UNIT 2. A.
POWER AMPLIFIER
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION TO POWER AMPLIFIER
LESSON 1: CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
The classification of an amplifier as either a voltage or a
power amplifier is made by comparing the characteristics of the input and
output signals by measuring the amount of time in relation to the input
signal that the current flows in the output circuit.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to
do the following:
Classify the types of amplifier.
What Do You Need to Know?
Amplifier Classes
Amplifiers are classified into classes according to their construction and
operating characteristics Not all amplifiers are the same and there is a
clear distinction made between the way their output stages are configured
and operate. The main operating characteristics of an ideal amplifier are
linearity, signal gain, efficiency and power output but in real world
amplifiers there is always a tradeoff between these different
characteristics.
Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of
audio amplifier systems to drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker
has an impedance of between 4Ω and 8Ω, thus a power amplifier must be
able to supply the high peak currents required to drive the low impedance
speaker.
One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different
types of amplifiers is by “class”, and as such amplifiers are classified
according to their circuit configuration and method of operation.
Then Amplifier Classes is the term used to differentiate between the
different amplifier types.
Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies
within the amplifier circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a
sinusoidal input signal. The classification of amplifiers ranges from entirely
linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with very low
efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal reproduction is not
so important) operation but with a much higher efficiency, while others are
a compromise between the two.
Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are
the classically controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more
common amplifier classes of A, B, AB and C, which are defined by the
length of their conduction state over some portion of the output waveform,
such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere between
being “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”.
The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called “switching” amplifier
classes of D, E, F, G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse width
modulation (PWM) to constantly switch the signal between “fully-ON” and
“fully-OFF” driving the output hard into the transistors saturation and cut-
off regions.
The most commonly constructed amplifier classes are those that are used
as audio amplifiers, mainly class A, B, AB and C and to keep things
simple, it is these types of amplifier classes we will look at here in more
detail.
Class A Amplifier
Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier topology as
they use just one output switching transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc)
within their amplifier design. This single output transistor is biased around
the Q-point within the middle of its load line and so is never driven into its
cut-off or saturation regions thus allowing it to conduct current over the full
360 degrees of the input cycle. Then the output transistor of a class-A
topology never turns “OFF” which is one of its main disadvantages.
Class “A” amplifiers are considered the best class of amplifier design due
mainly to their excellent linearity, high gain and low signal distortion levels
when designed correctly. Although seldom used in high power amplifier
applications due to thermal power supply considerations, class-A
amplifiers are probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes
mentioned here and as such are used in high-fidelity audio amplifier
designs.
Class A Amplifier
To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier
is biased “ON” (conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be
classified as “Class A” the zero-signal idle current in the output stage must
be equal to or greater than the maximum load current (usually a
loudspeaker) required to produce the largest output signal.
As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic
curves, the single output device conducts through a full 360 degrees of the
output waveform. Then the class A amplifier is equivalent to a current
source.
Since a class A amplifier operates in the linear region, the transistors base
(or gate) DC biasing voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct
operation and low distortion. However, as the output device is “ON” at all
times, it is constantly carrying current, which represents a continuous loss
of power in the amplifier.
Due to this continuous loss of power class A amplifiers create tremendous
amounts of heat adding to their very low efficiency at around 30%, making
them impractical for high-power amplifications. Also due to the high idling
current of the amplifier, the power supply must be sized accordingly and
be well filtered to avoid any amplifier hum and noise. Therefore, due to the
low efficiency and overheating problems of Class A amplifiers, more
efficient amplifier classes have been developed.
Class B Amplifier
Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and
heating problems associated with the previous class A amplifier. The basic
class B amplifier uses two complimentary transistors either bipolar of FET
for each half of the waveform with its output stage configured in a “push-
pull” type arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies only half of
the output waveform.
In the class B amplifier, there is no DC base bias current as its quiescent
current is zero, so that the dc power is small and therefore its efficiency is
much higher than that of the class A amplifier. However, the price paid for
the improvement in the efficiency is in the linearity of the switching device.
Class B Amplifier
When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor
conducts while the negative transistor is switched “OFF”. Likewise, when
the input signal goes negative, the positive transistor switches “OFF” while
the negative biased transistor turns “ON” and conducts the negative
portion of the signal. Thus, the transistor conducts only half of the time,
either on positive or negative half cycle of the input signal.
