1

CHAPTER-1
HIDES & SKINS

The outer coverings of big domestic animals like cow, buffalo and horse are
called hides. Whereas those of small domestic animals like sheep, goats are known
as skin.

Primitive man covered himself with the skins of animals he killed. They had three
major defects:
• They were dump,
• They would putrefy,
• They lost their flexibility and softness upon drying (they dried the skins to
stop putrefaction.)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HIDES & SKINS

The chemical composition of fresh hides and skins falls approximately within the
following limits:
• Water 60%-65%
• Protein 25%-30%
• Fats 5%-10%
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STRUCTURE OF HIDES AND SKINS

Most hides and skins consist of three parts, such as

(i) Epidermis,
(ii) Corium or true skin and
(iii) Hypodermic or adipose tissue.

The epidermis is a comparatively thin layer which forms the upper boundary of the
skin. This layer measures only 1% the total thickness of the skin and serves to
protect the corium which is the most important part of the skins.

The corium is a much thicker layer of connective and other tissues which
constitute the true leather forming substance of the hides and skins. The corium is
divided into two distinct layers:
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(a) Corium minor or grain

layer: It is the top of the
corium constitute about one
fifth of the total thickness
of corium and differs
structurally from the main
part. This layer has a
characteristics grain pattern
which is actually the pattern
of hair follicles depending
on the structure of the hides
and skins.

(b) Corium major or reticular layer: This is the main part of corium appearing
as net like fibers of connective tissues.

The entire corium is an interwoven structure consisting of several fibers grasped

together. The fibril again consists of several protofibrils. In practice, the corium or
true skin is that portion of the hide or skin. Which is called pelt, and from which
the hair has been removed.

The adipose tissue is the tissue left adhering to the flash side of the hide of skin. It
consists chiefly of fat cells, containing tallow like fats, with a few scattered fibers.
There is also some muscular tissue. All these structure are useless for the
manufacture and must be removed in the flashing operating after suitably
preparing the pelt in the soaking and liming processes.

So, in the preparation of the hides or skins the epidermis the adipose tissues must
be removed leaving curium which is converted into leather.
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CATTLE HIDES

The names "bull" and

"cow" refer to mature,
entire male and female
animals respectively while
"ox" and "steer" imply the
castrated male animal. All
these have large skins and
are thus known as large
Fig.: Grain pattern X10 of leather from cattle hides.
hides, which in the raw
(flayed) state may weigh between 30 and 90 Ib. "Veals" imply the skins of younger
animals and generally have raw weights between 14 and 25 Ib but "calf" refers to
fairly young stock with skin weights ranging from 4 to 12 Ib. The breed of ani'mal
is of course important, the best hides for leather purposes usually coming from
those animals which are bred for beef production, i.e. those which develop carcases
with a high proportion of lean meat in a reasonably short time under conditions of
economic feeding. These hides, available from all the beef-producing countries of
the world, are very tough and firm, fairly uniform in thickness and having a
"square" form, since breeding programmes are designed to produce a body
conformation with minimal amounts of tissue in the neck, leg and belly regions.
On the other hand, the dairy breeds of cattle usually have a more open dermal fibre
network, being very loose and thin in the belly (particularly in the females) whilst
the overall distribution is less "square".
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CALFSKINS

These are widely

available but only a few
countries provide high
quality material for the
leather trade. Diet is an
important factor; milk-fed
animals produce skins
with extremely smooth
grain and a dermal Fig.: Grain pattern X10 of calfskin leather.

network of fine, even texture so that those of French, Italian, Swiss, South German
and Czechoslovakian origin are regarded as the best available. Calves fed on barley
meal, hay, oil-cake, etc., are slightly more coarse skinned. In Europe, calfskins are
at their best early in the year (from April to June) when the animals are young and
before they begin to feed themselves and become coarser. Female skins are more
valuable than those of bull calf for they combine a reasonable toughness with fine
grain and even texture; they develop their fibre network more quickly than the
male animals and will therefore withstand tougher conditions of processing.
British, Dutch, North German and Danish skins are of reasonably good quality, as
are dry-salted Cape (Rhodesian) calf and New Zealand calf. The sun-dried Indian
and East African calfskins tend to be thin and to have many grain faults.
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PROPERTIES OF COW HIDE:

1) Fiber length is medium.

2) Number of fibers is huge.
3) The thickness of hair is medium.
4) The fiber bundles of female are more uniform than male.
5) Only one hair grows from one hair follicle.
6) Fiber weaving is parallel.

7) Fiber structure is compact at butt

area and lower in neck and belly
side.
8) The hair is random, scattered on
the grain surface.
9) Fat gland is optimum.
10) The hair root does not fully enter
into the corium layer.
11) Grain surface is smooth.
Diagram of vertical section through
cattle hide.

PROPERTIES OF CALF SKIN:

1. The epidermis of calfskin is thinner than

cowhide.
2. Grain surface is smooth.
3. Fat content is less than cow.
4. Calf skin has 100% cutting value.
5. The hair follicles are much smaller than
cow.
6. Collagen bundles have fine structure as
compared to cow hides and useful for the Diagram of vertical section through
calf skin.
finest of leather.
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CONDITIONS OF BANGLADESHI COWHIDES:

Bangladesh has a good source of raw hides and skins. Everyday thousands of
hides and skins are produced from whole country by killing animals in the
slaughters house and by various ways. Basically, the Bangladeshi cow hides
are of poor substance, because we can't take proper care of them.

Bangladesh is an agricultural country. The farmers are having cows to plough

the lands, to run the carts and in the dairy firms (less percentage) to get the
milk and meat. The farmers utilize the cow carelessly which is enough to
spoil the covering parts of the crows. The dammars dare fed swell. Moreover
the lesions animal’s parasites, many disease and injuries may occur. As far,
we are getting the poor quality cow hides. Besides, various flaying cuts are
also seen. Very often faulty curing is done i.e. the butcher does not cure the
hides or skins properly. Sometimes, they use mud to make the leather weight
and often the customers are confused to detect the correct grading for hiding
the defects by mud.

Some times fresh salts are not used and inadequate curing (less salt) is done
which causes putrefaction damage and growth of parasites. Further more,
temperature are not controlled at the time of storage properly.

So proper curing with suitable salt like fresh NaCl, Naphthalene and
bactericides should be used if we like to cure for longer period. In the
tanneries of Bangladesh, generally we get high quantity of hides and skins at
the time of ‘Kurbani Eid’. Due to faulty and inadequate curing we lose 1 0-
20% of raw stock.

If we take proper care for collections and preservation of raw hides and skins
and then converted these raw materials into various types of finished leather
with correct manufacturing process, they not only meet our demand but also
are an important way of earning a lot of foreign exchange. So, the government
and all stages of people should be conscious about this.
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RESPONSIBLE CAUSES FOR THE POOR QUALITY OF COW HIDES IN

BANGLADESH
The following defects available in our Bangladesh cow hides, defects whose are
responsible for the poor quality occur in hides have specific cause originating
either alive of after death. The former is called pre-mortem and the later post-
mortem defects are expressed below.

Some defects may be common on hides of all animals while others are
characteristic of hide particular causes of animals.

Defects of Hide
Ante-mortem Post-mortem
1. Poor sunstance 1. Flaying defects
2. Sore marks of abscesses 2. Inadequate curing
3. Branded wire scratches 3. Defects due to late-curing
4. Rub mark, horn rake 4. Curing with unsuitable salt
5. Brand marks 5. Faulty drying
6. Goad marks 6. Faulty storage
7. Yoke marks 7. Crack-grain
8. Ticks, Fleas 8. Vulture scratches
9. Scabies 9. Poor pattern
10. Pox
11. Wable fly or grubs
12. Cockle
13. Borsatis & Danas
14. Ringworm sears
15. Soiling by dug and urine
 9

CHAPTER 2

THE STORY OF LEATHER

Primitive man hunted wild animals for food; he removed the

hides and skins from the dead animal carcass and used them as
of leather dates from the Palaeolithic period, cave paintings
discovered in caves near Lerida in Spain depict the use of
leather clothing. Excavation of palaeolithic sites has yielded
bone tools used for scraping hides and skins to remove hair.

The skins rapidly putrefied and became useless, so a

method of preservation was needed. The earliest method
was to stretch the hides and skins on the ground to dry,
rubbing them with fats and animals brains while they dried.
This had a limited preserving and softening action.
Primitive man discovered also that the smoke of wood fires could preserve hides
and skins, as did treating them with an infusion of tannin-containing barks, leaves,
twigs and fruits of certain trees and plants. It seems likely that man first discovered
how to make leather when he found that animal skins left lying on a wet forest
floor became tanned naturally by chemicals released by decaying leaves and
vegetation.

Much later the use of earth salts containing alum as a tanning agent to produce soft
white leather was discovered. The alum leathers could be dyed with naturally
occurring dyestuffs in various plants.

Wall paintings and artifacts in Egyptian tombs indicate that leather was used for
sandals, clothes, gloves, buckets, bottles, shrouds for burying the dead and for
military equipment. The ancient Greeks and Romans also made extensive use of
leather and it has remained an important industrial raw material since those times.
The Romans used leather on a wide scale for footwear, clothes, and military
equipment including shields, saddles and harnesses. Excavation of Roman sites in
 10

Great Britain has yielded large quantities of leather articles such as footwear and
clothing.

The manufacture of leather was introduced to Britain by invaders, the Romans, and
by religious communities, whose monks were expert at making leather, especially
vellum and parchment for writing purposes. The ancient Britons had many uses for
leather from footwear, clothing and leather bags, to articles of warfare. The hulls of
the early boats, known as coracles, were also covered in leather.

Through the centuries leather manufacture expanded steadily and by mediaeval

times most towns and villages had a tannery, situated on the local stream or river,
which they used as a source of water for processing and as a source of power for
their water wheel driven machines. Many of these tanneries still exist, but in many
towns the only remaining evidence is in street names, like Tanner Street, Bark
Street and Leather Lane.

