Faculty Name : Prof. B. K.

Boghara
Subject Name with Code : NT & SE (3171931)
Semester : 7th Sem

Sr.
Question & Answer
No.
1 What is Nanotechnology?
 Major technology shifts don't happen overnight; and rarely are they the
result of a single breakthrough discovery. Nowhere is this truer than for the
vast set of capabilities that we have come to simply call nanotechnology.

 Nanotechnology is not an industry; nor is it a single technology or a single

field of research. What we call nanotechnology consists of sets of enabling
technologies applicable to many traditional industries (therefore it is more
appropriate to speak of nanotechnologies in the plural).
2 How big is a nanometer?
 A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. The prefix nano means 'one
billionth', or 10-9, in the international system for units of weights and
measures. The abbreviation for nanometer is nm. The term nanos comes
from the Greek word for dwarf.
3 What are zero-, one-, two- , and three- dimensional nanomaterials?
 This classification is based on the number of dimensions of a material,
which are outside the nanoscale (<100 nm) range.

 Accordingly, in zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials all the dimensions

are measured within the nanoscale (no dimensions are larger than 100 nm).
Most commonly, 0D nanomaterials are nanoparticles.

 In one-dimensional nanomaterials (1D), one dimension is outside the

nanoscale. This class includes nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.

 In two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D), two dimensions are outside the

nanoscale. This class exhibits plate-like shapes and includes graphene,
 nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings.

 Three-dimensional nanomaterials (3D) are materials that are not confined

to the nanoscale in any dimension. This class can contain bulk powders,
dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of nanowires, and nanotubes as well
as multi-nanolayers.
4 How does nanotechnology work?
 Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the
nanometer scale, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.
Encompassing nanoscale science, engineering, and technology,
nanotechnology involves imaging, measuring, modelling, and
manipulating matter at this length scale.

 Nanotechnologies involve the design, characterization, production, and

application of nanoscale structures, devices, and systems that produces
structures, devices, and systems with at least one novel/superior
characteristic or property.
5 What is so special about nanotechnology?
 In a nutshell: the mechanical rules that govern the nanoworld are quite
different from our everyday, macroworld experience. This allows the
fabrication of novel materials and applications that otherwise would not be
possible.
6 What are nanomaterials?
 Much of nanoscience and many nanotechnologies is concerned with
producing new or enhanced materials.
 Nanomaterials can be constructed by top down techniques, producing very
 small structures from larger pieces of material, for example by etching to
create circuits on the surface of a silicon microchip.
 They may also be constructed by bottom up techniques, atom by atom or
molecule by molecule. One way of doing this is self-assembly, in which
the atoms or molecules arrange themselves into a structure due to their
natural properties. Crystals grown for the semiconductor industry provide
an example of self-assembly, as does chemical synthesis of large
molecules.
 If 50% or more of the constituent particles of a material in the number size
distribution have one or more external dimensions in the size range 1 nm
to 100 nm, then the material is a nanomaterial. It should be noted that a
fraction of 50% with one or more external dimensions between 1 nm and
100 nm in a number size distribution is always less than 50% in any other
commonly-used size distribution metric, such as surface area, volume,
mass or scattered light intensity. In fact it can be a tiny fraction of the total
mass of the material.
 Even if a product contains nanomaterials, or when it releases
nanomaterials during use or ageing, the product itself is not a
nanomaterial, unless it is a particulate material itself that meets the criteria
of particle size and fraction.
 The volume specific surface area (VSSA) can be used under specific
conditions to indicate that a material is a nanomaterial. VSSA is equal to
the sum of the surface areas of all particles divided by the sum of the
volumes of all particles. VSSA > 60 m2/cm3 is likely to be a reliable
indicator that a material is a nanomaterial unless the particles are porous or
have rough surfaces, but many nanomaterials (according to the principal
size-based criterion) will have a VSSA of less than 60 m 2/cm3. The VSSA
> 60 m2/cm3 criterion can therefore only be used to show that a material is
a nanomaterial, not vice versa. The VSSA of a sample can be calculated if
the particle size distribution and the particle shape(s) are known in detail.
The reverse (calculating the size distribution from the VSSA value) is
unfeasible.
7 What are nanoclusters?
 In addition to nanoparticles, you will also come across the term
nanocluster quite often. These are small agglomerates of atoms and
molecules, consisting of a few to some thousands of units and have
diameters mostly in the single nanometer scale. The name nanoparticle is
 often used when speaking of bigger clusters with diameters from several
nanometers to several hundreds of nanometers, but the distinction between
a cluster and a nanoparticle is not well-defined.
8 Where is nanotechnology used today? Can I buy nanotechnology products?
 Yes! Nanotechnology is becoming ubiquitous in our daily lives and has
found its way into many commercial products, just to name a few: strong,
lightweight materials for cars and planes; filters and membranes; targeted
drug delivery for safer and more effective cancer treatments; computer
processors and data storage; self-cleaning surfaces; more efficient solar
cells; materials for skin, bone, and nerve cells regeneration.
 Consumers come into contact with a variety of products in which
nanomaterials have been processed. Nanomaterials are used in food
packaging, textiles, kitchen devices, varnishes and paints. They are also
used in products for surface sealing and cleaning as well as in polishing
agents. Nanomaterials are also used in cosmetics. Titanium dioxide and
zinc oxide are used as UV filters in sun creams, for example; nanosilver is
used as an antimicrobial agent in textiles and nanoclay has various
applications in the food packaging sector.
9 What are the coating characteristics?
 Protective coatings are unique method of corrosion control. They are used
to give long term protection under a broad range of corrosive conditions,
extending from atmospheric exposures to frill immersion in strongly
corrosive solution. Protective solution provides little or no structural
strength, yet they provide other material so that the strength and the
integrity of a structure can be maintained. The function of protective
coatings is to prevent highly corrosive industrial fumes, liquids, solids, or
gases from contacting the reactive underlying substrate of the structure.
This physical separation of two highly reactive materials, the atmosphere
and the substrate, is extremely important.

