Sir Isaac Newton's Note-Book, 1661-65

Author(s): A. R. Hall
Source: Cambridge Historical Journal, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1948), pp. 239-250
Published by: Cambridge University Press
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 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
I. SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66I-65
BY A. R. HALL
Preservedin the portionof the former Portsmouth Collectionof Newton'sbooks
andpapersdepositedin theUniversity Library,Cambridge, is a commonplace book
begunbyhimin hisfirst yearat TrinityCollegeanduseduntilaboutthetimeofhis
retreatto Lincolnshire whentheplaguevisitedCambridgein I665. In thissmall
volume,9'5 X 14-2 cm.(nowpressmarked Add.3996),consisting ofI40 leavesbound
in wornleather,Newtoncommencedwritinghis studentnotesat both ends in
accordancewitha customnotunusualwhenpaperwas dear,havingrecordedhis
ownership withtheinscription 'Isaac NewtonTrin.Coll. Cant.i66I '. It is curious
thatalthoughthisbookhas been availableforexamination forsixtyyearsand has
beendescribed intheCatalogueto theCollection'ithasneverreceivedtheattention
whichshouldbe accordedto anysourcewhichcan throwlighton themostobscure
portionofNewton'scareer,theyearsofpreparation underIsaac Barrowpreceding
thegreatperiodof discovery in I665-66.2
Newtonarrivedin Cambridgein the earlydays of Junei66i. Of the formal
education hehadreceivedup tohisnineteenth yearverylittleis known;theanecdotes
in whichSanderson'sLogic,Kepler'sOptics,Euclidand a bookofjudicialastrology
purchasedat Stourbridge Fairfigured havebeenrejectedas unreliablebyhis latest
biographers.3Foran accountofNewton'sstudiesduringhisearlyyearsatCambridge
morematerial is availablein thehistory ofeducationat theUniversity, in Newton's
ownstatements, and in hisnotes. It is bya fullerexplorationofthislastsource,the
mostvaluableofall sinceit is leastsubjectto error,thatan attempt can be madeto
assessNewton'sknowledge andpromiseas a youngman,andto removesomeofthe
obscurity abouthisearliestdiscoveries.4 As an undergraduate he studiedelementary
mathematics, astronomy, optics,andnaturalphilosophy, probably underthedirection
of Isaac Barrow.5He was not sufficiently advancedto studyOughtred'sstandard
text-book on algebraor Cartesiangeometry untilearlyin I664, thatis whenhe was
' A Catalogue of the PortsmouthCollectionof Books and Papers writtenby or belongingto
Sir Isaac Newton(Cambridge, i888), 47, no. 8.
2 This is not a unique note-book. Anotherdated I659 has been described by D. E. Smith
in the Mathematical Association's Memorial Volume (ed. W. J. Greenstreet),Isaac Newton
1642-1727 (London,1927), pp. I 6 seq. Otherswhichhavestillnotbeenminutely examinedare
in the Cambridge UniversityLibrary; thatnow pressmarkedAdd. 4000 (see below, p. 240) is
later than the one discussed here.
3 [Sir David] Brewster,[Memoirsof theLife, Writings and Discoveriesof Sir Isaac Newton]
(Edinburgh, I855), I, 21. [L. T.] More, [Isaac Newton,a biography](London, 1934), pp. 31 seq.
- 4 AlthoughProfessorMore writesthat'From Newton's note-books,some of his lettersand
conversations,and fromour knowledge of the course of study then in vogue, we can give
a reasonablyaccurateand fullstatementof his undergraduatework' (op. cit. p. 35), he has not
quoted directlyfromAdd. 3996, and thequotationfromAdd. 4000 is transcribedfromBrewster.
More, p. 35. Brewster'sremark'No friendlycounsel regulatedhis youthfulstudies,and
no workof a scientificcharacterguided him in his course' is nonsense. Books were available,
Newton was encouraged to read them and did. He received a wider and more scientific
trainingthan he would have had as a public schoolboy in the nineteenthcentury.

