SEVEN (7) STEPS MORAL principles will remove all alternatives

REASONING MODEL except one.

1. Moral Reasoning Model is to 6. Sixth step is weighing the

gather the facts. consequences.
Some moral dilemmas can be resolved just If the principles do not produce a clear
by clarifying facts of the case in question. decision, then a consideration of the
But in more complex cases, gathering the consequences of the remaining available
facts is the indispensable first step before alternatives is in order.
any ethical analysis and reflection of the
Both positive and negative consequences
case. In examining a case.
are to be considered.

2. Second step is determining the

ethical issues. 7. The last but not the least step is
making a decision.
The moral issues should be correctly stated
in terms of competing interests. It is these Since deliberation ought not to go on
conflicting interest that practically make for forever, a decision must be made at some
a moral dilemma. point. It must be realized that one common
element to moral dilemmas is that there are
no easy and painless solutions to them.
3. Third step is identifying the
principles that have a bearing on the
case.
In any moral dilemma, there are sure moral
values or principles that are vital to the rival
positions being taken.

4. Forth step is listing the alternatives.

This step involves coming up with the
various alternative courses of action
creative thinking included in resolving a
moral dilemma.

5. Fifth is comparing the alternatives

with the principles.
This step involves eliminating alternatives
according to the moral principles that have
a bearing on the case. In many cases, the
case will be resolved at this since the
 THE MORAL AGENT -basis of interaction and communication
among people
Module 2
3. Beliefs
-the things that most people in a society
CULTURE & MORAL BEHAVIOR
consider to be true. Beliefs create a bond
 Culture and Its Role in Moral among people from the same culture
Behavior
4. Values
 Cultural Relativism
 Why are There Universal Values? -the things that people consider important,
 The Filipino Way: An Asian and a such as love, loyalty, hard work,
Filipino Understanding of Moral compassion, knowledge and
Behavior humanitarianism. Values define what is
 Strengths and weaknesses just, fair and good in a given society. They
represent a society's ideal culture and social
THE MORAL AGENT: DEVELOPING
standards but may not reflect how people
VIRTUE AS HABIT
actually behave.
 How is Moral Character Developed:
5. Norm
The Circular Relation of Acts that
Build Character and Acts that -expectations and rules of behavior created
Emanate from Character by external and internal social controls.
 Stages of Moral Development and
Conscience: How do we get to the
highest level, conscience-based CULTURE AND ITS ROLE IN
moral decisions? MORAL BEHAVIOR
Culture is gradually installed in their
system making them think, say and do
CULTURE & MORAL BEHAVIOR
things in patterned and distinctive ways.
Culture is the customs, ideas and social This activity of installing is primarily and
behavior of a particular people or group – it typically done by the core family; and
is everything that man thinks, says and secondarily by other environmental
does. vehicles like the church, school, peer group,
mass media and the like.
Cultura = growing or cultivation.