 That coatings are, in general, a relatively thin film separating the two
reactive materials indicates the vital importance of the coating and the
concept of a corrosion free structure. The coating must be, according to
this concept a completely continuous film in order to fulfill its function.
Any imperfection becomes a focal point for corrosion and the breakdown
of the structure.
2.1. COATING PROPERTIES
Corrosion resistant coatings must be characterized by many essential properties.
These may very, depending upon the specific use of the coating, but there are
several basic characteristics required by all coating materials.

2.1.1 Water Resistance

Resistance to water is perhaps the most important coating characteristic since all
coatings will come in contact with moisture. Water is the universal solvent. Both
iron and steel oxidize under even normal basic water conditions. There is no one
coating that can be effective under all water conditions. The different types of
water encountered only multiply these mechanical problems. Swamp water,
which may be pure enough to drink, is ordinarily acidic and will corrode both
steel and concrete. Sulfide water, which is prevalent in many areas, reacts readily
with metals. High conductivity water or seawater leads to rapid formation of
anode-cathode areas on steel, which results in severe pitting. Pure water from the
snowfields will dissolve calcium out of the concrete at a rapid rate, leaving the
aggregate exposed. Water with high oxygen content will also create anode
cathode type corrosion areas. The problem is thus a very complex one since no
single type of material will provide a universal answer. For a high-performance
corrosion-resistant coating shall have excellent water-resistant means that it must
not only withstand continuous immersion in water or seawater, but it must do so
without blistering, cracking, softening, swelling or loss of adhesion. It must also
withstand repeated cycles of wet and dry conditions, since such coatings are
normally exposed to an atmosphere of condensing dew in the evening and night
hours and sun drying during daylight.

2.1.2 Chemical Resistance

Chemical resistance is the ability of the coating, and particularly the resins from
which it is formulated, to resist breakdown by the action of chemicals to which it
is exposed. Chemical resistance depends on the both the coating formulation and
on the resins from which the coating is produced. Generally, a coating which is
considered chemical-resistant and which would be used for corrosion resistance
in a chemical atmosphere should be resistant to salts, acids, and alkalis of a
rather wide pH range. It should also be resistant to organic materials such as
diesel oil, gasoline, lube oil, and similar materials, since these are compounds
found in almost ail industrial operations. Alkali resistance is, of course,
extremely important in a primer. Since one of the chemical reactions in the
corrosion process is the development of strong alkali at the cathode, any primer
which is not highly resistant to alkali will tend to fail in the cathode area,
resulting in undercutting of the coating and spreading of corrosion underneath
the coating.