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240 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
twenty-twoand half-waythroughhis third year at the University. But fromthis
point his progresswas rapid. More than thirtyyears later,when his mathematical
innovationswere being challenged,he satisfiedhimselfthat it was late in I664 that
he had purchased the mathematicalworks of Van Schooten and Descartes and
borrowedthose of John Wallis. The annotationsthen made, the discoveryof the
method of infiniteseries which followed, and the computation of the area of a
hyperbolicsector,were recordedin a laternote-book(Add. 4000) on a blank leaf of
which the autobiographicalnote in question was writtenin i699.6 This second
volume, not discussed here (it has already been slightlydrawn upon by Newton's
biographers)gives an account of his progressin mathematicsafterthe-end of i663,
and points directlyto the earlymonthsof I665 as the time of his firstmathematical
discovery,itselfan extensionof Wallis' method. In the summerof thatyear he left
Cambridge for his Lincolnshire home. Preciselywhen this move occurred is not
known; all that is certain is that he graduated in JanuaryI664/5 and went down
between May and 8 August when Trinity College was closed on account of the
plague which had become dangerousin the town;7 the holding of StourbridgeFair
was prohibited,and by a Grace of IX October teachingand the Universitysermons
were discontinued. Only on 5 March I665/6 was Cambridgepronouncedfreefrom
infection. As the plague revivedagain in the followingsummerthe Universitywas
dispersed for the greaterpart of the two years I665-66 which were criticalin the
development of Newton's intellect.8 During the four years at Trinity a rather
ill-educated freshmanhad developed into a graduate of no very obvious promise;
his note-bookssupportthe traditionthatwhen he leftthe Universityin the summer
of I665 Newton had created no ripple in the quiet academic pool, and apparently
had neitherread more widely nor thoughtmore profoundlythan his fellows.
Yet, in fact,Newton had already gatheredall the materialhe required, he had
alreadyprofitedto the fullfromhis universityyears,and geniuswas on the point of
burstinginto exuberantdiscovery. In the nexttwo years,when he had littlecontact
withthe world of learningoutside the fewbooks in his own possession,Newton laid
the foundationsof his greatnessas a naturalphilosopher,forit was at this time that
he grasped the essential point for his optics and mechanics while he was already
developingit in mathematics.9This was the period of Newton's originality:the rest
of his life (when he could be persuaded to devote himselfto science) was spent in
the expansion,confirmation and defenceof the ideas which began to take shape in
6 Brewster,I, 23; More, p. 36. As a textuallyaccurate version of this famous passage has
never,I think,appeared in print,it may be worthgivinghere. 'July 4th I699. By consulting
an accomptof my expenses at Cambridge in the years i663 & i664 I findthatin ye year 1664,
a littlebefore Christmas I being then senior Sophister, I bought Schooten's Miscellanies &
Cartes's Geometry(having read this geometry& Oughtred's Clavis above half a year before)
& borrowedWallis's works & by consequence made these Annotations out of Schooten &
Wallis in winter between the years i664 & i665. At which time I found the method of
Infiniteseries. And in summer i665 being forcedfromCambridge by the Plague I computed
ye area of ye Hyperbola at Boothbyin Lincolnshireto two & fifty figuresby the same method.
Is. Newton.' (Add. 4000, f. I4.) Brewster'smisreadingof 'clean over' for'above', copied by
subsequent writers,considerablychanges the sense of the passage. This note-bookwas begun
December-Januaryi663 (O.S.).
Brewster,I, 24-5; More, pp. 40-I.
8 C. H. Cooper, AnnalsofCambridge (I842-53), III, 517-I8.
9 There is littleevidence of an interestin chemistryin his early notes. This may perhaps
explain why Newton contributedless to the refoundationof this science, to which later he
divertedso much of his attention,than to the physicalsciences which were in the forefrontof
his mind duringthe criticalperiod.

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 SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66I-65 24I

his mindduringthe Lincolnshire

exile. Newtonhimselfwas well awareof the
significance
oftheseyears:
In the beginningof the year I665 [he wrote]I foundthe Method of approximating
series& the ruleforreducingany dignityof any Binomialintosuch a series.The same
yearin May I foundthemethodof Tangents of Gregoryand Slusius, & in November
had the directmethod of fluxions,& the next year in Januaryhad the Theory of
Colours & in May followingI had entranceinto ye inversemethodof fluxions.And
the same yearI began to thinkof gravityextendingto ye orb of the Moon, & (having
found out how to estimatethe forcewith which a globe revolvingwithina sphere
presses the surfaceof the sphere), fromKepler's rule. .. I deduced that the forces
which keep the Planets in theirOrbs must [be] reciprocallyas the squares of their
distancesfromthe centersabout which theyrevolve: & therebycomparedthe force
requisiteto keep the Moon in her Orb with the forceof gravityat the surfaceof the
earth& foundthemanswerprettynearly. All thiswas in the two plague years I665 &
i666 forin those days I was in the primeof my age forinventionand minded Mathe-
maticsand Philosophymore than at any timesince.'0
It was at thistimetoo thatNewton'sbest-known experimental workwas done,
leadingto theworkon lightwhichhe reportedto the RoyalSocietyin i672, and
whichearnedforhimon theone handelectionas a Fellowand on theotherhand
a notaltogether favourableEuropeanreputation.
Thus onegreatproblemwhichfacesanystudentofNewton'sworkis theexplana-
tionof themetamorphosis of the inventive but by no meansprecociousschoolboy
whocontrived mechanical toysand sundialsintothebrilliant naturalphilosopherof
ten yearslater. Anyknowledgeof Newton'sreadingand thoughtfromhis first
arrivalin Cambridgeto his departurein thesummerof I665 is precious. Clearly
discoveriesof suchweightas Newton'swerenot fortuitous nor spontaneous,but
wereprecededby a periodof studyand reflexion on existingknowledge, concen-
tratedperhapsin I664 and earlyin i665, of whichall too littleis knownbecause
the foundations upon which he based a magnificent edificehave been almost
completely hidden.The masterlyease withwhichNewtonexplainedthe experi-
mentson the refrangibility of the sun's raysby his theoryof colour,developing
a veritabletreatiseon lightin his lettersto the RoyalSociety,is mademorecom-
prehensible bytheknowledge thatthesewerenothisfirst experiments orveryrecent
thoughts.Similarly, whentestingthehypothesis of universalgravitation
a system
oftheuniverse andthemathematics ofastronomy werealreadypresentin Newton's
mind;morefamiliar indeedthantheaccuratemeasureoftheearthitself.Anystudy
of Newtonwhichseeksto workbackwardsfromtheauthorof thePrincipiato the
young Fellowof Trinityends inevitably in i665-6; it is impossibleto proceed
throughthesecrucialyearsto the prehistory of his philosophy.Insteadone must
take the otherroad,beginwiththe freshman and workforwardto discoverthe
unfolding ofhisideas.To do thisit is necessary to turnto thenote-books.
The secondof thosein the CambridgeLibrary(Add. 4000) tellscomparatively
littleofhisworkoutsidemathematics, where,as has beensaid,he is shownto have
extendedWallis'smethodofseriesearlyin I665, and to havebegunthemethodof
fluxionsinMayofthesameyear,beforeleavingCambridge. The volumewithwhich
we are hereconcerned, however,was begunin i66i, and is farmoreinformative.
Naturallyin a privatecommonplace bookthereis littlerecordofdatesbywhichthe
10 Add. 3968, no. 4I, bundle 2. Newton was dissatisfiedwith the draft-perhaps because
the dates do not seem to be entirelycorrect-and struckit out.
c H j ix I6