EARLY LEATHER PRODUCTION

The earliest crude leathers were made by first immersing the raw hides and skins in
a fermenting solution of organic matter in which bacteria grew and attacked the
hides or skins, resulting in a loosening of the hair or wool and some dissolving out
of skin protein. The hair or wool was then scraped off with primitive blunt stone or
wooden scrapers and fat or meat still adhering to the flesh side was removed in a
similar manner. Tanning, the conversion of pelt into leather, was done by dusting
the rawstock with ground up bark other organic matter and placing them in shallow
pits or vats of tannin solution. Further additions of ground bark, were made from
time to time until the tannin solution had penetrated right through the skin
structure, taking up to two years for very thick hides. The leather was then hung up
for several days in open sheds. The dressing of the leather involved paring or
shaving it to a level thickness, colouring, treatment with oils and greases, drying
and final treatment of the grain surface with waxes, proteins such as blood and egg
albumins, and shellac to produce attractive surface finishes.
 11

During the middle ages leather was used for all kinds of purposes
such as: footwear, clothes, leather bags, cases and trunks, leather
bottles, saddlery and harness, for the upholstery of chairs, and
couches, book binding and military uses. It was also used to
decorate coaches, sedan chairs and walls. Many leather articles
have been recovered from the Mary Rose, a Tudor vessel which
sank in 1545.

The majority of the leather was tanned with oak bark but soft clothing, gloving and
footwear leathers were tanned with alum, oil, and combinations of these two
materials.

With the discovery and introduction of basic chemicals like lime and sulphuric
acid, tanners gradually abandoned their traditional methods and leather production
slowly became a chemically based series of processes. Sir Humphrey Davy, the
inventor of the miner's safety lamp, investigated some of these processes.

The growth of industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries created a demand for
many new kinds of leathers, eg, belting leathers to drive the machines being
introduced into industry, special leathers for use in looms in the textile industry,
leathers for use as diaphragms and washers, leathers for use in transport and for
furniture upholstery.

At the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of the motor car, modern roads,
new ranges of coal tar dyestuffs, the demand for softer, lightweight footwear with
a fashionable appearance, and a general rise in the standard of living created a
demand for soft, supple, colourful leather. The traditional vegetable tanned leather
was too hard and thick for these requirements and thus, the use of the salts of the
metal chromium was adopted and chrome tanning became the tannage for modern
footwear and fashion leathers. It produces soft, supple, beautiful and fine leathers,
reflecting the way we live
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The Worshipful Company of Leathersellers

The Worshipful Company of Leathersellers supervised the control of the quality of

mediaeval leather produced in the City of London. They received their first
Chapter of Incorporation in 1444 from King Henry VI, having been granted
articles for the regulation of their craft during the first Mayoralty of Richard
Whittington in 1398.

Through the centuries the Company has played an important role in the leather
industry, particularly in the field of technical education. The Company founded a
technical college in Bermondsey in 1909 and in 1978 donated £500,000 for the
erection of The National Leathersellers Centre at University College Northampton.
The Company continues to maintain close links with the college and the industry
as a whole and has recently been involved with the development of new premises
for the Leather Conservation Centre, also located on the University College
Northampton site.
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CHAPTER 3
LEATHER

Real leather is a natural product. It breathes, is warm and

durable and has individual characteristics which make
each hide unique. Leather will always bear the marks of
its natural origin and these characteristics can show as
scratches, growth marks, areas of differing fibre density
and hair pore structure.

These characteristics in no way detract from the wearing qualities of the leather.
With use it develops a patina which enhances it's beauty.

Legal Definition

In the UK a definition of leather is set out in the British Standard Glossary of

Leather Terms (BS 2780) and this definition is used as a guide in applying
consumer protection legislation such as the Sale of Goods Act and the Trade
Descriptions Act. In short, if a product is made from reconstituted leather fibres or
if the surface coating is too thick then it cannot be sold as 'leather'.

BRITISH STANDERD DEFINITION (BS 2780)

Hide or skin with its original fibrous structure more or less intact, tanned to be
imputrescible. The hair or wool may or may not have been removed. It is also
made from a hide or skin that has been split into layers or segmented either before
or after tanning.

Note 1: If the leather has a surface coating, the mean thickness of this surface layer,
however applied, has to be 0.15mm or less.

Note 2: If the tanned hide or skin is disintegrated mechanically and/or chemically into
fibrous particles, small pieces or powder and then, with or without combination of a
binding agent, is made into sheets or forms, such sheets are not leather.
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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LEATHER

The physical properties which make leather a unique and valuable material for
upholstery purposes are:

1. High tensile strength

2. Resistance to tear
3. High resistance to flexing
4. High resistance to puncture
5. Good heat insulation

• Leather contains a great deal of air, which is a poor conductor of heat. This
is an important comfort consideration.

Permeability to water vapour

• Leather fibres will hold large quantities of water vapour. This property
enables leather to absorb perspiration, which is later dissipated. A
significant factor in comfort.

Thermostatic properties

• Leather is warm in winter and cool in summer.

Mouldability

• Leather can be moulded and will retain its new shape. It has both elastic
and plastic properties in wear.

Resistance to wet and dry abrasion

• These properties, concerned with wear and maintenance, are controlled by

the tannage and surface finish. These have now reached high levels of
excellence.

Resistance to fire:

• Leather is inherently resistant to heat and flame.

 15

Resistance to fungi

• Leather is resistant to mildew.

Resistance to chemical attack

• The atmosphere of modern cities is polluted from the burning of carbon

fuels with sulphur dioxide gas, which can accelerate Scope, aims and
objectives of the project work:

Leather industries are one of the leading export earning sectors of Bangladesh
which contribute a lot to the national economy. According to Export Promotion
Bureau, Bangladesh earns 836.15 core taka or 140.04 million US dollar from this
sector in 2005(July-Dec). But at the same time this sector is one of the major
source of environmental pollution in Dhaka city specially for the Burigonga River
and related areas.

In Bangladesh there are over 200 tanneries at present. These tannery units during
processing of raw hides and skins produce about 8.47 million liters liquid wastage
per day but in general there are no treatment or recycle facilities. These untreated
liquors when discharged without any recycling to drains and finally to nearby low
lands, municipal sewers and rivers with various toxic parameters such as high
BOD, COD, TDS, SS excessive concentration of sulfide, heavy metal content (Cr,
Al etc), nitrogen content, ammonium content, neutral salts, chlorides, oils & fats,
variable pH, dyes & pigments, solvents etc are causing serious pollution to air,
land and water and damaging land fertility as well as surface water system. Thus
they disrupt the aquatic ecology as well as the total environment.

• Besides Bangladesh tannery effluent is one of the major environmental

concerns all over the world and several attempts are trying to reduce their
pollution load. Hong-Duck Run , Sang-III Lee, and Keun-Yook Chung
described in their study that seawater induced flocculation of alkaline
tannery wastewater can increase the removal efficiency of organic
compounds,. Chuan, MC; Liu, JC Chuan, MC; Liu, JC assessed the release
 16

behavior of chromium from tannery sludge in their study. Fundamental

properties of sludge were characterized. O. A. Fadali; Y. H. Magady; A. A.
M. Daifullah; E. E. Ebrahim; M. M. Nassar; described thet, tannery effluent
can be characterized not only by heavy loads but also with toxic heavy
metals especially chromium ions. Thakur, I. S. studied the effects of
tannery effluents on soil health, crops, water resource, and human health,
and discusses different pollution control measures for these contaminating
materials. the deterioration of leather. Modern leathers are tanned and
dressed to resist these harmful chemicals.
 17

THE NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEATHER

Real leather is a natural product. It breathes, is warm and has individual

characteristics which make each hide unique. Leather will always bear the marks
of its natural origin and these characteristics can show as healed scars, growth
marks, areas of differing fibre density and hair pore structure. These hallmarks in
no way detract from the wearing qualities of the leather. They are signs discerning
owners cherish when buying leather. With the passing of time and use, it develops
a patina which enhances its beauty.

Growth Marks and Veins - These are an indication of the age of the animal and
in that respect are similar to the graining on a piece of timber. They range from
often quite pronounced marks in the neck area to subtle bands across the hide
perpendicular to the backbone. Heavy growth marks are often placed on the
outside backs of seating.

Scars - These form usually as a result of barbed wire damage or by the horns of
other cattle. In their healed form the new skin is as strong as the remainder of the
hide but unhealed damage should be avoided as tension on these parts may cause
the leather to split or burst.

Grain Variation - The fibre texture varies greatly from being loose in the belly
and flank areas to being relatively tight across the backbone. The looser areas
consequently have more stretch. The variation in hair pore structure is particularly
noticeable in untextured leathers where clusters of open pores can sometimes be
seen.

Shade Variation - No two hides are alike and due to the varying grain structure
mentioned above the dyes and finishes penetrate to differing degrees in different
parts of the hide to give an attractive variation. Whilst every attempt is made to
achieve uniformity this is not always possible and sometimes not desirable.
 18

TYPES OF LEATHER

In general, leather is sold in three forms:

•Full-Grain leather or Top-Grain is referring to the upper section of a hide

that contains the epidermis or skin layer. It refers to hides that have not been
sanded, buffed or snuffed(otherwise known as Corrected) in order to remove
imperfections on the surface of the hide. Only the hair has been removed from
the epidermis. The grain remains in its natural state which will allow the best
fiber strength, resulting in greater durability. The natural grain also has natural
breathability, resulting in greater comfort for clothing. The natural Full-Grain
surface will wear better than other leather. Rather than wearing out, it will
develop a natural "Patina" and grow more beautiful over time. The finest
leather furniture and footwear are made from Full-Grain leather. For these
reasons only the best raw hide are used in order to create Full-Grain or Top-
Grain leather. Full grain leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types:
aniline and semi-aniline.

•Corrected-Grain leather is any Top-Grain leather that has had its surfaces
sanded, buffed or snuffed in order to remove any imperfection on the surface
due to insect bites, healed scars or brands. Top-Grain leather is often wrongly
referred to as Corrected-Grain. Although Corrected-Grain leather is made
from Top-Grain as soon as the surface is corrected in any way the leather is no
longer referred to asTop-Grain leather. The hides used to create corrected
leather are hides of inferior quality that do not meet the high standards for use
in creating aniline or semi-aniline leather. The imperfections are corrected and
an artificial grain applied. Most Correct leather is used to make Pigmented
leather as the solid pigment helps hide the corrections or imperfections.
Corrected grain leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types: semi-aniline
and pigmented.

