (6) we find that the equivalent resistance R of two resistors in parallel to be given by
1 1 1 R1R2
- = - + - or, R= (7)
R Rt R2 R1+R2

Similarly, the equivalent

resistance of three resistors I\
connected in parallel across
a battery, as shown in Fig.
+ +
4, is Hz I\
I\ R2

1 1 1 1
-=-+-+- (8)
R R1 R2 R3
Fig. 4 Fig. 5

and the equivalent resistance of the combination shovm in Fig. 5 is

R=R I + R2R3 (9)

R2+R3

b) Kirchhoff's Rules:

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 Since most circuits do not consist of, or can be reduced to, a single loop, Ohm's Law is not
sufficient for their analysis. For such multi-loop circuit analysis two special rules have been
developed, known as Kirchhoff's Rules, which are not new or independent physics laws but are
alternate, circuit-appropriate statements based on already established laws, specifically those of
conservation of charge and conservation of energy. Eqns. (1) and (5) are applications of
Kirchhoff s Rules for the circuits shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

Rule #1, The Junction Rule (conservation of electric charge): The sum of currents going into
a circuit junction (a point joining 3 or more wires) must equal the sum of currents going out of
the same junction.

Rule #2, The Loop Rule (conservation of energy): The sum of potential differences across all
elements around each closed loop (potential drops across capacitors and resistors or potential
rises across batteries) must be zero.

In applying the Loop Rule the following convention of signs is adopted:

-if, in adding up potential changes around a closed loop, a resistor is traversed in the (pre-
assigned) direction of the current, the potential difference across the resistor is written as -IR
and, vice versa, if a resistor is traversed in a direction opposite to that of the current the potential
difference is written as +IR.
-if a battery (or any other source of emf€) is traversed in the direction of the emf, i.e. from the -
to the + terminal, the potential difference across the battery is written as +E, and vice versa.

5. Procedure:

How to read resistor values: The resistors with which you will work may be of the wire wound
type in which the res~stive medium is a long filament of wire made of a metal alloy and usually
wound on a cylinder. The cylinder may be encased in
some ceramic material. Another comn1only used type
is the composition resistor. These can be made by
depositing a thin metallic film on a cylindrical
· insulating support or by packing carbon granules,
which have a high resistivity, into a cylindrical
container. Usually, there are colored bands on these
resistors which indicate their value and their accuracy
or tolerance.

The resistance value is given by R = A B xlOc where

A, B and C represent the colors of the first three bands painted on the resistor. The fourth band,
band D, designates the tolerance or uncertainty (in percent) in the value of R. For example, if
we have a resistor with A = red, B = green, C = yellow and D = silver, its resistance would be R
= 25 x 104 Q to within an accuracy of ±10%. Some of the resistors are tiny, others are somewhat
bigger. The size is related to the amount of power which the resistor is capable of dissipating
and is not directly related to the value of its resistance. The large box included in the apparatus
of this experiment with several knobs on it is a "decade box" and functions as a calibrated,

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voltage drop V across it will be measured directly using an ammeter
and a voltmeter. The resistance R will then be deduced from Ohm's R
Law, R =VII, Eqn. (2).

Use the analog meter as the voltmeter and the digital meter as the Fig.7
ammeter. Do not use them the other way around. This experiment
is intentionally designed to give a value for R 3 that has a large error. CAUTION: The ammeter
is a very low resistance instrument, as opposed to the voltmeter which is a very high resistance
instrument. An ammeter must never be connected directly across a battery; it must always be in
series with a resistor, as is the case in Fig. 7. Before connecting the ammeter into the circuit,
make a preliminary computation of the expected current based on Eqn. (2), using 12 volts for the
power supply, to know what to expect. Ruining an ammeter is expensive.

Set the ammeter for the appropriate range. Record the readings of V and I in Table 1a and
complete the indicated calculations. For the moment, by calculating R from R =VII we neglect
any effect that the finite resistance of the voltmeter (which is connected in parallel with R) may
have. The non-zero resistance of the ammeter has no effect in this method.

Question: For which of the three resistors does VII give the largest deviation from the ohmmeter
reading? Note it on Table 1a.

b) Kirchhoff's Rules:

The objective of this section is to measure currents and potential differences in different branches
of circuits and compare the results with predictions of Kirchhoff s Rules.

b.1) A Single Loop Circuit-Resistors in Series:

Set up the circuit of Fig. 8(a). Use jumper wires,~ , between terminals on the bread
board as shown. Measure the current between the power supply and resistor R1 by removing the
jumper between the power supply and R1 and inserting the ammeter in its place, as in Fig. 8(b).
Similarly, measure the current flowing between R1 and R2 by inserting the ammeter in place of
the other jumper as in Fig. 8(c). Compare the two readings and record the results in Table 2a.