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242 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
sequenceoftheentriescan be established, and it is rarelypossibleto guesswhen
a particularnotewaswritten. The latestdateI havefoundis thatoftheobservation
ofa cometon 5 Aprili665.11The script,thepen and theinkvaryas remarks were
added at different times,sometimes on the same page; the epitomesof bookshe
read,on theotherhand,are muchmoreuniform in appearancebut formtheleast
interestingpartofthevolume.Probablytheearliestentrymadeby Newtonwas in
takingnotes headed: 'AristotelisStagiritaePeripateticorum principisOrgano.
Definitiorum, summarumque sententiarum recollectio.'The following tenpagesare
coveredwithextracts fromPorphyry's Introduction and the 'Categories';in each
caseNewtoncopiedoutin Greekthefirstsentenceofeach paragraph.12 The leaves
i6 to 26 are takenup withnotesunderthe title'JohannisMagiriPhisiologiae
Peripateticae Contractio'.3 Newtoncarefully summarized in Latinthechaptersof
thislengthy expositionof the conventional philosophy, but omittedthe commen-
tariesof theauthorwhichare longerthanthe chaptersto whichtheyrefer.This
abstractbreaksoffat book iv, chapterv of the original.The nextentrieswere
probablymade a year or two afterthese elementary studiesas theyconsistof
astronomical notes:on the diametersof the starsand planets,on the equationof
time,on thesun's parallax,etc. (Folios 27-30.)
Turningto theotherend ofthevolume,againit is probablethatthefirstpages
werewritten duringNewton'searlytermsat Trinity.Theybeginwithsomephrases
and sentencesin GreekcopiedfromtheNicomachean Ethicsof Aristotle, annota-
tionsofa workby Eustachiusa SanctoPaulo,Ethicasivesummamoralisdisciplinae,
in trespartesdivisa(ofwhichan editionwas publishedin Cambridgein I654), and
somepagesofAxiomataundersuchheadingsas 'Circa DoctrinamEssentiae,Entis
& non entis','Circa DoctrinamActus& potentiae','Circa DoctrinamCausae &
causati'.These longand detailedmetaphysical notes,an integral partoftheuniver-
sitycourseoftheperiod,extendfromfol.43 to fol.7I. NextNewtonapproached
thesubjectof rhetoric, withtheworkof GeraldusVossius,canonof Canterbury,
Rhetoricescontractee,sivepartionum oratoriarum LibriV (Oxford, I63I, I655, I666,
etc.)as his text-book.This summary is followedby a note in Englishof the con-
notation oftheword'idea'.
The remaining pagesof thecommonplace bookare moreinteresting as yielding
information, notonlyon Newton'scourseofreading,buton thegrowthofhisown
ideas. Bytheirwritertheywereconsidered so important thathe compiledan index
to them.Theyconsistofscattered notes,principally on scientific
subjects,collected
underthe title'QuaestionesquaedamPhilosophicae',14 and werewrittenin the
courseofthreeor fouryearsat least,as thechangesin calligraphy and inkindicate,
as wellas thedevelopment ofthosetopicsin sciencewhichwillalwaysbe associated
withNewton'sname.The notesareofvarioustypes;someappearto be transcripts,

Of ye Sunn Starrs & Plannets & Comets.' Fol. iI6.