2.1.3 Proper Adhesion

A corrosion-resistant coating must also be highly adherent. Since the property of
adhesion is essential in preventing the effects of water on the life of the coating
and in preventing the problems caused by a temperature gradient across the
coating, adhesion is probably the key requirement in a corrosion-resistant
coating. Irrespective of most of its other properties, the coating with very strong
adhesion to the surface will retain its integrity much longer than one with less
adhesion but other strong characteristics.

2.1.4 Abrasion Resistance

Coatings, which are applied to ships, helicopter decks, barges, offshore
platforms, and other similar areas, are excellent examples of why many
corrosion-resistant coatings also require abrasion resistance. In these areas,
coatings are subject to the movement of heavy equipment, foot traffic, possible
wheel traffic and damage by tools and equipment. In order to withstand this type
of service and remain effective as a corrosion- resistant film, a coating must be
tough, extremely adhesive, hard and resistant to shock. The most effective
abrasion-resistant organic coatings are the polyurethane coatings. These have
exceptional resistance to impact, scouring and abrasion. Inorganic zinc coatings,
however, because of their good adhesion to the steel surface and because of their
silicate and zinc composition, have proven outstanding when applied on the
decks of barges and ships.

2.1.5 Ability Of Expand And Contract

Each coating material has a different coefficient of expansion. Any coating,
which is to withstand corrosive conditions, must also have the property of
expanding and contracting. Epoxies or atkyds may after some considerable
aging, become brittle and cease to expand and contract. This can lead to cracking
and spalling from the surface because of the temperature cycling. A proper
corrosion resistant coating must withstand temperature changes without loss of
adhesion and without checking or cracking. Inorganic zinc coatings have proven
to have exceptional resistance to such changes in temperature.

2.1.6 Weather Resistance

A weather-resistant protective coating must withstand the sun’s rays, rain, snow,
dew, freezing, and thawing, expansion and contraction of the substrate, chemical
fumes, dusts, as well as continuing wet and dry cycling-usually on the daily
basis. Weather resistance combines into one property almost all of the properties
required of a coating for more specific uses. To be weather-resistant, a coating
must resist the above conditions without excessive checking, chalking, flaking,
blistering, loss of adhesion or substantial colour or appearance change.

2.1.7 Resistance To Bacteria And Fungus

There are two ways in which bacteria and fungus can affect a coating. First,
where they settle on any dirt that has accumulated on the surface of a coating,
they tend to live and thrive. They attack on the coating and form colonies. These
fungus colonies are living on one or more of the coating ingredients and can
eventually lead to premature coating breakdown. Underground conditions can
also lead to coating breakdown due to bacteria attack.

2.1.8 Pleasing Appearance

Although a coating is primarily used to prevent corrosion and protect the basic
structure, it should also be pleasing to the eye and maintain its colour.

2.1.9 Easy Application

Application is one of the most important coating characteristics, especially when
dealing with structures with many comers, edges, recesses, and similar areas. If a
coating is somewhat difficult to apply, these are the areas which suffer and which
breakdown first in the corrosive atmosphere.

2.1.10. Resistance To Extreme Temperature

While all coatings are subjected to temperature and come temperature cycling,
these conditions are generally moderate. Temperature, however, can be key
factor in coating used for stacks, pipes, the exterior of process vessels, and for
other similar uses. Where coating is used for excessively cold temperatures the
three general characteristics to be considered are adhesion, shrinkage, and
brittleness.

2.1.11. Radiation Resistance

Atomic energy and atomic power coatings have been used extensively for
protection against the radioactive contamination of various substrates including
steel, concrete, stainless steels etc. in order to be effectively used on such
 installation, coatings must be able to withstand varying amounts of radiation.