•Split leather is leather that is created from the fibrous part of the hide left
once the Top-Grain of the raw hide has been separated from the hide. During
the splitting operation the grain and drop split are separated. The drop split can
be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle split and a flesh split. In very
thick hides the middle split can be separated into multiple layers until the
 19

thickness prevents further splitting. Split leather then has an artificial layer
applied to the surface of the split and is embossed with a leather grain. Splits
can are also used to create Suede. The strongest suedes are usually made from
grain splits (that have the grain completely removed) or from the flesh split that
has been shaved to the correct thickness. Suede is "fuzzy" on both sides. Suede
is less durable than top-grain. Suede is cheaper because many pieces of suede
can be split from a single thickness of hide, whereas only one piece of top-
grain can be made. However, manufacturers use a variety of techniques to
make suede appear to be full-grain. For example, in one operation, glue is
mixed with one side of the suede, which is then pressed through rollers; these
flatten and even out one side of the material, giving it the smooth appearance
of full-grain. Latigo is one of the trade names for this product. A reversed
suede is a grained leather that has been designed into the leather article with the
grain facing away from the visible surface. It is not a true form of suede.

The International Union of Leather Technologists and Chemist Societies has a full
glossary of leather terms that can be found at IULTCS

Other less-common leathers include:

•Buckskin or brained leather is a tanning process that uses animal brains or

other fatty materials to alter the leather. The resulting supple, suede-like hide is
usually smoked heavily to prevent it from rotting.

•Patent leather is leather that has been given a high gloss finish. The original
process was developed in Newark, New Jersey, by inventor Seth Boyden in
1818. Patent leather usually has a plastic coating.

•Shagreen is also known as Stingray skin/leather. Applications used in

furniture production date as far back as the art deco period. The word
"Shagreen" originates from France and is commonly confused with a shark
skin and stingray skin combination.

•Vachetta leather is used in the trimmings of luggage and handbags,

popularized by Louis Vuitton. The leather is left untreated and is therefore
susceptible to water and stains. Sunlight will cause the natural leather to darken
in shade, called a patina.
 20

•Slink is leather made from the skin of unborn calves. It is particularly soft,
and is valued for use in making gloves.

•Deer Skin is one of the toughest leathers, partially due to adaptations to their
thorny and thicket filled habitats. Deerskin has been prized in many societies
including indigenous Americans. Most modern deer skin is no longer procured
from the wild, with "deer farms" breeding the animals specifically for the
purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from wild deer hides in
historic tanning towns such as Gloversville and Johnstown in upstate New
York. Deer skin is used in jackets and overcoats, professional sporting
equipment such as kendo bogu, as well as high quality personal accessories
like handbags and wallets. It commands a high price due to its relative rarity
and proven durability.

•Nubuck is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded or buffed on the
grain side, or outside, to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a
velvet-like surface.

There are two other descriptions of leather commonly used in specialty products,
such as briefcases, wallets, and luggage.

•Belting leather is a full grain leather that was originally used in driving
pulley belts and other machinery. It is often found on the surface of briefcases,
portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its thick, firm feel and smooth
finish. Belting leather is the only kind of leather used in luxury products that
can retain its shape without the need for a separate frame; it is generally a
heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetable-tanned leather.

•Nappa leather, or Napa leather, is chrome-tanned and is extremely soft and

supple and is commonly found in higher quality wallets, toiletry kits, and other
personal leather goods.

The following are not 'true' leathers, but contain leather material.

•Bonded Leather , or "Reconstituted Leather", is not really a true leather but a

 21

man-made material composed of 90% to 100% leather fibers (often scrap from
leather tanneries or leather workshops) bonded together with latex binders to
create a look and feel similar to that of genuine leather at a fraction of the cost.
Bonded leather is not as durable as other leathers, and is recommended for use
only if the product will be used infrequently. One example of bonded leather
use is in Bible covers.

•Bicast leather is a man-made product that consists of a thick layer of

polyurethane applied to a substrate of low-grade or reconstituted leather. Most
of the strength of bicast leather comes from the polyurethane coating. Bicast
was originally made for the shoe industry and recently was adopted by the
furniture industry. The original formula created by Bayer was fairly strong, but
creating Bicast from the original recipe is expense. Most of the Bicast used
today is created using inferior generic chemicals resulting in an inferior
material. The result is a much stiffer product that tends to delaminate resulting
in bubbles and cracking.
 22

LEATHER IN MODERN CULTURE

Leather, due to its excellent abrasion and wind

resistance, found a use in rugged occupations. The
enduring image of a cowboy in leather chaps gave way
to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted aviator.
When motorcycles were invented, some riders took to
wearing heavy leather jackets to protect from road rash
and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower
body. Many sports still use leather to help in playing the game or protecting
players: due to its flexible nature it can be formed and flexed for the occasion.

As leather can also be a metonymical term for objects made from it, the term
leathering is as logical as tanning in the sense of a physical punishment (such as a
severe spanking) applied with a leather whip, martinet etcetera.

Leather fetishism is the name popularly used to describe a fetishistic attraction to

people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves. The word
leather itself became synonymous with sado-masochism in the 1980s after
achieving that status in homosexual jargon in the 1970s.

A number of rock groups, particularly heavy metal groups such as Judas Priest and
Scorpions, are well-known for wearing leather clothing. Leather clothing,
particularly jackets, almost come as standard in the heavy metal subculture.
Extreme metal bands, especially black metal bands, have extensive leather
clothing, i.e. leather trousers, accessories etc.

In today's times, many cars and trucks come optional or standard with 'leather'
seating. This can range from cheap vinyl material, found on some low cost
vehicles, to Nappa leather, found on luxury car brands like Mercedes-Benz and
Audi.
 23

RELIGIOUS SENSITIVITIES TO LEATHER

In countries with harmonious multi-religious environments, leather vendors are

typically careful to clarify the kinds of leather used in their products. For example,
leather shoes will bear a label identifying the animal from which the leather was
taken. In this way, a follower of Islam would not accidentally purchase pigskin
leather, and a Hindu would avoid cow leather.

Such taboos increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers like ostrich and
deer. Judaism forbids wearing leather-soled shoes during Yom Kippur and during
mourning.

In Muslim countries the products made in Leather were normally banned as due to
the religious concerns imposed by some Islamic scholars but in the mid of 20th
century some eminent scholars from Muslim world have made significant efforts
to bring awareness about this issue amongst the people which ultimately starts the
trend of using leather products especially leather jackets, wallets, handbags and lot
of other customized leather articles.
 24

THE LEATHER MAKING PROCESS:

Curing

Raw hides and skins must be preserved to stop them

deteriorating before the leather-making process can
begin. Methods of preservation include salting,
chilling, freezing and the use of biocides.

Soaking
Cured hides or skins are soaked in water for several hours to several days. This
allows them to reabsorb any water they may have lost in the curing process or
during transportation. It also helps to clean them of salt and dirt.

Painting
Painting is a method by which wool can be removed from sheepskins using a
sulphide based mixture.

Liming
Liming removes the epidermis and hair. This also results in alkaline swelling of the
pelt to cause a controlled breaking of some of the chemical crosslinks of the
collagen.

Fleshing
After liming the pelt is passed through a machine to
remove fleshy tissue from the flesh side. Hides may
be split into layers at this stage or after tanning.
 25

Deliming
The principal action of deliming is to gradually neutralise the alkali in the pelt,
avoiding rapid changes in pH which could lead to distortion or disruption of the
tissues.

Bating
A long delime can significantly improve the removal of any remaining lime, scud
(miscellaneous debris) and residual components broken down during liming.
Bating - based on the use of enzymes - completes this process so that the pelt is
flat, relaxed, clean and ready for pickling and tanning.

Pickling
Weak acid and salt solutions are used to bring the pelt to the weakly acid state
required for most tanning processes. Stronger pickling solutions are used to
preserve pelts so that they can be stored or transported in a stable form over
periods of several months.

Degreasing
Solvents or water-based systems can be used to
remove excess grease before tanning.

Tanning
Tanning converts the protein of the raw hide or skin
into a stable material, which will not putrefy and is
suitable for a wide variety of purposes. Tanning
materials form crosslinks in the collagen structure
and stabilise it against the effects of acids, alkalis,
heat, water and the action of micro-organisms. The

Splitting
A splitting machine slices thicker leather into two
layers. The layer without a grain surface can be
turned into suede or have an artificial grain
surface applied.
 26

Shaving
A uniform thickness is achieved by shaving the leather on the non-grain side using
a machine with a helical blades mounted on a rotating cylinder.

Neutralisation
Neutralising removes residual chemicals and prepares the leather for further
processing and finishing.

Additional tanning material may be applied to give particular properties which are
required in the finished leather.

Dyeing
The dyeing of leather into a wide variety of
colours plays an important part in meeting fashion
requirements. Some leathers are only surface
dyed, while others need completely penetrated
dyeings, as is the case with suede leathers.

Fatliquoring
Fatliquoring introduces oils to lubricate the fibres and keep the leather flexible and
soft. Without these oils the leather will become hard and inflexible as it dries out.

Samming
This process reduces water content to about 55% and can be achieved by a number
of machines, the commonest being like a large mangle with felt covered rollers.

Setting out

The leather is stretched out and the grain side is smoothed. This process also
reduces the water content to about 40%.

Final drying

Leather is normally dried to 10-20% water content. This can be achieved in a

number of ways and each method has a different effect on the finished leather:
 27

Staking and dry drumming

A staking machine makes the leather softer and

more flexible by massaging it to separate the fibres.
To finish off the leather may be softened by the
tumbling action inside a rotating drum.

Buffing and Brushing

The flesh surface is removed by mechanical abrasion to produce a suede effect or

to reduce the thickness. In some cases the grain surface is buffed to produce a very
fine nap, e.g. nubuck leathers. After buffing the leather is brushed to remove
excess dust.

Finishing

The aims of finishing are to level the colour, cover grain defects, control the gloss
and provide a protective surface with good resistance to water, chemical attack and
abrasion.