12
This should dispose of the suggestionthat Newton was almost ignorantof Greek, while
his knowledgeof writtenFrench at least is demonstratedby proofcorrectionsin his own hand
to Des Maizeau's, Recueil de diversespieces sur la philosophie,la religionnaturelle,l'histoire,
les mathematiques, &c. Par Mrs. Leibniz, Clarke, Newton & autres auteurscdbres (Amster-
dam, 1720). These correctionsare to be found in the Cambridge UniversityLibrary copy,
pressmarkAdv. d. 39. 2.
13 JohannisMagiri PhysiologiaePeripateticaeLibri sex, cumn comiiaentariis.An edition was
published in Cambridge in I642.
14 At the top of the page in a fainterink is writtenthe tag 'Amicus Plato amicus Aristotelis
sed magis amica veritas'. (Fol. 88.)

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 SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66I-65 243
moreor less direct,fromhis reading;othersrevealconsiderable Some
originality.
arerecordsoftheopinionsof others,sometheresultsofhis ownobservations and
experiments. but notalways,thesourceoftheidea is indicated';the
Occasionally,
betweenwhatis Newton'sownand whathe has borrowedis oftenvague
distinction
to determine.15
and difficult One pointat leastis beyonddoubton theevidenceof
thisnote-book,thetwowriters who exercisedthe greatestinfluenceon Newtonat
thistimewereDescartesand Boyle. Descartes'conceptionsof the structureof
matterandoftherotation oftheheavenlybodiesbya vortexof'FirstMatter'were
veryfamiliar to Newton,and already,tentatively, he was criticalof them.The
Principia
PhilosophiaeofDescartesis referred
to severaltimesas arethewritingsof
Boyleand a famousworkof the CambridgePlatonistand laterfriendof Newton,
HenryMore.16
Manyof the entriesin thisminiaturereference and memorandum book which
Newtoncompiledforhimselfare discussionsof the prevailing hypothesesaftera
fashionwhichhe laterconsideredunworthy. The firstnotereads:
Of yefirstmater.
Whitherit be mathematicall points& parts:or a simple
points:or mathematicall
beforedivisionindistinct:
entity orindividually
orAtomes.i. Not ofMathematicall
pointssincewt wantsdimentions a body in theireconjunction
cannotconstitute
becausetheywillsinkeintoyesamepoint.
The secondhypothesis is rejectedforthesamereason:
z. Not of simpleentitybeforedivisionindistinct
forthismustbe an unionof ye
partsintowcha bodyis divisiblesincethosepartsmayagainebee united& become
onebodyas theywerebeforeat thecreation.
Newtoncontinues
thediscussionofthehypothesis
he favours
undera separatehead.
Of Attomes.
It remaines ytye firstmattermustbe attomsAnd ytMattermaybe so
therefore
smallas tobe indiscerpible
theexcellentDr. Mooreinhisbookeofyesoulesimortality
hathprovedbeyondall controversie yetI shalluse one argument to shewytit cannot
be divisible
in infinitum
& ytis this:Nothingcanbe dividedintomorepartsynit can
possiblybe constitutedof. But matter(i.e. finite)cannotbe constituted
of infinite
parts.
The entrycontinuesat somelength;thewriterwas dissatisfied
withit and ranhis
penthrough it.l7
Of greaterinterest of Newton'sideas arethefollowing
in theformation passages
on the solarsystem.Descarteswas the greatauthority, and in criticismof his
philosophyNewton,in his earlytwenties,
wrotewithmoderation.18 But hisinterest
15 I surmisethat Newton went throughhis book writingat the head of each page a likely
headingunderwhichto collect his notes, classified'by subjects; then filledup the spaces as his
reading-and thinkingofferedmaterial. In several instances the spaces allotted to a subject
were too small,so thathe had to continuein anotherplace witha cross-reference;in othersno
entrywas made under the page-heading (i.e. 'Of ffliidity,Stability,humidity,Siccity', 'Of
ifigure,subtility,hebetude, smothnes, asperity', 'Of Odours & Vapors'). (Fols. 95, 96,
io6.)
16 The Immortality fromthe knowledgeof its
of the Soul, so farreforthas -itis demonstrable
natureand thelightof reason(London, I659).
17' Fols. 88-9.
18 Even in I713 Newton was carefulto dissociate himselffromRoger Cotes' attackon the
Cartesian systemin the Preface to the second edition of the Principia.
I6-2