2.1.12. Friction Resistance

Some coatings are subject to friction, particularly when they are used as faying
surface where two sections of metal are riveted or bolted together to form a
friction joint. Inorganic coatings have proven to be very satisfactory under such
conditions, while most organic coatings are unsatisfactory.
10 What are the types of coatings?
No one expected to be a chemist; however, some basic knowledge of the
different types of coating materials and their chemical and physical properties as
explained earlier can be advantageous. Generic coating types take their name
from the resin in their formulation. Thus a coating may be referred to as a vinyl
or an epoxy, although it may be highly modified, or in some cases, it may be
combination of two or more different resins, one of which will usually be
predominant. For example, vinyl resins are often modified with alkyd or acrylic
resins, or coal tar pitch may be used in conjunction with epoxy resins. Such
modifications produce the thousands of combinations today.

The most common generic types of coatings are.

1. Acrylics
2. Alkyds
3. Bituminous
4. Chlorinated rubbers
5. Epoxy amine
6. Epoxy coal tar
7. Epoxy ester
8. Epoxy Phenolic
9. Epoxy polyamide
10. Inorganic and organic zincs
1311. Silicones
12. Urethanes
13. Vinyls

The more significant features of the different generic types of coating materials
are as follows:

1. Acrylics
Acrylics have excellent colour and gloss retention for outdoor applications and
are often combined with other resins because of these properties. They are ideal
for use in areas of mild chemical fumes but are not recommended for tank
linings. They are somewhat inferior to vinyls or chlorinated rubbers in chemical
resistance. They cure by solvent evaporation. They are often used as a topcoat
over other chemical resistance coatings are applied, because of their color and
gloss retention.

2. Alkyds
Alkyds are usually natural oils that have been chemically modified to improve
the rate of cure, chemical resistance and hardness. They are general-purpose
coatings designed for applications to a wide range of substrates. They are easily
applied and can be used as primers or topcoats. They provide good colour
retention and gloss but exhibit poor chemical resistance. Since they are subject to
saponification, which is chemical interaction of fat with an alkali that forms a
soap, they are not suitable for applications to alkaline surfaces. They cure by air
oxidation.

3. Bituminous
Bituminous coatings are low-cost, heavy-bodied materials applied either hot or
as a ait back with solvent. They provide good moisture barriers, have good-to-
fair resistance to chemical fumes and spillage and exhibit good acid resistance
and poor solvent resistance. They form very heavy films but have no corrosion
inhibiting qualities. When they are 14damaged, undercutting can be serious
problem. They are available in black only. Materials such as clay, slate, mica,
asbestos and other powders are sometimes added to increase film thickness and
toughness. They cure by solvent evaporation.

4. Chlorinated Rubber
Chlorinated Rubber coatings are similar to vinyls in that they form fairly rough,
thin films that have good abrasion resistance. They have excellent weathering
properties and provide excellent resistance to most mineral acids and alkalis, salt
and fresh water, and fungus growth. They are frequently modified with alkyd
resins to lower their cost and improve their application characteristics. Curing is
by solvent evaporation.

5. Epoxy Amine
Epoxy amine coatings are catalysed or hardened by an amine curing agent.
These materials form a hard, abrasion resistant coating with good-to-excellent
alkali, acid, and solvent resistance. They must be applied to a thoroughly cleaned
surface and are moisture-sensitive during application. They have a tendency to
fade and chalk in direct sunlight and to embrittle on ageing.

6. Epoxy Polyamide
Epoxy Polyamide coatings are not as resistant to adds, alkalis, or solvents as the
amines. Polyamides have greater flexibility and provide water and salt solution
resistance. They have a tendency to fade and chalk indirect sunlight and do not
embrittle as much as the amine epoxies do on ageing.

7. Epoxy Coal Tar

Amine or polyamide epoxy resins are often modified with coal tar pitch to
produce relatively high film build-up for good chemical and 15moisture
resistance. Resistance to hydrogen sulphide and acids in general is dramatically
improved over a straight epoxy. They have a tendency to embrittle on ageing,
and delimitation between coats or beneath touch-up patches is common unless
special pre-cautions for j taken applications. They are normally black in colour.
during.

8. Epoxy Phenolic
Epoxy Phenolic coatings combine a portion of Phenolic resin with epoxy resin.
They are usually employed as tank linings but have used extensively in nuclear
plants, as interior coatings for vessels. They have good resistance to the effects
of radiation.