Final grading

Leather will be graded before despatch to the customer. This grading may consider
the colour intensity and uniformity, the feel of the leather, softness, visual
appearance, thickness, design effects and natural defects such as scratches.

Measurement
The area of each piece of leather is measured by machine. Nearly all leather is sold
by area so accurate measurement is important.
 28

CHAPTER 4
THE HISTORY OF BAGS

The history of handbags provides a fascinating insight

into both men's and latterly women's developing need
to carry a range of items about with them as they
walked around their houses and travelled away from
home. Over the last five hundred years or so, a bag or
purse would enable them variously to secrete small
valuables, such as jewels and money, close to the body; to attend to personal
hygiene and comfort, with the aid of such as a comb and a mirror; and to engage in
a number of pleasurable duties, activities or pastimes of daily life -like writing a
diary, doing some knitting or tatting, or playing a card game, to pass time on
journeys and when staying away from home, or just when moving to another wing
of the house or around the family estate.

An early form of bag or wallet was the drawstring leather pouch which carried
coins, and which was looped through men's girdles or belts for safety. It was a
simple development of a circle of fabric drawn up together with two lines of
stitching going round the edge in parallel lines in different directions and knotted
to make the drawstrings. This was seen from the 12th to the 16th centuries, often
worn with a dagger or knife. Such pouches could in fact be stolen by determined
thieves who would cut them loose. This suspension of a functional object from the
belt has parallels with the medieval 'chatelaine', a chain with keys attached about
the waist, which was necessary for housekeepers even when simply moving from
wing to wing within the larger houses of England. The chatelaine was revived in
the 1840s as a device for suspending needlework and domestic tools, such as a pair
of scissors, a tape measure, a thimble case, button hook, penknife, and needle-case
from a device hooked onto the waist-belt.

From the 16th century there were also 'sweet' bags for the ladies, which were like
lavender bags, made of a variety of available herbs to scent their handkerchiefs,
and to disguise foul smelling odours from privy and street. A variant was the metal
 29

pomander. Men might carry letter-cases, which were large wallets for important
documents, and gaming purses, for counters (and winnings), often with a coat of
arms, crest or initials in evidence. They also had tobacco pouches, from the 17th
century. For long and extended journeys luggage travelled in large trunks, but the
more precious and intimate items were carried about the person.

Pockets were also introduced into clothes for carrying such small personal
belongings. If we look at wardrobe accounts from the 16th century we find that
these pockets were actually called 'bagges’. They would require about three
quarters of a yard of material, inserted into the side seam, and were at first mainly
seen in the garments of royalty and nobility - male and female -,but more and more
as an essential part of the main garment. As men's suits appeared from the 1670’s,
men's pockets transferred to their coats and waistcoats, as very visible functional
and increasingly decorative features, to carry a watch on a fob chain, a snuff box, a
visiting card case, and a handkerchief. By the 18th century ladies' side dress
pockets became so large and so useful for carrying a multitude of items that they
were often made separately, and attached singly or in pairs onto a band which tied
around the waist. Access to the pockets was provided through slits in the skirts.
This is the significance of the children's nursery rhyme,

Many of these separate pockets have survived in museum collections across

Europe, though not all are correctly identified as such! These were effectively bags
under the skirt as opposed to visible accessories, and as such are often plain and
unremarkable, and look rather like peg bags (which is perhaps what many
became). In the 18th century there were flat pochette purses, beautifully
embroidered for love letters and bank notes.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when the silhouette of female dress was
so figure hugging with the Neo Classical Empire and Regency line, pockets in a
garment or beneath it were almost impossible, and would certainly have spoilt the
hang of the skirt, so ladies carried delicate little drawstring bags or purses called
reticules, or 'ridicules'. These could carry a handkerchief, fan and dance card, a
scent bottle, some face powder and rouge, but nothing too weighty. They were
traditionally of some lightweight fabric such as pale coloured silk satin, prettily
 30

embroidered, or knitted silk. There are clear parallels in style and decoration
between reticules and the somewhat larger needlework bags which had emerged to
carry wools and tatting and embroidery threads. These are the origin of the
Dorothy bag. Later there were drawstring shoe bags and dressing bags and the idea
has persisted in P.E. bags and laundry bags.

In the Victorian period an extraordinary variety of types of bag appeared, in fabrics

which matched or co-ordinated with different outfits, and which suited different
fashionable styles of dress, and demonstrated different needlework and knitting
skills. In the 1830s and 1840s flat square or circular bags were quite literally
canvases for a range of decorative designs in wool-work and chenille, beadwork
and ribbon-work, and ladies' magazines described how to make them.

Small knitted, netted or crocheted silk or cotton coin purses are also characteristic
of this period and were known as stocking purses, or 'miser' purses. By mid
century these had metal fastenings and the whole was often made of a delicate
metal chain, which supported sovereigns and half sovereigns, hence the term
'sovereign purse'. Chamois leather was also used, together with metal rings to
secure the coins. Sovereign cases were of circular metal design, with an internal
spring to release a coin at a time. It is worth noting that in North America
handbags are still called purses, which may refer back to their introduction there
from Europe after1800, when they will still primarily coin purses. In the 1870s
there was a novelty knitted jug purse, of which Hampshire Museums has an
excellent example.

In the 1870s, with the slim figure hugging skirts of the princess line of the 1870s,
chatelaine bags were introduced which were suspended from the wrist or the belt
respectively. They sometimes had a little pocket inside for a coin or ticket. These
were often made of plush, a thick velvet pile fabric. The same material is also seen
on the larger holdalls, which women used for travelling. Then there were carpet
bags literally made of canvas embroidered with wool, sometimes known as
tapestry, which were immortalised in the story and film of the Edwardian nanny
Mary Poppins. Leather portmanteaux, with a flat bottom and expanding sides, on a
metal frame with a metal catch, are often called Gladstone bags after Queen
 31

Victoria's Prime Minister William Gladstone. Portmanteaux means literally 'carry

mantle', and certainly they could be draped with the silk capes popular in the 1840s
and the large shawls worn by Victorian women in the crinoline period. A travelling
parasol could be popped inside or an umbrella placed lengthwise across the top
between the handles. Muffs might also have an integral purse or small handbag
incorporated from the 1880s to the 1910s.

Here were specialised bags for different social occasions such as an opera bag for
opera glasses, and fan, together with mirror, and powder puff. Whole vanity cases
emerged with ointment bottles, brushes and mirror, to act as a travelling toilet bag.

By the early 20th century it had become almost inconceivable for a European
woman not to carry a capacious handbag when going away from home for more
than a few hours. Unlike hats, which began to lose popularity in the post war era,
handbags have persisted, but they have adapted to changing needs in form and
style. Cigarettes, cigarette holders and matches were a 20th century vogue which
have come and largely now gone. Reading, distance and sunglasses in their
protective cases take up a considerable amount of space in a modest handbag.
Clutch bags are not the most practical style, but enjoyed considerable popularity
from the 1930s to the 1960s for elegant evening soirees. Raffia and patchwork
were popular mid century, and a wide range of plastics post war.

Shoulder bags were introduced during the Second World War when some
concealed gas masks in a box-like design, and these - like sword holsters and
sashes before them- were worn diagonally, but for most women from the 1950s to
the 1990s the shoulder bag rested on the shoulder and hip of one side only - usually
the opposite side to the handedness of the person - (ergonomically unsound), and
there have been attempts in the 21st century to reintroduce the diagonal strap -not
least because the contents of bags can often now include mobile phones and purses
with heavy loose change and a range of other weighty items, from glasses cases
and pens to make up bags, mirrors, and hairbrushes, to diaries, and even library
books, depending on the size of the bag! There was a vogue in the 1970s for men
carrying bags which were like large oblong wallets, and could carry a passport,
 32

purse, tickets, tissues, and still attach to a waist belt if required. These were
replaced by or paralleled by 'bum bags' suspended from a waist belt.

The contents of a handbag or purse at any given moment over the last few hundred
years would surely bear ready testament to the preoccupations and interests of its
owner, and of the age in which they lived. In terms of function, the bag or purse
need only ever be of sufficient size and strength to bear its contents, but inevitably
the bag quickly became a highly decorated accessory, demonstrating of itself skills
in needlework, and making, if home-made, and of a design concept and careful
choice of materials, if manufactured or professionally crafted.

Handbags can wear out, literally with the weight and nature of the objects placed
inside them - a sharp needlework implement or hair pin can wear a hole, a host of
coins can rub, a stitching can come undone at points of intense wear or friction, or
where placed on the ground. Leather (and plastic) bags are still repaired at
cobblers.

Designer handbags are the most expensive not necessarily because of their
suitability or durability but because of the designer name and its social cachet.
 33

VARIOUS TYPES OF BAG:

1. Hand bag
2. Shoulder bag
3. Frame bag
4. Evening bag
5. Cosmetic bag
6. Beach bag
7. Shopping bag
8. Diverse bag
9. Document case
10. Executive or High official bag
11. Laptop carrier bag
12. Luggage bag
13. Travelling bag
14. Folio bag
15. Courier bag
16. Commercial bag
17. Under arm bag
18. Sports bag
19. Bum bag
20. Golf bag
21. Tote
 34

LADIES’ LEATHER BAGS

Leather bags are a status
symbol for fashion-
conscious women who enjoy
flaunting the labels of costly
international brands.
Increasingly, however, their
bags carry the logos of Hong
Kong manufacturers who
honed their craft producing quality goods for illustrious
designers like Pierre Cardin, Ralph Lauren and Enrico
Coveri but are now developing their own distinct
identities.

BAG LEATHER

Leathers which are used for the manufacturing of different types of bag are known
as bag leather. Mostly these are chrome or vegetable tanned from lower grade raw
stock having thickness 1.0-1.5 mm (or above for some particular article).

Combination tanning is carried out with a combination of chrome, vegetable,

synthetic or other tanning agents to improve the fullness and firmness and some
other desire properties of shoe upper. The main combinations are semi-chrome and
chrome-retanned leather. Leather is first tanned with vegetable and then retanned
with chrome tanning agent is semi chrome retanned leather. Chrome retanned
leather is softer and flexible and mostly used as shoe uppers.