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 R1 +
_.___+ +

R::. Rz

(8) Cb> (CJ

Fig. 8
Measure the voltage V across the power supply and voltages V1 and V2 across R1 and R2. Use
the method indicated in Fig. 7. You don't need three voltmeters - just move the same one from
one connection to another. Record your readings in Table 2b and complete Table 2b (to check
the validity of Eqn. (1), Kirchhoffs Loop Rule) and Table 2c (to check the validity of Eqn. (4)
for the equivalent resistance of resistors in series).

b.2) A Two-Loop Circuit-Resistors in Parallel:

Set up the circuit of Fig. 9. Measure currents I, 11 and 12 by placing an ammeter in place of the
three jumpers, one by one. Record your data in Table 3a and complete the Table to check the
validity ofEqn. (5), Kirchhoffs Junction Rule. Compare I withl1 + h

I ,
~
~ ---4
+ +

ll,. ll,.

Fig. 9

Complete Table 3b to check the validity of Eqn. (7) for the equivalent resistances of resistors in
parallel.

c) Voltmeter Correction:

In part 5.a.2, the finite resistance of the voltmeter was not RV

taken into account. In Fig. 10, the voltmeter resistance is
indicated as Rv. The voltmeter correctly reads the
voltage V across each of R and Rv. From Ohm's and
J:2
Kirchhoffs Rules we have:
Fig. 10
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 I= 11+12 (10)

V=l1 R=l2Rv (11)

which can be combined to give I= VI R + V/Rv (12)

We can solve for either R or Rv

R = Rv ( V ) (13)
IRv-V

Rv =R ( V ) (14)
IR-V

Let R = R.3 in Eqn. (14)and consider R.3 to be known (use the ohmmeter value). Use (14) to
calculate the internal resistance Rv of the analog voltmeter. You can use data already recorded
in Table la.

Compare this result with a direct measurement of the internal resistance of the analog voltmeter
using the digital meter set up as an ohmmeter. Record all results in Table 4a.

Now treat RJ in (13) as an unknown. Compare R.3 as computed by VII (Table la) and by Eqn.
(13) with the ohmmeter value of Rv. If the correction factor is very small, as it would be if Rv
>> R, then (13) can be written, approximately, as

R= V 1 = V +~ (15)
I (i-~) I 12Rv
IRv
v2
Calculate the correction factor - 2- - for R1 and Ri and complete Table 4b.
I Rv
Is the correction important?

e) Wheatstone Bridge Circuit:

An accurate method of determining an unknown RA~ ~Rx

resistance, which avoids the difficulty related to
the interactions of meters with circuits, is based
on the bridge circuit illustrated in Fig. 11. This RB ~I~ R
type of circuit is called a Wheatstone bridge. G
stands for "Galvanometer" a sensitive current

+111~
measuring device. The resistance Rx is the
unknown. The resistances RA and Rn are
presumed accurately known. The variable resistor
R indicated by the symbol is also presumed
·
Fie:. 11
known.

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The idea is to balance the bridge by varying R until the galvanometer reads zero in which case it
draws no current (the potential difference across its terminals is zero) and it behaves as if it were
a continuous wire. RA and Rs would then be effectively connected in parallel and so would Rx
and R. Therefore, the equations which describe the circuit at balance are
l1Rx=l2R (16)

11RA=12 Re (17)

Dividing (16) by (17) and solving for Rx yields

- R
R x-R-i (18)
RB
Set up the bridge circuit of Fig. 11. Let RA = Rs and choose values in the 1000 to 2000 n range.
Use resistors that are in the 2% tolerance range. For the variable resistor, use the decade box.
Use the digital meter as a galvanometer since it is able to read positive or negative values. For
the unknown Rx use the previously labeled R 1 and R 2. In each case set the decade box
resistance to be approximately equal to the unknown resistance before connecting the circuit to
the battery. You can connect the decade box in series with another resistor of known value ifthe
box won't go up high enough. You can also change the ratio RA/Re. Record the results in Table
5.

The Physics 213 lab equipment, as all equipment, is not perfect Let us assume that the
uncertainties in the known resistances RA, Rs, and R are all about 2%. How do we predict how
reliable our calculated value of Rx is? The unknown resistance Rx depends on three variables
RA, Rs, and R. In order to simplify the discussion, suppose that we have some function which
depends on two variables only (here we will assume R is known exactly): f = f(x,y). If single
measurements of the two variables x and y are made and each of them has known uncertainties
&x and &y, then the uncertainty in the calculated function will be
M=fxAx+fyAy (19)
Where
ac and
ac
fx =ax fy= ay (20)

are the partial derivatives off with respect to x and y. Usually, we don't know the exact values
of &x and &y. Rather, the uncertainties in x and y are statistical in nature. For example, if the
tolerance of a 1000 n resistor is given as 2%, the implication is that Ax = 20 n and R = 1000 ±
20 n. This means that there is a reasonably high probability that the actual value of the
resistance falls somewhere in the range 980 n < R < 1020 n. If the errors in x and arey
independent, it can be shown that a better way to calculate the expected error in f than using ( 19)
IS

' Af = ~ r/ AX. 2 + r/ AY2 (21)

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The % uncertainty in f is then
Af
/of =-x100%
0 (22)
f

Derive the formula giving the percent uncertainty in Rx as given by (18) using Eqns. (20), (21)
and (22) and compute the expected % uncertainty in Rx.

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