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244 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
in the passageof cometstaughthim thattheymightmove acrossthe Cartesian
vortex.
Ofye Celestiallmatter& orbes.
WhitherCarteshis firstelementcan turneabout ye vortex& yet driveye matterof
it continuallyfromye 0) [sun] to producelight& spend mostofitsmotionin fillingup
ye chinksbetwixtye Globes. Whitherye least globuli can continuealwaysnextye 0)
& yetcome alwaysfromit & cause light& whitherwhen ye 0 is obscuredye motion
of ye firstElementmustcease (& so whitherby his hypothesisye 0) can be obscured)
& whitherupon ye ceasing of ye firstelementsmotionye Vortexmust move slower.
Whithersomeofye firstElementscomeing(as he confessethythe mightfindout a way
to turneye Globuli about theirone [own?] axes to grateye 3rdEl. into wratheslike
screwsor cockle-shells)immediatelyfromye poles & othervortexesinto all ye parts
of oe [our]vortexwould not impel ye Globuli so as to cause a lightfromthe poles and
thoseplaces whence theycome.'9
This suggestsan attempted
explanation
oftheNorthern
Lights.
Of ye Sunn Starrs& Plannets& Comets.
Whither 0 move ye vortex about (as Des-Cartes will) by his beames. pag. 54
Princip.Philos. partis 3e. Whitherye vortexcan carrya comet towardsye poles &
whence 'tis ytye 0) is turnedabout upon his axis. WhitherCartes his reflexionwill
unriddleye misteryof a cometsbird. [I.e. beard or tail.]
Newton's notes go on to referto the comets of 26 October i6i8; on iO December
I664 he observeda cometwhosealtitude was 3? 40' or 40 at a distanceof9048' from
the moon. Anotherwas observed at 4.30 on the morningof Saturday 17 December.
I664 and was watched until 23 JanuaryI664/5. A thirdwas seen in Andromeda on
1-5 April I665.20
The ebb and flowof the sea, a perennialproblemof science,which Newton solved
in Prop. XXIV of Book ii of the Principia,had already aroused his interest. Under
the heading 'Of Water'& Salt' he wrote:
To trywhitherye Moone pressingye Atmospherecause ye fluxand refluxof ye sea.
Take a tube of above 30 inchesfilledwithquicksilveror else takea tubewithwaterwch
is so much longeryn3o inches as ye quicksilveris weightieryn water & ye top being
stoppedye liquorwill sink3 or 4 inchesbelow it leavinga vacuum (perhaps)thenas ye
airis moreor less pressedwithoutby) [moon]so will ye waterriseor fall as it doth in
a witherglasseby heate or cold. The same may be done by comparingye motionsof ye
water of 2zweatherglassesone whereofis withina vessell of water ye othernot. [In
anotherhand.] Observe ifye sea waterrise not in days & fall at nightsby reason of
yeearthpressingfrom 0) upon ye nightwateretc. Try also whitherye wateris higher
in morningsor eveningsto knowwhither 0) or its vortexpress forwardmost in its
annualmotion.2'
Anothernote which appears to be of late date and which almost certainlyrelates
to the constructionof his reflectingtelescope,is given under the head 'Of minerals'.
Metall forreflectionmay bee thusmade. Melt throughly3 pounds of Copper then
take 4 ounces of white Arsenick6 ounces of Tartar & 3 ounces of Saltpeterfinely
powderedtogether& put ymintoye meltedcopper & stirymwell togetherwitha rod
of iron until they have done smoaking (but beware of ye perniciousfume for ye
Arsenickis poison). Then aftera littleblowingye fireto make it as hot as before,put
in 6 ouncesof Tinglass z ounces of Regulus of Antimony& afteranotherblast or two
19 Fol. 93. 20 Fol. 93; continued on fols. 114-I6. 21 Fols. 111-12.

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 SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66I-65 245
put in a pound of Tin & stirit a verylittle& immediatelycast it. The Tinglass makes
ye mettalltough& ye Antimonymakes it fine& of a steellcolour too much of [it]will
make it bleaw. The Saltpeteropens ye pores of ye mettalto let ye filthevaporate& ye
Tartarhelpethto carryit away. [A different hand.] If thismettallmustbe castsmooth
line the sand mold withthe smoak of a linke.22
The notes on physics,like those on astronomy,are partlyborrowed and partly
original; sometimesjejune and sometimespenetrating.What Newton wrote on the
subject of violentmotionmighthave come straightfromthe pen of Jean Buridan or
Nicolas Oresme-the very illustrationshe uses are theirs. Of 'AttractionMag-
neticall' he wrote:
i. The motionof any magneticallraymay bee knowneby attracting a needle in a
corkeon water.
Whithera magneticallpendulumis perpendicularto ye Horizon or not, & whither
iron is heaviestwn is impregnated,or when ye northpole or south pole is upmost.
Coroll. a perpetualmotion.
3. Whithermagneticallrayswillblow a candlemove a red-hotcopperor ironneedle
or passe througha red-hotplate of copper or iron.
5. Whithera loadestonewill not turneround a red-hotiron fashionedlike wind-
mill sailes, as ye wind doth ym. Perhaps cold iron may reflectye magn: rayswth ye
pole wch shunsye loadstone.23
It will come as no surprisethat Newton made several sketchesof possible ways
of applyingmagneticeffectsto obtain a perpetualmotion. Under 'Of Gravityand
Levity' he suggests:
Try whitherye weightof a body may be alteredby heate or cold, by dilatationor
condensation,beating,powdering,transferring to severallplaces or severalheights,or
placinga hot or heavy body over it or underit or by magnetisme,whitherlead or its
dust spreadabroade,whithera plate flatwaysor edg waysis heaviest.Whitherye rays
of gravitymaybee stoppedby reflecting or refracting
ymifso a perpetuallmotionmay
be made one of thesetwo ways.24
The mostprofoundas well as the most originalwritingin this commonplacebook
is undoubtedlythaton optics. This is to be expected,forthe firstdiscoverieswhich
Newton deemed worthyof publicationwere made in thisscience, and approximately
at the time when he was using this note-book.The passages in which he described
his earlyworkon lightand colours,preparingthe way forthe greatseries of experi-
ments communicatedto the Royal Society in his celebrated letterof 6 February
I67I/2, deserve quotation at some length. The dates of these notes are unfixed.
Althoughthe latest date in the volume is 5 April i665, it is possible that Newton
continuedhis recordsin it forsome timeand, therefore,thatthe optical experiments
were made afterthe spring of I665. But it is not necessarythat it should be so.
Considerationof the notes in this volume suggeststo me thattheycannot represent
the thoughtof the Newton of the greatLincolnshireperiod of discovery. According
to Conduitt,Newton bought a prismat the StourbridgeFair in August I665 to test
Descartes' theoryof light; but (accordingto Cooper) StourbridgeFair was not held
because of the outbreakof plague, and all authoritiesagree that Newton must have
leftCambridgebeforethe beginningof August.25Perhaps his firstinterestin oDtics
22Fol. i i i. 23 Fol.
I02.
24Fol. 1I2 . Galileo is quoted as sayingthatan ironball fallsi oo braccia ('perhaps 66 yards')
n 5 seconds.
25 More, p. 40.