PROPERTIES OF BAG LEATHER

• The physical appearance of finished leather should look attractive with
clear grain.
 35

• The leather must possess a soft and mellow ‘handle’ with fine and tight
‘break’ on the grain. The must be stable against repeated tensile and
compressive strains and bending.

• The leather must possess high strength properties i.e. tensile strength, stitch
tear strength, split tear strength, elongation at break etc.
• The leather must possess the hygienic property of being permeable to water
vapor and air.
• The finish on the leather should have high adhesion and must be durable
against wet and dry rubbing.
• Should be highly colour fast.
• Should have dry and wet rub fastness.

THE MAIN REQUIREMENTS OF IDEAL BAG LEATHER:

AESTHETIC APPEAL
The leather should have elegant attractive appearance. Elegant appearance
requires that the grain surface must be distinguishable from that of a leather
substitute and colors, gloss and grain appearance should be attractive and appeal
to the buyers of the bag. The leather should retain the colour, should not stain
wearer's clothes and should have ability to take polish. Not only looks but also the
feel of the leather by touch in the shoe are important.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The most important requirements for bag leather are good adhesion (wet and dry)
rub fastness and high temperature performance during plating, hot air drying and
lasting. Strength and stretch of upper materials used in shoe making are good
guides for their suitability. Low strength and stretch of upper leather and consider
unsuitable for use as shoe uppers.
The important physical properties of upper leather which determine its
suitability use in shoe making are:
 36

1. Tensile strength
2. Stitch tear strength
3. Split tear strength
4. Elongation at break
5. Distension at grain crack

CHAPTER-5

PIGMENT

A pigment is any particulate matter that is insoluble in and essentially physically

and a chemically unaffected by the media into which it is dispersed.

According to part, of course, all insoluble dispersed and inert materials are not
pigment. When all the desirable factors like, particle size and shape, nature of
surface, refractive indices, crystal structure etc. Of insoluble dispensable inert
materials are satisfactory, then only they can be considered as pigments. Some of
those desirable factors for a pigment are explained bellow: -

Particle size:

The covering power of a pigment largely depends upon its particle size. Smaller
the particle size, higher is the covering power. The particle sizes of commercial
pigments vary from fine colloidal particles (0.01 um) to relatively coarse particles
(100 um).

Shape:

The shape of pigment particles determines, to a great extent, the strength of

bondage is strong when the particles are irregular is shape and pointed sharp edge.

Nature of surface:

The nature of surface of a pigment particle should be such that it can easily reflect
that light waves which represent the colour of the pigment
 37

Refractive Index:

The covering power of a pigment also depends upon its optical density, which can
be represented by its refractive index.

Fastness:

Pigment must be fast to light, heat smoke, dust, and different gases present in the
atmosphere common organic solvents.

Compatibility:

If the pigment particles are not chemically inert, they may precipitate out many
ingredients from the binder solution into which the pigment is dispersed. A good
pigment should be compatible, i.e. it should satisfactorily tolerate all the materials
used in paint preparation.

Flocculation:

A good pigment power should completely disperse when it is sprinkled on stirring

vehicle containing other necessary materials at slightly other necessary materials at
slightly elevated temperature.

Bleeding and Migration:

Bleeding and migration of colour are another two important factors to be

considered before selecting a pigment.

Abrasion:

The particles of a good pigment must show high degree of resistance to abrasion.

Crystallization:

If a pigment crystallizes out when present in dilute paint emulsion, it must be

discarded as a pigment.
 38

CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENT:

Pigments are broadly classified into two groups: -

(1) Inorganic & (ii) Organic pigments.

Organic colour pigments are generally brighter, purer and richer in colour than
their corresponding inorganic pigments. However, they are also generally more
susceptible to such degrading and destructive

Influences sunlight, chemical attack and bleeding. The body, the covering power,
the intensity, the light fastness etc. of inorganic are always superior than organic
pigments. Considering all those factors most of the aqueous and non- aqueous
paints of today are prepared by mixing inorganic and organic in required
proportion.

Classification of inorganic pigments:

Inorganic pigments are two types-

(1) True/Earth colours &

(2) Prepared pigments.

Earth Colors

The naturally occurring insoluble colored materials come under this group. True
pigments or Earth colours are mind in different parts of world. Some of the true
pigments based on iron oxide are listed bellow:

(a) Yellow coloured iron oxide called limonite (Fe2O,/xH2O).

(b) Red colored natural iron oxide (Fe2O,)

(c) Brown colored limonite contain carbon and MnO 2. This pigments
trade name is "Burnt Umber".
 39

(d) The natural black coloured irons are called Magnetic (Fe,04).

(e) Through the body, converting power, light head and chemical fastness of
earth colors are better than prepared pigments, their uses in pigment
preparation have reduced considerably because those ares are always
associated with other materials as impurities. It is highly expensive to
purify those ores, but unless those are purified standard colour can be
obtained.

Prepared pigments:

The inorganic pigments which manufactured in chemical factories are called

"Prepared Pigments" or "Synthetic Inorganic Pigments". Those pigments are
classified into three groups:

(a) White prime or White hiding or White pigments.

(b) Extender or Filler pigments and

(c) Colour inorganic pigments.

(a) White pigments

The materials, which have high refractive indices (above 2.0) and produce
perfect white pigments, are allowed in this group. Example:

(i) Titanium dioxide (C 1 -77891: Pigment white 6)

(ii) Zinc oxide (C 1-77947: Pigment white 4)

(iii) Lithopone (C 177115: Pigment white 5)

(iv) Basic carbonate white lead (C 1-77597: Pigment white 10)

 40

(v) Antimony trioxide (C 1-77052: Pigment white 110)

(b) Extender

The extenders are also inorganic white or colorless prepared materials but they
cannot produce white colour to the paints as their refractive indices near about 1.5.
Example:

(i) Light alumina hydrate

(ii) Kaolin

(iii) Precipitated chalks and Silica

(iv) Talc

(v) Asbestos

(vi) Mica barium sulphate

(vii) Aluminium oxide etc. come under this group, extenders.

c) Colour inorganic Pigments

Those are also synthetically prepared colored inorganic compounds of high

density and hardness. The materials given bellow can produce color to paints.
Example:

(i) Different colored oxide of iron & chromium

(ii) Ultramarine

(iii) Red lead

(iv) Colored compounds of different metals

(v) Dust of different metals etc.

 41

Classification of organic pigments:

According to U.S Tariff Commission the organic pigments should be classified

into two groups (1) Toners & (2) Leaks.

Toners

Toners are metal cheltates formed from water-soluble anionic dyes and are
available in scarlet to maroon shades. Toners generally have good resistance
to bleeding. Example:

(i) Barium toners

(ii) Strontium toners

(iii) Calcium toners

(iv) Manganese

(v) Copper toners etc.

Lakes

A lake on the other hand is an organic colouring matter that has been
more of less definitely combined with some inorganic substrate or carrier. The
classification of organic pigments in Europe and Great Britain differs slightly from
American classification. In Europe organic pigments are classified into three
distinct groups as mentioned bellow:

(1) Pigments Dyestuffs,

(2) Toner Pigments &

(3) Lakes.

It is thus clear that the American classification and Europe classification of

organic pigments are basically the same except that L.S toners represent both
pigments dyestuffs and toners of Europe. In India the British specification is
 42

generally followed and therefore in the following specification chart system has
been expressed.

PIGMENT

Inorganic pigment Organic pigment

Earth color Prepared pigments Pigment Toners Lakes

White pigment Extender / Filler pigment Color pigment

PIGMENT IN LEATHER FINISHING:

Coloring substances are the base materials for leather finishes. A pigment is any
particulate matter this is insoluble in, and essentially and chemically unaffected by
the media into which it is dispersed.

The light fastness of selected is either than that of soluble dyes. This is especially
apparent on pale finishes for which only small amounts of coloring substance of
applied. Another effect, the transparent organic pigments too are superior to
soluble dyes in this respect. With pigments it is therefore also possible to achieve a
uniform coloring even of leather with unsettled surface appearance and cloudy
shades so that the cutting value is improved. In contrast to soluble dyes, most of
the pigments do not have the tendency to bleeding when they brought in which
water or solvents, furthermore, pigments have the advantage they can be fixed
during the production of the leather and large batched of leather can be uniformly
produced and stored.
 43

The pigments of course do not have only advantage. In addition, they are not fixed
to the direct but the anchored to the leather surface by means of suitable binders.
Therefore, any use of pigments means that the leather surface to the behavior of the
leather and to wearing properties for the processing and the use intended as
efficiently as possible.

Coloring substances of various origins are used as pigments for leather finishes.
There are essentially two main groups, inorganic and organic pigments. Both
group are manufactured synthetically so that pureness specific shades, fastness
properties and are ensured.

Inorganic pigments (e.g. titanium white, zinc white, cadmium yellow and red
chrome yellow and orange, iron oxide, yellow red brown and black, molybdate
orange and red and red) generally have covering power. They are, however, less
brilliant and process less tinctorial strength than organic pigments (e.g. yellow,
orange, red, blue, and green types). The range of finishes therefore, usually contain
members with inorganic and others with brilliant colors and obtain specific shades,
organic and pigments are used together on the finish.

The pigments cannot be used for leather finishing in the form in which they are
produced. In order to render then really embeddable in binders, they are use in
from of pigment preparation in which they are uniformly and finely dispersed. The
finishing effect is decisively dependent on this from of dispersion. Thus, leather
finishes are always pigment preparation in which the pigments are dispersed by a
treatment, which involves a great deal of work and rubbed off. The finishing
agents should level out the appearance of the leather on the whole surface as much
as possible and should either remain transparent of cove up the surface entirely.
The requirements may lie in any graduation between the two extremes.
 44

Properties of the pigments:

Any surface coating pigments may be asked to carry out some for perhaps all of
the following tasks:

(i) To provide color,

(ii) To obliterate color,

(iii) To improve the strength of part film,

(iv) To improve the adhesion of the paint film,

(v) To improve the durability and weathering

properties.

(vi) To reduce gloss.

(vii) To modify flow and application properties.

To choose pigments to carry out a given selection of those seven functions, we

must know about the following properties of the pigment.

i) Tinting strength.