9. Epoxy Ester
Epoxy ester coatings are a combination of an epoxy resin and a drying oil. These
coatings cure by a combination of solvent evaporation and oxidation. They do
not require the use of catalyst or hardener. Chemical resistance is better than
alkyds but still rather poor. However, they can be applied by relatively
inexperienced painter on surface having only marginal surface preparation. They
do not lift most old, sound paints. Their whether resistance is fairly good, but
they will chalk and yellow after extended exposure to sun. They do no saponify
over alkaline surfaces to the same degree as an alkyd.

10. Inorganic And Organic Zincs

Metallic Zinc is used as the pigmentation with the variety of vehicle for
inorganic and organic zinc coatings. They may be one- two- or three-package
 materials, post cured, moisture cured, solvent based or water based. The end
product in all cases is metallic zinc suspended in extremely hard, tough silicate
matrix. Acid or alkali resistance is poor but solvent, moisture and salt resistance
is excellent. Their weather resistances is extremely well and are often used as a
single cost system for structural steel or tanks. Abrasive blasting is required, and
the dry film thickness of the applied film thickness of the applied film is critical.

11. Silicones:
Silicone coatings are semi-inorganic polymers which, when formulated into
coatings, have outstanding heat resistance and excellent water repellency.
Properties depend on the amount of silicone resin and the type of modifying
agents used (i.e. alkyd, acrylics, etc). In high heat applications, such as stakes,
they are used to temperatures as high as 1200° F.

12. Urethanes:
Sometimes called polyurethanes or isocyanets, these coatings are a fairly new
development but may be obtained in a wide range of formulations. Normally,
two-package, catalysed materials, the aliphatic urethanes are hard, tough and
abrasion resistant, with excellent weathering properties and gloss retention. They
exhibit excellent solvent resistance, only slightly inferior to that of an epoxy, and
withstand mild acids and alkalis. Their adhesion properties are excellent;
however, they are usually applied over an epoxy primer. Urethanes can be
applied at lower than most other chemically cured coatings. During applications,
urethanes are moisture sensitive, but after they have cured, they exhibit
outstanding resistance to high humidify.

13. Vinyls
Vinyls are thermostatic materials and cure solely by solvent evaporation. As
such, they can be applied at much lower temperatures than any catalysed
coating. Acid and alkali resistance is excellent, but solvent resistance is poor.
Because they are soluble in their own solvents, repairs are easily made. Water
and weather resistance is outstanding characteristics. A clean, preferable abrasive
blasted surface is required for proper adhesion. They usually employ special
primers.
11 What are the components of coatings?
All paints or coatings consist of two major components: the vehicle and the
pigment. The vehicle consists of the basic resin portion of the coating, which is
usually dissolved, in a solvent. This component of the coating is called the
 “binder” it binds the pigment together and is the basic film-forming portion of
the coating. The pigment portion of the coating contains not only those pigments
that impart colour to the coating, but may also include extenders and reinforcing
agents such as silica flour, flake glass, mica etc., inerts, thixotropizing agents,
ultraviolet screening pigments, corrosion inhibitors, and other activities
necessary to yield specific properties to the coatings or lining. When the coating
is applied to a surface, the volatile portion of the coating evaporates, leaving
only the non-volatile binder and pigments to form the protective film. This is
normally referred to as the “solids” of “non-volatile” portion of the coating.
12 What is coating systems? Explain it.
General coating systems is,-
a) Application of primer
b) Application of Intermediate coat
c) Application of Top coat or Finish coat.

a) Primers:
The primer is universal for all anti corrosive coating and is considered one of the
most important components of the coating system. The primary purpose of a
primer are listed as follows:
1. Adhesion (strong bond to substrate)
2. Cohesion (high order of internal strength)
3. Inertness (strong resistance to corrosion and chemicals)
4. Inter coat bond (high bond to intermediate coat)
5. Distention (appropriate flexibility)

The primer is the base on which the rest of the coating system is applied. As a
base, it must have strong adhesion to the substrate surface. Primers are actually
the key to the adhesion of the total coating system. The primer must also provide
a proper and compatible base for the topcoats. Primers, then, have dual
requirements; adhesion to the substrate and provision of a surface will allow
proper adhesion of the topcoats. Primers are often applied and allowed to stand
for many days or months prior to the application coats. Therefore, they must also
have sufficient resistance to the atmosphere to protect the steel substrate from
any corrosion during the period between the time of primer is applied and the
time that the topcoats are applied. If it allows corrosion to take place during this
period, it is not performing the whole purpose for which it was designed. A
primer generally must have the ability to retard the spread of corrosion
discontinuities such as pinholes, holidays, or breaks in the film.
b) Intermediate Or Body Coates
Intermediate or body coats are usually used in coating systems, which are
designed for specific purposes. The primary purposes of intermediate coat are to
provide:

1. Thickness for total coating

2. Strong chemical resistance
3. Resistance to moisture vapor transfer
4. Increased coating electrical resistance
5. Strong adhesion
6. Strong bond to primer and topcoat

The formation of the intermediate coats is important, primarily as it increased

thickness. Physical thickness improves many other essential properties of a
coating, such as increased chemical resistance, increased abrasion, and impact
resistance. The body coat or intermediate coat must also provide strong adhesion
to the primer, as well as a good base for the topcoats. Another important role of
the intermediate coat is in providing a superior barrier with respect to aggressive
chemicals in the environment or when immersed. The intermediate coats are
usually deficient with respect to appearance properties so that they are generally
not used as finish coats. They may also be used to add physical resistance. Most
intermediate coats are used with the impervious type coating system.

c) Topcoats Or Finish Coats:

Topcoats also perform several important functions in that they provide, -
1. A resistant seal for the coating system.,
2. Form the initial barrier to the environment,
3. Resistance to chemicals, water, and weather,
4. A tough and wear resistant surface,
5. A pleasing appearance.

In the primer, intermediate coat, and topcoat system, the topcoat provides a
resinous seal over the intermediate coats and the primer. The first topcoat may
actually penetrate into the intermediate coat, thus, providing the coating system
with an impervious top surface. The topcoat is the first line of defense against
aggressive chemicals, water, or the environment, it is the initial barrier in the
coating system. It also provides the coating system with the characteristics of
 appearance through its colour, texture and gloss.
13 What are the different categories of surface engineering?
• Examples of well-established surface engineering techniques are
electroplating, anodizing, surface hardening, carburizing, nitriding,
thermal spraying, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and physical vapour
deposition (PVD).
14 What are the applications of surface engineering?
• The applications of surface coatings have been extensively explored. They
include sports technology, aeronautic and transport industries, chemical
and petroleum industries, food, mining and the electronics industries.
Recently, surface coatings have been utilised increasingly in some
specialised areas. Such applications include thermal sprayed coatings in
the sports industry (horses hooves, clothing, golfing, swimming),
biomedical/orthopaedics (e.g. hydroxylapatite), dentistry, cancer therapy,
art industry (e.g. glass colouring and enamelling) and bronze applications.

• Surface coatings provide a wide range of functions to modify the

properties of the components. Typical coatings include pure metals and
alloys, Nitrides, Carbides, Diamond Like Carbon (DLC), decorative
coatings and thermal barrier coatings. Modern cutting applications can not
be accomplished without protecting the tools with a thin wear-resistant
coating. These applications include high speed cutting, hard machining of
high hardness (Rockwell>60C) materials, dry cutting and cutting of
materials such as Titanium, AlSi alloy or other non-ferrous abrasive
materials that are difficult to cut. The coatings deposited on the tool
surface normally have a thickness of several microns. They enhance wear
resistance at the cutting edge and reduce diffusion and friction.

• Surface engineering contributes very significantly in the transport industry.

Approximately 6% of the costs of manufacturing engines and
transmissions are involved in coating technologies. Surface coatings
generally have three major categories of applications in the transport
industry, which are power units, vehicle components and fixed permanent
structures. Engineering coatings have a number of applications in power
generation units, such as diesel engines and power transmission systems.
Surface coatings have a function of preventing the power units from
erosion and wear. Some vehicle components such as suspension and
 brakes are coated with thermally sprayed coatings to improve wear
resistance, and therefore extend the service life. Epoxy-based polymer
coatings are applied to exposed areas such as wheel arches and bumpers.
They are also used as a body coat on some vehicles to increase the
abrasion and corrosion resistance.