Personality
FIVE BASIC ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
It is the combination of characteristics or
1. Symbols
qualities that form an individual’s
-represent the elements of culture distinctive character (Oxford English
Dictionary 11th Edition). It is a system of
-evoke specific emotions and reactions enduring, inner characteristics of
from people. individuals that contributes to consistency
2. Language in their thoughts, feelings and behavior
(Leary, 2005).
 CULTURAL RELATIVISM CASE 2. Eskimos of the early and mid-20th
Century (Part 1)
Cultural Relativism is “where the traditions
of your society, your opinions, and the “The Eskimos are the native people of
circumstances of the present moment Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small
define your ethical principles” (Ghillyer, settlements, separated by great distances.
2010). Infanticide was common among them.
Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,
“Cultural Relativism says…that there is no
reported that he met one woman who had
such thing as universal truth in ethics; there
borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them
are only the various cultural codes, and
at birth. Female babies were especially
nothing more.
likely to be killed, and this was permitted at
1. Different societies have different the parents’ discretion, with no social
moral codes; stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly
2. The moral code of a society family members became too feeble, they
determines what is right within that were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels,
society; that is, if the moral code of J. 2004)
a society says that a certain action is
right, then that action is right, at
least within that society; CASE 3. Eskimos of the early and mid-20th
3. There is no objective standard that Century (Part 2)
can be used to judge one society’s
“The Eskimos are the native people of
code as better than another’s. There
Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small
are no moral truths that hold for all
settlements, separated by great distances.
people at all times;
Infanticide was common among them.
4. The moral code of our own society
Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,
has no special status; it is but one
reported that he met one woman who had
among many;
borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other
at birth. Female babies were especially
cultures. We should always be
likely to be killed, and this was permitted at
tolerant of them” (Rachels, The
the parents’ discretion, with no social
Elements of Moral Philosophy,
stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly
2003).
family members became too feeble, they
were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels,
J. 2004)
CASES ON DIFFERENT CULTURAL
PRACTICES
CASE 1. The Greeks and the Callatians CASE 4. Witch Hunting
“Darius, a king of ancient Persia, had found “In some African and Asian communities,
that Callatians, who lived in India, ate the witch hunting is a prevalent practice.
bodies of their dead fathers. The Greeks, of Women suspected of being witches are
course, did not do that - the Greeks tortured by the people, tied, covered in
practiced cremation and regarded the gasoline and burned alive. The motivation
funeral pyre as the natural and fitting way of the people of doing the act of witch
to dispose of the dead.” (Rachels, J. 2004) hunting is the fear of the suffering that the
witches might inflict on them.”
CASE 5. Human Sacrifice WHY ARE THERE UNIVERSAL
VALUES?
“In Uganda and India, some communities
practice Sati, a funeral custom whereby a Every society needs to be bound together
widow will throw herself (either willingly, by common values, so that its members
or due to social pressure) on the pyre or know what to expect of each other, and
lying place of her dead husband and burn to have some shared principles by which to
death. According to source, women do it to manage their differences without resorting
show devotion and commitment for their to violence.
husbands.”

THE FILIPINO WAY: AN ASIAN

WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM IT? AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING
OF MORAL BEHAVIOR
1. We should not assume that all of our
preferences are based on some objective IS THERE A FILIPINO
moral standard. UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL
VALUES?
2. It's a good idea to keep on open mind
when we encounter practices that disturb Yes, there is. Filipinos believe in two kinds
us. We need to ask ourselves: Why do I of karma. We know that if we did
hold the values and beliefs that I hold? something right, it will go back to us
rightfully. And vice-versa in doing
something bad.
WHY IS IT NOT TENABLE IN
ETHICS?
STRENGTHS OF THE FILIPINO
1. We cannot call out societal practices to
CHARACTER
promote harm,
PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO (REGARD
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own
FOR OTHERS). Filipinos are open to
culture’s harmful practices, and
others and feel one with others. We regard
3. The idea of societal progress becomes others with dignity and respect, and deal
doubtful. -Gallinero, 2018 with them as fellow human
beings. Pakikipagkapwa-tao is manifested
in a basic sense of justice and fairness, and
UNIVERSAL VALUES in concern for others. It is demonstrated in
the Filipino's ability to empathize with
A value is a Universal Value if it has the others, in helpfulness and generosity in
same value or worth for all, or almost all, times of need (pakikiramay), in the practice
people. of bayanihan or mutual assistance, and in
o Truth the famous Filipino hospitality.
o Love Filipinos possess a sensitivity to people's
o Peace feelings or pakikiramdam, pagtitiwala or
o Freedom trust, and a sense of gratitude or utang-na-
o Non-Violence loob. Because of pakikipagkapwa-tao,
o Righteous Conduct Filipinos are very sensitive to the quality of
interpersonal relationships and are very
dependent on them: if our relationships are in the most trying of times, and in the
satisfactory, we are happy and secure. appeal of political satire.
Pakikipagkapwa-tao results in camaraderie The result is a certain emotional balance
and a feeling of closeness one to another. It and optimism, a healthy disrespect for
helps promote unity as well a sense of power and office, and a capacity to survive.
social justice.

FLEXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY AND

FAMILY ORIENTATION. Filipinos CREATIVITY. Filipinos have a great
possess a genuine and deep love for the capacity to adjust, and to adapt to
family, which includes not simply the circumstances and to the surrounding
spouses and children, parents, and siblings, environment, both physical and social.
but also grandparents, aunts, uncles, Unplanned or unanticipated events are
cousins, godparents, and other ceremonial never overly disturbing or disorienting as
relatives. To the Filipino, one's family is the the flexible Filipino adjusts to whatever
source of personal identity, the source of happens. We possess a tolerance for
emotional and material support, and the ambiguity that enables us to remain unfazed
person's main commitment and by uncertainty or lack of information. We
responsibility. are creative, resourceful, adept at learning,
and able to improvise and make use of
Concern for family is manifested in the
whatever is at hand in order to create and
honor and respect given to parents and
produce.
elders, in the care given to children, the
generosity towards kin in need, and in the This quality of the Filipino is manifested in
great sacrifices one endures for the welfare the ability to adapt to life in any part of the
of the family. This sense of family results world; in the ability to make new things out
in a feeling of belonging or rootedness and of scrap and to keep old machines running;
in a basic sense of security. and, of course, in the creative talent
manifested in the cultural sphere. It is seen
likewise in the ability to accept change.
JOY AND HUMOR. Filipinos have a
The result is productivity, innovation,
cheerful and fun-loving approach to life and
entrepreneurship, equanimity, and survival.
its ups and downs. There is a pleasant
disposition, a sense of humor, and a
propensity for happiness that contribute not
HARD WORK AND INDUSTRY.
only to the Filipino charm, but to the
Filipinos have the capacity for hard work,
indomitability of the Filipino spirit.
given proper conditions. The desire to raise
Laughing at ourselves and our trouble is an
one's standard of living and to possess the
important coping mechanism. Often
essentials of a decent life for one's family,
playful, sometimes cynical, sometimes
combined with the right opportunities and
disrespectful, we laugh at those we love and
incentives, stimulate the Filipino to work
at those we hate, and make jokes about our
very hard. This is manifested most
fortune, good and bad.
noticeably in a willingness to take risks
This sense of joy and humor is manifested with jobs abroad, and to work there at two
in the Filipino love for socials and or three jobs. The result is productivity and
celebrations, in our capacity to laugh even
entrepreneurship for some, and survival little. Filipinos make do with what is
despite poverty for others. available in the environment, even, e.g., by
eking out a living from a garbage dump.
This survival instinct is related to the
FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY. Filipinos Filipinos who bravely carry on through the
have a deep faith in God. Innate religiosity harshest economic and social
enables us to comprehend and genuinely circumstances. Regretfully, one wonders
accept reality in the context of God's will what we might be able to do under better
and plan. Thus, tragedy and bad fortune are circumstances.
accepted and some optimism characterizes
even the poorest lives.
WEAKNESSES OF THE FILIPINO
Filipinos live very intimately with religion;
CHARACTER
this is tangible--a part of everyday life. We
ascribe human traits to a supernatural God EXTREME PERSONALISM. Filipinos
whom we alternately threaten and thank, view the world in terms of personal
call upon for mercy or forgiveness, and relationships and the extent to which one is
appease by pledges. Prayer is an important able personally to relate to things and
part of our lives. people determines our recognition of their
existence and the value. There is no
The faith of the Filipino is related to bahala
separation between an objective task and
na, which, instead of being viewed as
emotional involvement. This personalism is
defeatist resignation, may be considered
manifested in the tendency to give personal
positively as a reservoir of psychic energy,
interpretations to actions, i.e., to "take
an important psychological support on
things personally." Thus, a sincere question
which we can lean during difficult times.
may be viewed as a challenge to one's
This pampalakas ng loob allows us to act
competence or positive feedback may be
despite uncertainty.
interpreted as a sign of special affection.
Our faith and daring was manifest at EDSA There is, in fact, some basis for such
and at other times in our history when it was interpretations as Filipinos become
difficult to be brave. It is seen also in the personal in their criticism and praise.
capacity to accept failure and defeat Personalism is also manifested in the need
without our self-concept being devastated to establish personal relationships before
since we recognize forces external to any business or work relationship can be
ourselves as contributing to the unfolding successful.
of events in our lives.
Because of this personalistic world view,
The results of the Filipino's faith are Filipinos have difficulty dealing with all
courage, daring, optimism, inner peace, as forms of impersonal stimuli. For this reason
well as the capacity to genuinely accept one is uncomfortable with bureaucracy,
tragedy and death. with rules and regulations, and with
standard procedures--all of which tend to be
impersonal. We ignore them or we ask for
ABILITY TO SURVIVE. Filipinos have an exceptions.
ability to survive which is manifested in our Personal contacts are involved in any
capacity for endurance despite difficult transaction and are difficult to turn down.
times, and in our ability to get by on so Preference is usually given to family and
friends in hiring, delivery of services, and leading to carelessness and lack of follow-
even in voting. Extreme personalism thus through.
leads to the graft and corruption evident in
Philippine society.
PASSIVITY AND LACK OF
INITIATIVE. Filipinos are generally
EXTREME FAMILY-CENTEREDNESS. passive and lacking in initiative. One waits
While concern for the family is one of the to be told what has to be done. There is a
Filipino's greatest strengths, in the extreme strong reliance on others, e.g., leaders and
it becomes a serious flaw. Excessive government, to do things for us. This is
concern for the family creates an in-group related to the attitude towards authority.