(ii) Light fastness.

(iii) Bleeding characteristics.

(iv) Hiding power.

(v) Refraction index.

(vi) Particle size.

(vii) Particle shape.

(viii) Specific gravity.

(ix) Chemical reactivity.

(x) Thermal stability.

 45

CHAPTER 6
FINISHING OF LEATHER

The surface of leather or the grain was treated in ancient times with a protective
season. The modern finishing however has been developed in the last thirty years
to a high performance technology with respect to the chemical composition and to
the methods of application.

Generally ‘Finishing’ is defined as the up gradation or treatment of the leather

surface with finishes and season to impart the special properties desired of leather
as commercial product.

FINISHING MAY IMPROVE THE QUALITIES OF LEATHER IN

SO FAR AS:

a) Levelness of color on the skin.

b) Uniformity of shade from skin to skin and pack to pack.

c) Changing the color to that, which is required.

d) Imparting color or pattern to un-dyed leather.

e) Adding a transparent film through which the natural appearance of the

leather may be viewed.

f) Adding a transparent color film to the leather.

g) Covering the leather with an opaque film in order to obliterate al defects.

h) After the surface of the materials splits.

i) Improve the scuff resistance of the leather.

j) Improve the water resistance of the leather, i.e. the finish should not

discolor or swell and hence protect the leather and retain its good

appearance.
 46

k) Give a leather of optimum cutting value.

l) Seal the leather surface so that it remains clean.

m) Render the leather light fast.

n) Render the leather head fast.

o) Render the leather fast to alkalis.

p) Render the leather fast to acids.

q) Render the leather resistance to a light pull up on lasting.

FINISHING WHICH BEST OF THESE QUALITIES TO LEATHERS

MUST THEMSELVES HAVE THE QUALITIES OF:

1) Remaining in its original condition of gloss or matt for long perfects.

2) Not make a film on the leather, which is too plastic like in

appearance.

3) Not spoil the feel or handle of the leather.

4) The finished should not craze or be easily removed.

5) It should be resistant to the adhesives used in the manufacture of

leather goods i.e. solvents adhesives.

6) It must adhere to the leather in damp or wet conditions e.g. moulded

leather skin boots and gloves etc.

7) It should resist dry cleaning fluids.

8) Resist heat and not tack.

9) Have resistance to cold crack.

 47

10) Allow the leather to be washed.

11) The finish should nit take up color from nearby articles or impart
color to it.

It will be concluded that all leathers do not require all the above properties and it
must be stressed that all the above properties can not be achieved the use of one
finish only.

The number of coats of finish applied to a leather and the way in which they are
applied is very important sometimes more important than the actual constituents of
the finish. Most leather should be dyed a slightly darken shade then that they are
intended to be finished.

PROPERTIES OF THE FINISH FILM:

An ideal finish film of the leather must deserve the following properties:

• Excellent flexibility and stretchiness

• Good adhesion
• Good holding power
• Fine glossing property.
• Abrasive resistance and fastness
• Waterproof ness and water vapor permeability
 48

CHARCTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL FINISH FILM:

FLEXIBILITY AND STRETCHINESS:

Leather is a flexible material with certain degree of stretchiness. If the films to the
leather surface dose not possess these properties to the same extent as leather, it
will make the leather hard and the film will crack in course of time.

ADHESION:

The film should be firmly fixed to the leather surface so that the formal does not
come out during use. The film should also adhere to the pigment particles and
others very firmly.

HOLDING POWER:

The film should have sufficient capacity to hold in it other substances like pigment,
plasticizer etc. During drying or film formation no ingredient of the finish should
precipitate out. The ideal film will never allow the plasticizer to migrate into the
leather.

GLOSS:

The film should glaze by itself or should acquire this quality after glazing machine
or hot plating or brushing.

ABRASIVE RESISTANCE AND FASTNESS:

The film should have sufficient resistance to abrasion for longer life and at the
same time, it should hold the coloring materials so tightly that it dose not come out
when rubbed will a dry or wet cloth.
 49

WATER PROOFNESS AND WATER VAPOR PERMEABILITY:

The film should repeal water so that it dose not spoil the leathery appearance of the
finished leather at the same time, the film should hide all the defects in the leather.

THICKNESS:

The film should be as thin as possible so that it dose not spoil the leathery
appearance of the finished leather at all but at the same time, the film should hide
all the defects in the leather.

RESISTANCE TO ACID, ALKALI AND CHEMICALS:

During use the leather comes on contact with dirt, mud, acid and alkali fumes,
sweat etc. this is especially true for leathers used by army in the field. The film on
the leather should have therefore, sufficient capacity to protect the leather from
these.
 50

THEORY OF FINISH FILM FORMATION

Season, containing film forming materials with other ingredients is applied on the
leather surface in the liquid state and its dilution is so adjusted that sufficient time
is available of uniform spreading of the season on the leather surface by hand or
machine and setting of pigment particles before solvent goes out by evaporation.
As evaporation of volatile matters (solvent) continues, the solid content of the
season increases with gradual decrease in film thickness till a constant thickness,
which again depends on the concentration of non-volatile matters in the season is
reached and after which no decrease in thickness is noticed event though
evaporation conditions. The molecules of the film forming materials present thus
approach each other and since the inter molecular forces, called vender walls is
forces are inversely proportional to the sixty powder of the distances between
molecules, the force of attraction increases very rapidly with the decrease of
molecular distance.

Many practical tanners have the wrong impression that as these molecules comes
close to the nearest approach they chemically react (polymerize) and from the film.
But this is true when polyurethane linseed mucilage etc. are used for parent leather
finishing but which other materials like casein, shellac, acrylic or met acrylic resin,
synthetic rubbers based on butadiene, vinyl resins, nitrocellulose lacquers etc. no
such chemical reactions take place during film formation. The molecules in such
films remain together due to vender walls force of attraction, which is also called
residual valence or secondary valence forces. In the liquid or solid state the term
internal pressure is also applied. The tensile strength flexibility, water resistance
and practically all other physical properties of film naturally depend to a large
extent on the strength of this secondary valance force. What is secondary valance
force then? This is the force, which keeps the molecules in matters together just
like the atoms in molecules remain together by the influence of primary valance
force. The forces due to ionic, covalent, co-ordinate, metallic bonds and resonance
in the molecules are the primary valance forces or inter know as vender walls
forces are the secondary valance force Hydrogen bonding is a so kind of secondary
valance.
 51

The secondary valance forces are actually due to residual fields left about the
molecules as a how after two or more atoms have combined together to a from a
molecule through primary valance force. When electrons are transferred from one
atom to another, as is in round in ionic bonds to forma molecule, the latter
becomes a dipole with permanent dipole moment. Similarly when a molecule with
dissimilar atoms is formed through co-violent bonds the canters of actions negative
charges. The whole system thus will show a dipole moment. The same rule can be
attributed when molecules are formed from atomic stages through other types of
bonds.

In molecules there may be several dipoles but the overall dipole moment of the
molecules is the resultant of 11 the dipole moments is it. For simplicity let us
consider two different arrangements of equal and opposite charges at the corners of
a square as shown in figure A and B-

e+ e- e+ e-

e- e+ e+ e-

Fig-A Fig-B

In fig-A the canters of action of both the positive and negative charges are at the
point “0” and therefore the dipole moment in zero. But in fig-B the canters of
action of both the positive and negative charges are L and M respectively. The
whole system electrically is thus a rod LM of length S. one end of which is
 52

negatively charge which an intensity 2e and the other end positively which the
same intensity. The molecules with definite dipole moments are called polar
molecules where as no polar molecules have no dipole moments.

Of course, dipoles moments can be induced on many polar molecules are separated
from each other; the leathers become no the polar again. This is induction effect.

There is another effect called the dispersion effect by which no polar molecules
may grain polarity. This type of secondary valance force Aries from the temporary
relative displacements of the nuclei and electrons during the vibration of several
parts of molecule with repeat to one another.

During film formation the dipoles rotate. If necessary and finally arrange
themselves in ant parallel arrangements as shown below-

• Polar molecule

• Intermolecular space

• This is called orientation effect.

Thermal agitation always tends to upset these alignments, so that this type of
secondary valance force is highly depended upon temperature. In a film, both
attractive forces between similar poles play their roles side by side, no doubt but
due to orientation effect the average distances between similar poles and therefore
overall resultant force is the attractive force, if on the other hand the resultant force
was repulsive, the molecules would behave like a perfect of forming any film.
 53

LEATHER FINISHING SYSTEM

In general, the finishing of leather is done by application of the finishing materials

in three layers, which can be termed as (i) Ground of bottom layer, (ii) top or final
layer. The functions of these three layers are quite different and as follows-

(i) Ground or bottom layer of Base Coat:

This layer would from the foundation of the finish and control many of the key
properties including adhesion, flexibility, filling and tightness of the grain,
concerning of the leather surface defects and general uniformity.

Generally, solution of a suitable film forming material, which mayor may not be
colored with both dyestuffs and pigments, is used. The solution used for the
bottom layer should have low acidity or alkalinity with PH values within 6 to 7.
The main objects for the successive intermediate and top layers and to provide
better adhesions between leather surface and the intermediate layer.

(ii) Intermediate or Middle layer:

This is the layer just above the ground coat and it represents the major portion of
the film thickness. The film forming materials used in the intermediate layer
should have strong affinity for pigment particles, materials used in ground coats. In
protein-finished leather, the casein of the base cote is modified by the addition of
albumins, which in resin finishing a harder resin or resin mixture is used.

(iii) Top layer:

The main objects of this layer are:

i) To give required degree of gloss.
ii) To protect the middle layer from scratch, frictional damages and
abrasion and also from other damages due to sweat, acids, alkalis and
other injurious materials.
iii) To make the finish film waterproof, and
 54

iv) To produce very good feel and attractive appearance. The materials
used for top must be very hard to make the leather smooth after
planting, better resilient and round when bent with grain side out.

The technique of finishing leather differs from tannery to tannery, country to

country. In many tanneries top coat is not applied separately and they use more
binders in the season for the middle coat. The seasoning coat is generally applied
by hand spray after the middle coat, but some times it is often on clear cut
difference between the before mentioned various coats and amalgamation of
various coats is being wide used now-a-days for ease of application and saving in
time.