• Polymer coatings also help to reduce noise levels. Another application of

surface coatings is for fixed structures such as bridges and oil rigs to
combat saltwater corrosion and sand abrasion problems. In the aerospace
industry, the applications of surface coatings on engine parts have been
practiced for over 50 years. Surface coated gas turbine engine can provide
a combination of special properties, such as high temperature strength,
corrosion resistance and bearing properties. Thermal sprayed polymer
coatings are used to protect parts against atmospheric corrosion.
Furthermore, spacecraft components such as gears and ball bearings can be
coated with MoS2 by PVD magnetron sputtering. This lowers the heat
generated within the transmission system and protects the gears from
temperature rise. Surface modification can improve the performance of a
component. For example, the slat track, a component of the landing gear of
light combat aircraft, was designed out of maraging steel and needs a
surface modification to improve wear resistance. Conventional hard
chromium plating may pose problems of machining. A plasma nitriding
surface modification has been developed and recently employed for this
application. It does not need any post machining operation and moreover,
does not reduce fatigue life in contrast to chromium plating.
15 Explain various surface coating processes and techniques?
There are numerous commercially available processes and techniques in use for
applying coatings to a substrate.

1) Thin film coatings

Thin film technology is applied in many applications, including sports
equipment, microelectronics, optics, magnetic, bio-medical, micro-mechanics,
etc. There are a number of deposition methods available. Among them, PVD and
CVD are commonly used. For instance, the thin films in use today such as
semiconductors, flat panel displays, and solar cells are deposited using either
PVD or CVD or advanced applications of these processes such as Plasma
enhanced CVD( PECVD).
 Figure 9. shows the principle of PVD and CVD processes. In the process of
PVD, coating vapours are generated either by evaporation from a molten source,
or by ejection of atoms from a solid source that is subject to bombardment by an
ionised gas. The vapour may then be left as a stream of neutral atoms in a
vacuum or it may be ionised. A partially ionised stream is usually mixed with an
ionised gas and then deposited on an earthed or biased substrate, though a highly
ionised stream that forms plasma is attracted to a biased substrate.

PVD techniques are limited to making thin films that range from 0.1 μm to 0.1
mm whereas CVD is used for both thin films and for coatings in excess of 1 mm.
CVD has a broad use in applying thin films of TiN and TiC on metal working
and forming tools and on components that are subject to abrasion and corrosion.
The CVD process has been applied to the deposition of diamond-like films. The
basic principle of the CVD process is that a chemical reaction between the
source gases takes place in a chamber. The result of this reaction is that a solid
phase material is produced and condensed on the substrate surfaces. There are
three steps in any CVD reaction:

i. The production of a volatile carrier compound, e.g. nickel carbonyl;

ii. The transport of the gas, without decomposition, to the deposition site;
iii. The chemical reaction necessary to produce the coating on the substrate.
16 Explain Sputtering Deposition Process.
• Sputtering is a process whereby coating material is dislodged and ejected
 form a solid surface caused by bombardment of high energy particles. The
high energy particles are usually positive ions (and energetic neutrals) of a
heavy inert gas or species of coating material. The sputtered material is
ejected primarily in atomic form from the source of the coating material,
called the target. The substrate is positioned in front of the target so as to
intercept the flux of sputtered atoms. The basic processes involving
sputtering are: glow discharge and ion beam.

• In the glow-discharge sputtering process, a target is placed into a vacuum

chamber which is evacuated to 10 -7 to 10-5 torr and then backfilled with a
working gas, such as an inert gas (say Ar), to a pressure (5x10 -3 to 10-1
torr) which is adequate to sustain a plasma discharge. A negative bias (0.5
to 5 kV for d.c. device) is then applied to the target so that it is bombarded
by positive ions from the plasma. Ions accelerated by this voltage impact
the target and cause ejection of the target material (sputtering). Glow-
discharge sputtering technology is limited in the sense that the target
current density and voltage cannot be independently controlled except by
varying the working gas pressure.

• The magnetically assisted glow-discharge sputtering process is magnetron

sputtering. This process provides:
i) relatively high deposition rates,
ii) large deposition areas and
ii) low substrate heating.