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246 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
shouldbe referred to thepreviousyear;Professor Morewrites:'He had,as earlyas
I664, boughta prismand had madesomeobservations on therefraction oflight.'26
Sir David Brewster was of theoppositeopinion:'There is no evidence...thathe
used it [theStourbridge prism]forthispurpose[the studyof light],and thereis
everyreasonto believethathe was notacquaintedwiththetruecomposition oflight
whenDr Barrowcompletedhis OpticalLectures,publishedin i669.'27 Whatever
Newton'sreasonsfornottellingBarrowof his discoveries (notat all thesamething
as failingto make any) Newton'swords and his note-books,showingthat his
discovery of the natureof lightwas made at least as earlyas I665-6, completely
contradict Brewster'sstatement.Apartfromthe passage alreadyquoted (above
p.24I) Newtondeclaredin his letter totheRoyalSocietyofFebruaryI672: 'in the
beginning oftheyeari666 (at whichtimeI appliedmyselfto thegrinding ofoptic
glassesof otherfigurethan spherical)I procureda triangular glassprism,to try
therewith thecelebratedphenomenaof colours.'He thendescribedhissurpriseon
finding thespectrum oblongand notroundliketheholethrough whichthebeamof
lightwasadmitted.28 Now Newton'snoteson methodsandinstruments forgrinding
parabolicand hyperbolic lensesarein Add. 4000 immediately following thecalcula-
tionsofthesummerof i665. Consequently, therearetwogoodreasonsforthinking
that,in hisletter,Newtonwrote' i666' forI665, and thathisnoteof I699 (verified
withhis ownrecordsby himself)is moreaccurate,the definitive theoryof colours
beingobtainedin Januaryi666, as a resultof experiments on the refractionof a
beamoflight,carriedouteitherwitha newprismor one boughtin I664. Therefore
thenotesin Add. 3996 on prismatic experiments musthavebeen enteredbetween
(August?)I664 andtheendofi665, forone conclusionat leastseemsbeyonddoubt,
thenotesnow publishedrepresent Newton'sfirstseriousthoughton theproblems
oflightand colour.The observations on therefractionof a beamoflightin a dark
roomwhichclearedup thewholematterforhimweremadelaterandobscuredthese
earliertrials.
Of Light.
Lightcannotbe bypressure&c forwee shouldsee in yenightas wellor betteryn
inye dayweshouldsee a brightlightaboveus becausewe arepresseddownwards...
thercould be no refractionsince ye same mattercannotpresse2 wayes,ye sun
couldnot be quite eclipsedye Moone & planettswould shinelikesunns. A man
goeingorrunningwouldsee in ye.night....Alsoye Vortexis Ellipticall
therefore
light
cannotcome fromye sunn directly&C....29

Of Colours.
Thatdarkecoloursseemefurther ofynlightonesmaybe fromhenceytthebeames
looselittleoftheirforcein reflecting
froma whitebodybecausetheyarepowerfully
assistedthereby but a darkebodybyreasonofyeloosenessof itspartsgive[s]some
admission to yelight& reflects fromwhiteness
it butweakly& so yereflection willbe
sooneratyeeyeorelsebecauseyewhitesendsbeamswthmoreforceto yeeye& gives
it a fairer
knock.
Coloursariseeitherfromshaddowsintermixed wth lightor stronger
& weaker
reflectionor partsofyebodymixedwith& carriedawaybylight.
26
Ibid. p. 43. No referenceis given to support this statement.
27 Brewster, I, 27.
28 Quoted by More, p. 73.
29 Fol. I03.