TYPES OF LEATHER FINISHIES

These are three different types of leather finishes which are commonly used by
leather finishers. They are:

1) Water type finishes.

2) Solvent type finishes.
3) Emulsion type finishes.

1) Water type finishes:

This may be based on pigment, protection binders, such as casein, shellac, gelatin,
egg, and blood albumin, waxes and mucilaginous substances like decoration of
linseed. These finishes are mainly used for glazed finishers, which are required to
be glazed by glazing machine.

The binders in the finish are intended to hold the pigments or dyes in suspension
and bound firmly on the leather surface. Softness, glazing properties and ‘handle’
are contributed by water soluble plasticizers, waxes and mucilaginous matters.
Recently water type finishes based on pigment or dyes and resin dispersion are
increasingly used to achieve especial effect on the finished leather. The use such
 55

finishes produced may improvement over the conventional protein based finishes
such as better adhesion and flexibility of the finish, improved filling and sealing
properties and greater uniformity of the flesh.

2) Solvent type Finishes:

In contrast to eater type finishes solvent-based finishes contain as a binder

polyurethane or collodion (Nitro-cellulose). This finishes are dissolved in organic
solvents such as butyl acetate, cyclohexanone, etc. These finishes are widely used
for finishing based on vinyl resin instate of nitro cellulose have shown improved
resistance to flexing and better flexibility at low temperature. They have been
successful used on upholstery leather, case leather, case leather and certain military
where low temperature flexibility is necessary.

3) Emulsion type finishes:

Emulsion type finishes consist of nitrocellulose or resins. Such emulsions are being
widely used to confer to confer combining properties of water and lacquer finish.
Laquire emulsion top coast for upper, garment and glove leather are gaining wide
acceptance.
 56

FILM FORMING / COATING TECHNOLOGY:

The coating applied in leather technology may be divided into four broad
classifications:

1. Lacquer systems
2. Drying oil systems
3. Condensations systems and
4. Latex systems

Leather finishing, as applied in practical methods, may be the result of several of

theses coating systems. The systems differ from one another in their mechanism of
film formation and in the chemical nature of materials involved.

Lacquer systems:

The formation of a film in a lacquer system is the evaporation of the solvent

containing a film-forming material. A simple example of this is the dissolving of
shellac in alcohol and applying this to a surface, nitro cellulose dissolved in an
organic solvent is also an example of this type of coating. This type of high-gloss
lacquer is commonly used in household decorative enamels.

Drying oil Systems:

The second basic group of film-forming materials is the drying oils. Into this
classification fall the nature drying oil, such as linseed and tung and also any
material which will undergo polymerization, upon drying. This is different from a
lacquer in that the setting up of the film is not simply a deposition of a high
molecular weight material; rather it is chemical reaction- taking place between the
dissolved film forming material and atmospheric oxygen. In the drying oils the
film forming materials (a binder) is an organic chemical having a high degree of
instauration. As the oil absorbs oxygen from the air, the unsaturated material is
 57

oxidized and reactive portions of the fatty acid molecule develop which can than
polymerize with other fat molecules to form a continuous film on the surface.

Condensations systems:

In condensation systems the formation of the film is due to a chemical reaction

between the various components of the finish after application. The reaction may
form a plastic or polymer in water between two molecules. Such systems are
usually heat-activated and may be baked, glazed, or hot pressed. Condensation of
polymerization is used in the leather industry though protein-aldehyde reactions
and with other resin systems. In this kind of finish the reactive components are
usually mixed shortly before application, due to the limited pot life of the
components.

Latex systems:

In a latex system the binder is emulsified water, when the latex is applied, the
water evaporates, or sinks into the leather, and eventually a phase inversion takes
place. A continuous layer of the binder spreads, on the surface of the material
being coated and becomes a continuous film. Latex systems have their advantage
in easy of application. The flammability and toxicity of organic solvents are
largely avoided; the film can be diluted with water, enabling thin films to be
applied

Through modern techniques for forming co-polymers, a wide variety of different

lattices can be made which have a broad spectrum of properties. The versatility,
low cost and ease of application of such systems have led to their wide spread use
in the leather industry. The latex system and dispersions of resins in an emulsion
form are by far the largest and most widely used method of preparation in leather
finishes today.
 58

CLASSIFICATION OF FINISHIES:

According to the finishing materials:

1) Casein Finish
2) Resin binder or polymer finish
3) Nitro-cellulose finish
4) Polyurethane finish

According to the finishing technique:

1) Glazed finish
2) Glazed/ plate finish
3) Plate finish
4) Embossed finish
5) Spray finish
6) Curtain coating finish

According to the finishing effect:

1) Aniline finish
2) Semi-aniline finish
3) Opaque finish
4) Easy care finish
5) Antique finish
6) Fancy finish
7) Two-tone finish
 59

CHAPTER 7
PROCEDURE (PROCESS INFORMATION)

Name of Operation % of Chemicals use Time Analytical Checking

Pre-Soaking:
300 % Water at N.T.
0.2 % Soda Ash
0.2 % Wetting agent (LD-600) Run-20’

Howling 20 minuets,
Keep in the bath for 1 hour. Drain.

Main-Soaking:
300 % Water at N.T.
0.4 % Soda Ash
0.3 % Wetting agent (LD-600/NI-extra)
0.2 % Preservatives (Busan-40L/Aracite-DA)
Run-30’ PH=9.0-9.5
Leave Overnight in the bath, Next day washes well and Drain.

Liming: (in bowl/ drums/paddles)

300 % Water at N.T.
4.0 % Lime
3.0 % Sodium Sulfide
1.0 % Liming Auxiliary (Erhavit MB/ Colapel-DL)
0.3 % Wetting agent (LD-600/Lisapol)
0.2 % Preservatives (Busan-40L/Aracite-DA)

Run for 30 minutes. PH=12.5-13.0

Leave in the bath for 2-3 days with regular hauling.
Then scudding by hand very well.
 60

Fleshing:
Fleshing is done by fleshing machine. Then pelt weight is taken,
(All % based on this pelt weight).

Name of Operat % of Chemicals use Time Analytical Checking

Chemical Wash: (in Drum)

200 % Water at N.T.

0.25 % Meta Bi-Sulfite Run-20’
Deliming:
100 % Water at N.T.
1.5 % Ammonium Sulphate
1.5 % Ammonium Chloride
0.5 % Meta bi-sulfiteRun-60’

Check: Cross-section with Phenolphthalein. Colorless. PH=8.0-8.5

Bating: (Add to the same bath)

Temperature was adjusted at 37oC
1.0 % Bating agent (EG-98)
0.5 % Wetting agent(LD-600/Lisapol) Run-60’

Check: Bubble test.

Then scudding by hand knife and wash well with lattice door until clear water
come out.

Pickling: (in Drum)

80 % Water at N.T.
8.0 % Salt Run-15’
+0.5 % Formic acid (1:10 dilution) Run-30’
+0.2 % Imprapel CO Run-15’
 61

+1.2 % Sulfuric acid Run for 0’+30’+30’+90’ min

Leave Over Night

Nex day
add 0.5% hypo run for 30’ PH=2.8-2.9
Drain half of the pickle bath.
Chrome Tanning:
Add to the pickle bath
4.0% Basic chrome powder run for 30 min
Add 4.0% Basic chrome powder
0.8% Sodium formate Run for 60 min
1.0% Remsol OCS
Check the penetration
+1.0 % Sodium bi-carbonate
0.2 % Preservatives (Busan-40L) Run-90’ (0’+30’+30’)

Drain, Pile for 2-3 days. Check: PH=3.8-3.9

Crust Operation:

Mechanical Opera:
Samming : By machine
Shaving : By machine ( thickness 0.8-0.9)
Take shaved wt. ( All % based on this shaved wt. )
Acid wash:
200% water
0.3% wetting agent
0 .3% oxalic acid
0.3% wetting agent
Run for 30min
Cheack Ph 3.2- 3.3
Drain , Rinse.
 62

Rechroming:
100% water at NT
+ 8% Chrome
0.5% Sod. Formate
Run for 60min
+
1.5% Glutaraldehyde Run for 30min
+
1.5% Remsol OCS Run for 30min
+
1.5% Relugan RF Run for 30min
+
1% Sodium formate Run for 90min

Check PH 3.9-4.0

Neutralisation :

150% Water at NT

2.5% Neutral syntan(Sellasol NG)

1.0% Sod. Formate
Run for 30min

+
0.3% Sodiumbicarbonate Run for 30min

Cheack PH --- 4.8-5.0

Washing with 300% water for 10 min.

 63

Retanning:
100% water at 450
4% Relugan RE Run for 30min
1.5% Lipoderm liquor(SN) Run for 30min
+
4% Tanigan OS/PAX
3% Mimosa
4% Neosyn HL
Run for 90 min

+ 0.5% HCOOH Run for 30min

Dyeing:
100% water
1.0% Dye levler Run for 30min
3.0% Dye Run for 30min

Check penetration
50% water at 600c wash for 10 min.
1% HCOOH Run for 30min

Fatliquoring:
100% Hot water at 600c
+
3% Remsol B40
4% Remsol C2
1% Lipoderm liquor IC
1% Synthol O
Run for 60 min

+
2% HCOOH Run for(10+30)min
 64

+
1% Cationic fat Run for 30min

Next morning,

Setting: Setting is done Setting Machine.

Vacuum Drying: Vacuum dry at 50’ for 1 min.

Hang to dry: For two days.

Toggling: Dry in toggle dryer with maximum tension.

Staking: Staking is done by Vibration Staking Machine.

Trimming: It is done to reduce unnecessary parts of leather.

Kiss-Plating: It is done by Roto-Press Machine at 70oC / 75 kg pressure.

Then it was ready for finishing.

 65

FINISHING:
Base Coat:

Ground UP 100 parts

Water 100 parts
Cationic pigment 10 parts
Melio Fetgriff SZ 10 parts
Melio OF 5216 2 parts

1X Spray, Plane plate at 800 C/50 lb/1 sec.