to which the Filipino is fiercely loyal, to the Filipinos have a need for a strong authority
detriment of concern for the larger figure and feel safer and more secure in the
community or the common good. presence of such an authority. One is
generally submissive to those in authority,
Excessive concern for family manifests
and is not likely to raise issues or to
itself in the use of one's office and power as
question decisions.
a means of promoting the interests of the
family, in factionalism, patronage, and Filipinos tend to be complacent and there
political dynasties, and in the protection of rarely is a sense of urgency about any
erring family members. It results in lack of problem. There is a high tolerance for
concern for the common good and acts as a inefficiency, poor service, and even
block to national consciousness. violations of one's basic rights. In many
ways, it can be said that the Filipino is too
patient and long-suffering (matiisin), too
LACK OF DISCIPLINE. The Filipino's easily resigned to one's fate. Filipinos are
lack of discipline encompasses several thus easily oppressed and exploited.
related characteristics. We have a casual
and relaxed attitude towards time and space
which manifests itself in lack of precision COLONIAL MENTALITY. Filipinos have
and compulsiveness, in poor time a colonial mentality which is made up of
management and in procrastination. We two dimensions: the first is a lack of
have an aversion to following strictly a set patriotism or an active awareness,
of procedures, which results in lack of appreciation, and love of the Philippines;
standardization and quality control. We are the second is an actual preference for things
impatient and unable to delay gratification foreign.
or reward, resulting in the use of short cuts,
Filipino culture is characterized by an
skirting the rules (the palusot syndrome)
openness to the outside--adapting and
and in foolhardiness. We are guilty
incorporating the foreign elements into our
of ningas cogon, starting out projects with
image of ourselves. Yet this image is not
full vigor and interest which abruptly die
built around a deep core of Philippine
down, leaving things unfinished.
history and language. The result is a
Our lack of discipline often results in cultural vagueness or weakness that makes
inefficient and wasteful work systems, the Filipinos extraordinarily susceptible to the
violation of rules leading to more serious wholesome acceptance of modern mass
transgressions, and a casual work ethic culture which is often Western. Thus, there
is preference for foreign fashion, lack of analysis or reflection. Joking about
entertainment, lifestyles, technology, the most serious matters prevents us from
consumer items, etc. looking deeply into the problem. There is
no felt need to validate our hypotheses or
The Filipino colonial mentality is
explanations of things. Thus we are
manifested in the alienation of the elite
satisfied with superficial explanations for,
from their roots and from the masses, as
and superficial solutions to, problems.
well as in the basic feeling of national
inferiority that makes it difficult for Related to this is the Filipino emphasis on
Filipinos to relate as equals to Westerners. form (maporma) rather than upon
substance. There is a tendency to be
satisfied with rhetoric and to substitute this
KANYA-KANYA SYNDROME. for reality. Empty rhetoric and endless
Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving words are very much part of public life. As
attitude that generates a feeling of envy and long as the right things are said, as long as
competitiveness towards others, the proper documents and reports exist, and
particularly one's peers, who seem to have as long as the proper committees, task
gained some status or prestige. Towards forces, or offices are formed, Filipinos are
them, the Filipino demonstrated the so- deluded into believing that what ought to be
called "crab mentality", using the levelling actually exists.
instruments of tsismis, intriga and
The Filipino lack of self-analysis and our
unconstructive criticism to bring others
emphasis upon form is reinforced by an
down. There seems to be a basic
educational system that is often more form
assumption that another's gain is our loss.
than substance and a legal system that tends
The kanya-kanya syndrome is also evident to substitute law for reality.
in personal ambition and drive for power
and status that is completely insensitive to
the common good. Personal and in-group THE MORAL AGENT:
interests reign supreme. This characteristic DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
is also evident in the lack of a sense of
THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF
service among people in the government
ACTS THAT BUILD CHARACTER
bureaucracy. The public is made to feel that
AND ACTS THAT EMANATE FROM
service from these offices and from these
CHARACTER
civil servants is an extra perk that has to be
paid for. TERMINOLOGIES
The kanya-kanya syndrome results in the CHARACTER
dampening of cooperative and community
spirit and in the denial of the rights of  It is a distinctive feature by which
others. one thing is distinguished from
others
 a set of qualities or characteristics
LACK OF SELF-ANALYSIS AND SELF- that can be used to differentiate
REFLECTION. There is a tendency in the between persons.
Filipino to be superficial and even  comes from the ancient Greek term
somewhat flighty. In the face of serious kharaktēr = distinctive mark
problems both personal and social, there is
  In philosophy, the term character is Moral character traits are relatively stable,
typically used to refer to the fixed and reliable dispositions of action and
particularly moral dimension of a affect that ought to be rationally informed.
person.
Moral character affects one’s moral
VIRTUE decision. This character is a personality
trait or disposition that has become
 a trait or quality that is deemed to be habituated in the individual moral agent.
morally good and thus is valued as Indeed, it is something that is developed,
a foundation of principle nurtured and cultivated.
MORAL CHARACTER They can also be dispositions to have
 refers to the existence or lack of certain emotions or affections. For
virtues. To say that a certain person example, justice is the disposition to treat
has a good moral character means others as they deserve to be treated, while
that he/she is a good person and a courageousness is the disposition to feel the
good citizen with a sound moral appropriate amount of fear called for by a
compass. situation.