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 SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66I-65 247
From some of these arisethsplendor& dulnesse.
No colourswill arise out of ye mixtureof pure black and white....30
Try if two prismsye one castingblew upon ye other'sred doe not producea white.
Newtonthendrewa sketchof the mannerin whichthe reflectionof lightfromtwo
differentlycoloured surfacesthrougha prismreaches the eye, showingthe different
angles of refraction.

If abdc be white& cdsrblack yn eodcis red.

If abdc be black & cdsrwhiteyn eodcis blew.
If abdc be blew & cdsrwhite[r]yn eodcis blewer.
white blew Red
black blew blewer
blew black Greene, or Red31
black red blew
red black redder
If abdc be red & cdsrbe white yn eodc is blew
white red redder
white whiter blew
whiter white redd
black blacker Greene or dark rd.
blacker black blew
i. Note ytslowlymoved raysare refracted more thenswiftones.
2ndly If abdc be shaddowand cdsrwhite thenye slowlymoved rayscomingfrom
cdqp will be refractedas if theyhad come fromeodc soe yt ye slowly moved rays
being separatedfromye swiftones by refractionthereariseth2 kinds of colours viz.
fromye slow ones blew, skycolour,& purple fromye swiftones red yellow 32
& fromthemwch are neithermoved very swiftnor slow greenebut fromye slow &
swiftlymoved rays mingled arisethwhite greyand black. Whence it is yt cdqpwill
not appeare red unless qsrp be dark because as manyslow raysas come fromcdqp &
are refractedas if they came from eodc; soe many sloe rays come fromqsrp & are
refractedas if theycame fromdqpcunless qsrpbe darkeryn dqpc.
3rdly That ye rayswhichmake blew are refractedmoreynye rayswhichmake red
appears fromthis experiment.If one halfeof ye thredabc be blew & ve otherred &
30 Fol. I05. Cf. Antoniusde Dominis, De Radiis Visis: 'If some darknessbe mingledwith
the light,which yet permitsit a passage and is not completelyabsorbed, therethen occur the
intermediatecolours.' Quoted by More, p. 63.
31 Added in a later hand. 32 Blank in original.

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248 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
a shade or black body be put behind it thenlookingon ye thredthrougha prismone
halfeofye thredshall appear higheryn ye other,not bothin one directline,by reason
of unequal refractions colours.
in ye differing
4. Hence redness,yellowness&c are made in bodys by stopingye slowlymoved
raysWthoUt much hinderingof ye motionof ye swifterrays,& blew, greene& purple
by diminishingye motionof ye swifterrays& not of ye slower. Or in some bodys all
these colours may arise by diminishingye motion of all ye rays in a greateror less
geometricallproportion,foryn therewill be less differencein theirmotionsyn other-
wise.
5. If ye particlesin a body have not so greatean elastickpoweras to returnback ye
whole motionof a raythenytbody may be lighteror darkercolouredaccordingas ye
elastickvirtueof thatbodys partsis more or less.
6 and 7. Colours also arise fromthe size of the pores in the surfaceof the body.
8. Though 2 raysbe equally swiftyetif one ray be lesse yn ye otherthatray shall
have so much lesse effecton ye sensoriumas it has lesse motionye ye others&c.
Whence supposingytthereare loose particlesin ye pores of a body bearingpropor-
tion to ye greaterrays,as 9: 12 & ye less globulesis in proportionto ye greateras 2: 9,
ye greaterglobulusby impingingon such a particlewill loose A partsof its motionye
less glob. will loose 2 partsof its motion& ye remainingmotionof ye glob. will have
almostsuch a proportionto one anotheras theirquantityhave viz. 5: l:: 9: 14 wch
is almost2 ye lesse glob. & such a body may produce blews and purples. But if ye
particleson wch ye globulireflectare equal to ye lesse globulusit shall loose its motion
& ye greaterglob. shall loose T2j parts of its motionand such a body may be red or
yellow.
9. How an impressionof colour is produced by pressureon the eyeball.
IO. Of the succession of colours when red-hot steel is quenched in water and
tempered. Newton notes thatwhen the yellow is reached in temperingthe steel is
fitforgraversor drills,at the blue it is suitable forspringsforwatches.
I2. Combinationof colours.
Red and blue make purple.
Yellow and red make orange.
Purple and red make scarlet.
Red and greenmake a dark tawnyorange.
Yellow froma prismfallingupon blue gives green.
Blue froma prismfallingupon red gives green.
Newton also observed the colours produced by diffraction:
26. A featheror black riband put betwixtmy eye and ye settingsunne makes
glorious colours.33
There are altogetherfifty-onearticles on colours of which the later and larger
group deals withthe formationor loss of colour in chemical reactions.For example:
47. Take Lignum Nephriticum(ye infusionof wch in fairwateris good againstye
stoneof ye kidneys)put a handfullof thinslices of it into 3 or 4 pounds of pure spring
waterafterit hathinfusedtherea nightput ye waterinto a clean violl & if you see ye
lightthroughit it appears of a golden colour (exceptingsometimesa skycoloured
circleat ye top). But ifye infusionwas too strongye liquorwill thenappeare darkand
reddish. But if your eye is 'twixtye liquor & lightit appeares ceruleous &c. Acid
saltsdestroyye blew colour & sulphureousrestoreit againewthoutmakinganychange
33 Fols. I22-5, I33. Variants of the experimentsnoted are described in Newton's Optics
(I704), Part i, PropositionI.