Season Coat:

P.P Extra Pigment 30 parts

Melio OF 5216 5 parts
Melio Fetgriff SZ 20 parts
Melio Wax AL02 50 parts
Melio Resin 776 60 parts
Melio Promol 54A 40 parts
Melio Resin 820 30 parts
Water 400 parts
Spray 2X, Fine hair cell at 850 C/100 lb.
Again 2X spray.

Top Coat:

Melio EW346 200 parts

Water 200 parts
Ultra metallic copper 30 parts
Aqualen AKU 5 parts
Spray 2X, roto press at 1000 C/50 lb/ normal speed.
 66

FLOW CHART OF WORKING

Raw materials

Trimming

Desalting

Weighing

Pre-soaking

Main soaking

Painting

Unhairing

Liming

Fleshing

Pelt weighing

Deliming

Bating

Scudding

Pickling

Chrome tanning
 67

Basification

Ageing

Samming

Shaving

Weighing

Acid wash

Rechroming

Neutralization

Retanning

Dyeing

Fatliquoring

Samming setting

Hang dry

Staking

Toggling

Trimming

Buffing

Dedusting

Finishing
 68

CHAPTER 8
PHYSICAL TESTING METHODS
The finished leather samples under the experiments were tested for their various
physical properties. These properties indicate about the quality of the finished
leathers produced. Due to limitations of time and the availability of instruments,
selected physical tests were accomplished and these tests are briefly discussed
here.

MEASUREMENT OF TENSILE STRENGTH AND PERCENTAGE

ELONGATION AT BREAK

The tensile strength and elongation at break was measured by electronic tensio
meter. The process was followed by official method of analysis (1965), Ref./
4(c)4(d)2, SLP-6, IUP/16.

a) Tensile strength:

Tensile strength is the force (Kg) per unit area of cross section (sq. cm) required to
cause a rupture of the test specimen.
So, tensile strength of the specimen was calculated using following formula.
Breaking load (Kg)
Tensile strength =
Thickness (cm) x Width

b) Percentage elongation at break:

Elongation at break for these specimens was calculated from the distance of the
jaws after breaking was occurred.
Distance increased by breaking
% Elongation at break = x 100
Distance of the two jaws in normal
 69

MEASUREMENT OF STITCH TEAR STRENGTH

The double holes stitch tear strength can be defined as the load (Kg) required
tearing the sample of the leather between two holes of 2mm. diameter each and
whose centers are 6mm apart, expressed on its unit thickness (cm). So, stitch tear
strength of the specimen was calculated by the following formula:
Tearing load in Kg
Stitch tear strength, .Kg/cm =
Thickness in cm

The sampling for this test was carried out in both parallel and perpendicular
directions to the backbone and the test specimen was a rectangular piece of size: -
50 mm x 25 mm.

MEASUREMENT OF TEARING STRENGTH

The tearing strength of leather can be defined as the load in Kg required tearing the
leather sample if its thickness was one centimeter.
Tearing load (Kg)
Thus, tearing strength, Kg/cm =
Leather thickness (cm)

For this test also the sampling is done both parallel and perpendicular to the
backbone and the mean thickness of the test specimen is determined. A slot or a
straight cut of 20 mm length is made on the leather test sample of dimension (50 x
25)mm.
 70

TESTS FOR DRY AND WET RUB FASTNESS

The tests were carried out by official's method analysis SLF 5. This is a very useful
test for finished leather. A revolving pad is made to rub the leather for a successive
number of revolutions and the effects of such rubbing under both the wet and dry
conditions are studied using a Grey scale. While a 2.5 kg load is used for dry
rubbing a 730 g load used for wet rubbing.

The numbers of revolutions for wet rub fastness are 32, 64, 128, 256, and 1024.
Every time a fresh surface of the leather is used for rubbing. For dry rub fastness
test the number of revolutions are 32, 64,128, 256, 512 and 1024. The number of
revolutions required causing a contrast of grade 1 (if this is 1024 of less) and the
contrast grading often 1024 revolutions are found out and a description of the
nature such change is record.

TESTS FOR COLOUR FASTNESS OF LEATHER TO PERSPIRATION:

SLF 426 (IUA 426)

By fastness of colour of leather to perspiration is meant its resistance to the action

of human perspiration.

A piece of specified undyed textile, witted with artificial perspiration, is placed on

the side of the specimen to be tested. The specimen is also wetted with artificial
perspiration. The composite specimen is then left under pressure for a specific time
in an appropriate apparatus. The specimen and the staining of the textile or
assessed with standard Grey scale.
 71

TECHNICAL INFORMATION ABOUT CHEMICALS USED FOR THE

COMPLETION OF THE PROJECT:

1. LD- 600 : Wetting agent, Charge: Non -ionic.

(BASF, Germany)

2. Busan 40L : Bactericide for leather tanning

(Buckman, USA)

3. Busan 30L : Fungicide for leather tanning

(Buckman, USA)

4. Mollescal BW : Soaking auxiliary. (BASF, Germany)

5. Erhavit MB : Sulphide free liming auxiliary.

PH value: 9-11 -0 (TFL, Germany)

6. Mollescal MF : Amine and Sulphide free liming auxiliary.

(BASF, Germany)

7. Bate EG- 98 : Bate powder (Hodgson, England)

8. Chromitan B : 33% Basic chromium sulphate

BASF
9. Neosyn RW : Cresylic multipurpose replacement syntan,
Total solids: 92% , PH (2% solution): 4.0-5.5
(Hodgson, England).

10. Neosyn BS3 : Naphthalene based neutralizing syntan

Total solids: 94% pH (2% solution):7.0- 8.0,
(Hodgson, England).

11. Relgan RE : Acrylic copolymer, Charge: anionic.

PH: 6.5. Active substance: 40%
(BASF, Germany).
 72

12. Paramel P-100 : Amino resin, Total solids: 94%

PH (10% solution): 8.5-9.7.
(Hodgson, England).

13. Tanigan OS : Replacement tanning materials.

Concentration: 96-98%
PH (10% solution):3.5
(Bayer, Germany).

14. Neosyn N : Naphthalene auxiliary dye leveling Syntan.

Total solids: 92% PH (2% solution): 6.5-8.5
(Hodgson, England.)

15. Trisul ML : Sulphited stabilized fatliquor based on oxidizing

marine oil. Active content: 80 %,
PH (2% solution): 5.0-6.0
(Hodgson, England.)

16. Paramal PA : Acrylic Resin Binder (Clariant)

17. Quebracho : Vegetable Extract . (ATO)

18. Mimosa : Vegetable Extract, PH (10% solution):4.4-4.5

19. Synthol O : Synthetic oil, Active matter: 100%,

Clear yellow oil, (Smith & John).

20. Remsol B40 : Sulphited natural/synthetic oils. Anionic,

Active matter: 70 %, (Hodgson, England).

21. Remsol C2 : Stabilized synthetic fatliquor. Anionic,

Active matter: 50 %, PH (2% solution):7.0-8.0
(Hodgson, England).

22. Melio Resin A-820

Solids content : approx. 24,0 %

pH value : approx. 8,5

Composition:
Melio Resin A-820 is a compact binder based on selected polymers and
filling agents. (Clariant)

23. Melio Resin A-776

Solids content : approx. 22,0 %
 73

pH value : approx. 8,5

Composition:
Melio Resin A-Impregnation and adhesion binder
(Clariant)

24. Melio Promul 54.A

Solids content : approx. 20,0 %
pH value : approx. 8,5

Composition:
Melio promul 54. A-is a adhesion binder
(Clariant)

25. Melio EW-348.B

Solids content : approx. 17,0 %
pH value : approx. 8,5

Composition:
Melio EW-348 NC-emulsion lacquer, multiple use
(Clariant)
 74

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

Modern worldwide leather market is now a days very fond of bag leather.
Finished leather is also an intermediate product. Which serves as a raw
material for finished leather is therefore, fashion driven, requiring more
responsiveness to the market, whereas crust leather is more a commodity
type product. Bangladesh currently exports leather bags to Europe and
Japan.

As production capacity in finished leather and leather goods is developed in

Bangladesh, new jobs will be acquired, and markets will be accessed. But in
our country’s cow hide quality is not good for many reasons, but the lower
grade raw stock can be upgraded to a higher level by using different tanning
and finishing techniques.
 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Dutta Sasanka Shekar(1985): An introduction to the principles of

leather manufacture.
Fourth edition, ILTA, Mercantile Buildings, Calcutta 700001,
India

2. Sarkar K. T.: Theory and practice of leather manufacture.

Revised edition 1997, second avenue, Mahatma Gandhi Road,
Madras-600941, India.

3. John Gerhard:Possible Defects in leather production.

4. Dutta Sasanka Shekar(1990): An Introduction to the principles of

physical testing of leather.

5. The pocket book of Leather Technologist, BASF, Germany.

6. “Leather Technicians Hand Book.” By Sharphouse.

7. Leather-Technical Guides (Quality control guidelines, Leather

production for export); November 2002-International Trade Centre,
UNCTAD / WTO.

8. Krysztof Bienkiewicz: Physical chemistry of leather making.

9. “Test Equipment Owners Manual” SATRA, Footwear technology

Centre.

10. R. Reed: Science for students of leather technology.

 76

11. “Official Methods of Analysis-1996 SLP”, Methods:5,6,8,13,402,

420,421, 470.

12. Dey Jyotirmay : Practical aspects of the manufacture of upper

leathers.

13. CLRI (India): Lecture notes on leather.

14. Production mini guide,Hodgson ,Englan

15. Technical literature:ALPA , Italy

16. World Leather: February/March 2001, August/September 1989,

December/January 1995.

17. Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association (JALCA)

Volume 90, 1995.

18. Tanning, Dyeing and Finishing, Bayer, Germany

19. Fred 0' Flaherty: The chemistry and technology of leather (vol.2).

20. Previous project work book (TLT-566: By Probhat Jyoti Chakma ,

Session-1999-2000.

21. Previous project work book (TLT-458: By MD.Golam Mohiuddin,

Session-1997-98, April 2004).

22. Leather finisher’ manual: by Badische Anilin & Soda – fabric AG.

23. Journal of WORLD LEATHER, October-2000, vol-13, number-6, page-63