Then we can see that each transistor device of the class B amplifier only
conducts through one half or 180 degrees of the output waveform in strict
time alternation, but as the output stage has devices for both halves of the
signal waveform the two halves are combined together to produce the full
linear output waveform.
This push-pull design of amplifier is obviously more efficient than Class A,
at about 50%, but the problem with the class B amplifier design is that it
can create distortion at the zero-crossing point of the waveform due to the
transistors dead band of input base voltages from -0.7V to +0.7.
We remember from the transistor tutorial that it takes a base-emitter
voltage of about 0.7 volts to get a bipolar transistor to start conducting.
Then in a class B amplifier, the output transistor is not “biased” to an “ON”
state of operation until this voltage is exceeded.
This means that the part of the waveform which falls within this 0.7-volt
window will not be reproduced accurately making the class B amplifier
unsuitable for precision audio amplifier applications.
To overcome this zero-crossing distortion (also known as Crossover
Distortion) class AB amplifiers were developed.
Class AB Amplifier
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the
“Class A” and the “Class B” type amplifiers we have looked at above. The
AB classification of amplifier is currently one of the most common used
types of audio power amplifier design. The class AB amplifier is a variation
of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both devices are
allowed to conduct at the same time around the waveform’s crossover
point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the previous class B
amplifier.
The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of
the quiescent current to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point.
Then the conducting device, either bipolar of FET, will be “ON” for more
than one half cycle, but much less than one full cycle of the input signal.
Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors
is conducting for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B,
but much less than the full cycle of conduction of class A.
In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere
between 180o and 360o depending upon the chosen bias point as shown.
Class AB Amplifier
The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or
resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier
characteristics is overcome, without the inefficiencies of the class A
amplifier design. So, the class AB amplifier is a good compromise
between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with
conversion efficiencies reaching about 50% to 60%.
Class C Amplifier
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest
linearity of the classes of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous
classes, A, B and AB are considered linear amplifiers, as the output
signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signals
amplitude and phase.
However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so that the output current
is zero for more than one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the
transistor idling at its cut-off point. In other words, the conduction angle for
the transistor is significantly less than 180 degrees, and is generally
around the 90 degrees area.
While this form of transistor biasing gives a much-improved efficiency of
around 80% to the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the
output signal. Therefore, class C amplifiers are not suitable for use as
audio amplifiers.
Class C Amplifier
Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in
high frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency
amplifiers, where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output
can be converted to complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the
use of LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.
Amplifier Classes Summary
Then we have seen that the quiescent DC operating point (Q-point) of an
amplifier determines the amplifier classification. By setting the position of
the Q-point at half way on the load line of the amplifier’s characteristics
curve, the amplifier will operate as a class A amplifier. By moving the Q-
point lower down the load line changes the amplifier into a class AB,
B or C amplifier.
Then the class of operation of the amplifier with regards to its DC
operating point can be given as:
Amplifier Classes and Efficiency
As well as audio amplifiers there are a number of high efficiency Amplifier
Classes relating to switching amplifier designs that use different switching
techniques to reduce power loss and increase efficiency. Some amplifier
class designs listed below use RLC resonators or multiple power-supply
voltages to reduce power loss, or are digital DSP (digital signal
processing) type amplifiers which use pulse width modulation (PWM)
switching techniques.
Other Common Amplifier Classes
Class D Amplifier – A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear
switching amplifier or PWM amplifier. Class-D amplifiers theoretically can
reach 100% efficiency, as there is no period during a cycle were the
voltage and current waveforms overlap as current is drawn only through
the transistor that is on.
Class F Amplifier – Class-F amplifiers boost both efficiency and output
by using harmonic resonators in the output network to shape the output
waveform into a square wave. Class-F amplifiers are capable of high
efficiencies of more than 90% if infinite harmonic tuning is used.
Class G Amplifier – Class G offers enhancements to the basic class AB
amplifier design. Class G uses multiple power supply rails of various
voltages and automatically switches between these supply rails as the
input signal changes. This constant switching reduces the average power
consumption, and therefore power loss caused by wasted heat.
Class I Amplifier – The class I amplifier has two sets of complementary
output switching devices arranged in a parallel push-pull configuration with
both sets of switching devices sampling the same input waveform. One
device switches the positive half of the waveform, while the other switches
the negative half similar to a class B amplifier. With no input signal
applied, or when a signal reaches the zero-crossing point, the switching
devices are both turned ON and OFF simultaneously with a 50% PWM
duty cycle cancelling out any high frequency signals.