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 SIR ISAAC NEWTON'S NOTE-BOOK, I66i-65 249
in ye golden colour,whichmay be usefullto ye findingwhitherbodys abound morein
w'h acid or sulphureoussalts.34
From these notes of Newton's it is obvious that he had at this time only a small
part of the knowledgegained by.laterwork,but thateven his earlyconclusionswere
by no means insignificant.He had found that the apparent colour of an object is
related both to the structureof its surfaceand the compositionof the light falling
on it. He guessed thatthe colour of the refractedraywas dependenton its velocity;
as most of themathematicalworkin optics had been done in termsof the velocityof
the ray, and Newton apparentlybelieved already that light was the result of the
motionof globules or corpuscles,it was naturalthathe should seek a firstexplanation
of the differentrefrangibility of rays in differencein theirvelocities. The prism or
gratingacted as a filterto distinguishthe slow-movingcorpuscles fromthe fast. He
had observed the colours produced by diffraction.Above all, he had discoveredthe
varyingrefrangibility of light-that the rayswhich 'make blue' are more bent than
thosewhich make red. This has always been accepted as the core of the Lincolnshire
discoveries,made by passing a beam of light througha prism,fromwhich all else
followed. This note-bookshows that Newton firstbecame aware of the effectwhen
looking at reflectedlightthroughthe glass. ProfessorMore has written:
We know definitely thatin I664, he made some dbservationswith a prismand was
interestedin the subject of improvingthe refractingtelescope, and the question is,
whichofthetwolinesofworkled to his discoveryof thenatureoflight. It is generally
statedthatit followedfromhis observationthatthe image of the sun througha prism
was oblong insteadof circular.The seriousobjectionto thisbeliefis thathe continued
to workon lenses forat least a year and if,as he believed,theirchromaticaberration
was unavoidablethenall this labour was useless.35
The evidence is that both these opinions are mistaken. Newton himself has
explained very simply how he discovered the fact that rays of different-coloured
lightare not equally refracted,by lookingat a parti-colouredthread.The probability
is that he did this before tryingthe effectof passing a narrow beam throughthe
prism, and before attemptingto improve the telescope by removing spherical
aberration.36A revisedtime-scaleforNewton's discoveriesmightrun as follows:
I664 to springi665. Early prismaticexperiments.Discoveryof varyingrefrangi-
bilityof colouredlight.
Observationsof comets.
Summer I665. Mathematicaldiscoveries.
Autumn i665. Attemptsto grindlenses ofmorecomplexcurvature.Further
prismaticexperiments.
Winter i666. Completionofthetheoryof colours. Makingofthereflecting
telescope.
If the hypothesisthat Newton made two separate series of optical experimentsis
accepted, the importanceof the earlieris seen to lie in the interpretationit sug-
gestedforthelaterand morefamousseries.The explanationofhis continuedattempts
to improvethe refracting telescopemay thenbe thatNewton did not realize fromhis
early experimentsthat varyingrefrangibility is the cause of chromaticaberration.
34 Fol. I34-
35 More, p. 67. I have been able to discovernothingto relate the firstoptical experiments
definitelyto I664.
36 Assuming either that the formulafora speculum metal is later than the notes on colour
or that it has no directconnexionwith the reflectingtelescope.

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250 NOTES AND COMMUNICATIONS
This onlybecameapparent whenhisformer discoverywas confirmed by a different
experimentalmethod.An observation made in lookingat colouredsurfacesmight
notat onceappearto be ofimmensesignificance forastronomy.
In conclusionit willnotbe out of place to quotetheratherpompouslyphrased
opinionofBrewster: 'The history ofscienceaffords manyexampleswheretheyoung
aspiranthad been earlyinitiatedinto her mysteries, and had even exercisedhis
powersof invention and discoverybeforehe was admittedwithinthe walls of a
college,but he who was to give Philosophyher laws, did not exhibitsuch early
One mustconfess,afterexamining
talent.'37. suchjuveniliaof Newtonas remain,
thatthisjudgementof Newtonas an undergraduate is not unfair.There is little
evidenceinthepassagesquoted(andin manymoreomitted)ofprecocity, ofremark-
ableindustry,orofexceptional ability,untilthenoteson lightappear,whichcannot
have been writtenbeforehis thirdyearat the University and possiblyonlyjust
beforetheacknowledged epochofhisgreatest inventiveness.The quickintelligence,
thewidegraspare muchless striking in Newtonat twenty-two thanin the 'young
Archimedes', ChristianHuygens,at seventeen.The mystery of Newton'ssudden
growthin mentalstaturefromploddingstudentto brilliant innovator is heightened
ifit mustbe restrictedto a periodofone. or at mosttwo.years.
37 Brewster, I, I9.

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