DEFINING MOMENT It is something that springs from the will of

the moral agent – it develops as he/she
 A significant life-changing event or grows into maturity.
moment that reverberates
throughout a person’s career and
personal life, and so changes THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF
everything. ACTS AND CHARACTER
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH VIRTUE ETHICS
A. REPETITION OF ACTION AND ITS
It is important to note that a virtuous EFFECT ON THE PERSON
behavior for Aristotle means practicing
moderation, that is, avoiding both excess HABIT
and deficiency.  When an action is constantly
Aristotle calls this doctrine of the mean. repeated, over time it can become a
This “doctrine of the mean” is a principle habit.
that suggests that a moral behavior is one EDUCATION
that is in the middle of two extremes.
 Actions become skills through
repetition and experience.
MORAL CHARACTER AS
HABITUS
DISPOSITION
 Actions become automatic is
Moral character traits are those dispositions
through what Aquinas calls habitus,
of character for which it is appropriate to
that is, inclination or disposition, an
hold agents morally responsible. A trait for
inclination, a willingness, to
which the agent is deserving of a positive
respond charitably to anyone in
reactive attitude, such as a praise or
need as the situation arises.
gratitude, is a virtue, and a vice.
B. TYPE OF ACTION STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT AND
ACTS OF HUMAN BEING OR ACTS OF
CONSCIENCE: HOW DO WE GET
MAN
TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL,
 acts that happen “naturally” acts CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL
done without self-awareness DECISIONS?
without deliberation, reflection, The formation of conscience
consent. Instinctive, spontaneous
acts that human beings share with 1. Begins with the deep-seated decision to
other animals. seek moral truth.
HUMAN ACTS 2. Must stand on the firm foundation of
integrity, sincerity and forthrightness.
 acts with conscious knowledge, acts
that are done freely, acts done with 3. Sustained by the habit of consistently
consent. Human acts are those that educating oneself by exposure to objective
are freely chosen in consequence of moral norms and the rationale behind those
a judgment of conscience. norms.

C. INTENTION AND RESPONSIBILITY As one's consciousness widens, the moral

parameters or standards of one's decision
 Human beings own their actions making widens, one's moral conscience
and the consequences of them. widens, one matures.
 The will is the rational power of
human beings to act. It is the ability For conscience to be formed, it needs a
to choose what is good (or what one guide, for Christians, the church's moral
thinks is good) directed by reason. teaching and persons whose moral
 One can be prevented from doing judgments are sound and in accordance
something by external forces but with the church's moral tradition.
carrying through with an action has Conscience based moral decision...
an element of the voluntary, of
willing to do it and therefore cannot
be forced.
 Another way the will can be
hindered is by lack of knowledge.
One may attempt to drive across a
flooded bridge thinking the water is
low enough to get through but then
get stuck, because it was really two
feet above the bridge
 The human being is self-governing
in that he can carry out a human
action or not carry it out as he wills.
Because of self-possession and self-
governance, human beings both
intend their actions and have
responsibility for their actions.