To produce the positive half of the output signal, the output of the positive
switching device is increased in duty cycle while the negative switching
device is decreased by the same and vice versa. The two switching signal
currents are said to be interleaved at the output, giving the class I amplifier
the named of: “interleaved PWM amplifier” operating at switching
frequencies in excess of 250kHz.
Class S Amplifier – A class S power amplifier is a non-linear switching
mode amplifier similar in operation to the class D amplifier. The class S
amplifier converts analogue input signals into digital square wave pulses
by a delta-sigma modulator, and amplifies them to increases the output
power before finally being demodulated by a band pass filter. As the digital
signal of this switching amplifier is always either fully “ON” or “OFF”
(theoretically zero power dissipation), efficiencies reaching 100% are
possible.
Class T Amplifier – The class T amplifier is another type of digital
switching amplifier design. Class T amplifiers are starting to become more
popular these days as an audio amplifier design due to the existence of
digital signal processing (DSP) chips and multi-channel surround sound
amplifiers as it converts analogue signals into digital pulse width
modulated (PWM) signals for amplification increasing the amplifiers
efficiency. Class T amplifier designs combine both the low distortion signal
levels of class AB amplifier and the power efficiency of a class D amplifier.
We have seen here a number of classification of amplifiers ranging from
linear power amplifiers to non-linear switching amplifiers, and have seen
how an amplifier class differs along the amplifiers load line. The class AB,
B and C amplifiers can be defined in terms of the conduction angle, θ as
follows:
How Much Have You Learned?
Direction: Read each question and answer choice carefully and Encircle
the ONE best answer.
1. Which of the following amplifier class have highest linearity and lowest
distortion?
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class C
d) Class B push-pull
2. Which of the following letter is not used to represent a class?
a) D
b) E
c) C
d) K
3. Which of the following letter is not used to represent a class?
a) I
b) H
c) G
d) S
4. Which of the following class has poorest linearity
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class C
d) Class AB
5. Which of the following amplifier cannot be used for audio frequency
amplification?
a) Class A
b) Class C
c) Class AB
d) Class B push-pull
6. Which of the following amplifier is less efficient than others?
a) Class C
b) Class B
c) Class A
d) Class AB
7. Which of the following amplifier is designed to operate in digital pulses?
a) Class D
b) Class C
c) Class AB
d) Class B
8. Which of the following class have a theoretical efficiency of 50%?
a) Class A
b) Class C
c) Class AB
d) Class D
9. Which of the following class have a theoretical efficiency of 78.5%?
a) Class A
b) Class D
c) Class C
d) Class B
10. Which of the following amplifier is most suited for making tuning
circuits?
a) Class A
b) Class B
c) Class C
d) Class D
11. The problem in which output signal is not an exact reproduction of
output signal in amplifier is collectively called __________
a) Thermal runaway
b) Phase error
c) Distortion
d) Biasing error
12. Which of the following is not a reason for distortion in amplifier output?
a) Incorrect biasing level
b) Sinusoidal input
c) Non- linear amplification
d) Large input signal
13. Amplitude distortion is due to ___________
a) Shift in Q-point
b) Change in input
c) Linear amplification
d) Small input signal
14. If output of amplifier exceeds maximum allowable value, ___________
is occurs in output waveform.
a) Clipping
b) Clamping
c) Rectifying
d) Rounding
15. Flat tops in the output signal is due to
a) Frequency distortion
b) Amplitude distortion
c) Phase distortion
d) Harmonic distortion
16. Frequency distortion occurs when _______ is varied with frequency.
a) Amplitude
b) Amplification
c) Distortion
d) Output
17. Phase distortion can also be called as _________
a) Frequency distortion
b) Amplitude distortion
c) Delay distortion
d) Harmonic distortion
18. The distortion caused by multiple frequencies in output is called
_________
a) Amplifier distortion
b) Harmonic distortion
c) Phase distortion
d) None of the mentioned
19. Harmonic distortion is caused by nonlinearities of _________
a) Voltage divider circuit
b) Resistive elements only
c) Passive elements
d) Active elements
20. Which of the following components in a transistor circuit is really
responsible for harmonic distortion?
a) Capacitor
b) Resistor
c) Transistor
d) Inductance