• This is revolutionizing the sputtering process by greatly expanding the

range of applications. In magnetron sputtering, the efficiency of the
available electrons is increased by a magnetic field. An unbalanced
magnetron refers to difference in the relative strength of the magnets
mounted behind the target. A wide range of metal carbides, nitrides and
oxides can be deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering. E.g. TiN, CrN,
TiC, DLC, TiAlN, MoS2. Magnetron Sputtering is a line of site deposition
technique.
17 Explain Macro and Micro Shot Peening.
Shot peening is a modification process of cold forming the surface of a part. A
stream of round hardened steel shot or similar is propelled onto the surface
during the process. Figure 13. shows the general process of shot peening. Shot
 peening process is non-abrasive and improves the fatigue properties of the part
by the introduction of compression stresses in the surface layer. The presence of
this surface compressive stress serves to retard the initiation and growth of
fatigue cracks. Shot peening can be conducted on a macro or micro scale,
depending on the components and applications. Shot size in the order of 10mm
diameter is used in large operations such as on Airbus wheels and micro shot in
the order 4 to 50 micron diameter can be used to improve the properties of thin
films on components. By using shot peening, the service life of springs can
increase by 400% to 1200%, depending on the extent of peening already
imparted on the spring. Shot peening processes can also increase the fatigue life
of gears by over 500%. Other parts that are usually shot peened include axles,
torsion bars, marine propellers, rudders, and exhaust megaphones. All have
benefited from increased fatigue life, or an increase in service loads.

18 Explain Ion Implantation.

• Ion implantation is a surface modification process in which ions are
injected into the surface region of a substrate. These processes can
improve substrate material properties of hardness, wear resistance,
corrosion resistance and fatigue, thus improving the product’s service life.
Furthermore, it is a potential enhancement method for plating processes,
such as chrome plating. High-energy ions, typically 10–200 keV in energy,
are produced in an accelerator and directed as a beam onto the surface of
the substrate.
• The order of magnitude of the kinetic energies which were produced by
the ions impingement on the substrate is more than 4 times greater than the
 binding energy of formation of the solid substrate with the surface upon
impact. Virtually, any element can be injected into the near-surface region
of any solid substrate. The modern method of implantation is plasma
source ion implantation. This form of ion implantation involves using
plasma as a source which was excited from a gas typically through the use
of an RF antenna. Ion implantation processes commonly have products
like nitrides, borides and carbides, etc.
19 Explain Spray Pyrolysis Technique.
• The spray pyrolysis technique has been extensively used to synthesize
materials for a wide variety of applications such as micro and sub-
micrometer dimension MOSFET s for integrated circuits technology, light
emitting devices for displays, and solid-state lighting, planar waveguides
and other multilayer structure devices for photonics. This technique is an
atmospheric pressure chemical synthesis of materials, in which a precursor
solution of chemical compounds in the proper solvent is sprayed and
converted into powders or films through a pyrolysis process. The most
common ways to generate the aerosol for the spraying process are by
pneumatic and ultrasonic systems. The synthesis parameters are usually
optimized for the materials optical, structural, electric and mechanical
characteristics required. There are several reviews of the research efforts in
which spray pyrolysis and the processes involved have been described in
detail. This review is intended to focus on research work developed with
this technique in relation to high-K dielectric and luminescent materials in
the form of coatings and powders as well as multiple layered structures.

• The spray pyrolysis technique involves three major process stages:

Precursor solution composition, aerosol generation and transport, and
synthesis process. Every one of these stages is tuned according to of the
final chemical and physical characteristics of the material targeted; these
adjustments and the choice of materials/processes at each stage will affect
the rest of the stages, to some extent. Thus, at the first stage, the chemical
composition of the precursor solution will have to involve a compound(s)
that will render after the pyrolysis stage the chemical composition
required. The selection of the solvent will limit the maximum
concentration of the precursor compound in the solution and will
determine the best choice for the aerosol generation/transport process and
the temperature and rate of synthesis. At the second stage, the aerosol
 droplet size distribution, determined by the aerosol generation mechanism,
will set the morphological characteristics of the final material produced, as
well as the proper range of synthesis temperatures. The carrier gas nature
and flux rate will propitiate or reduce the probability of a reactive
interaction with the precursor compound. At the last stage, the decision
whether the final chemical reaction takes place on a gas phase or on a hot
substrate will determine if the material synthesized is a powder or a film
coating. In general, given an experimental setup, the synthesis parameters
that are more relevant are the concentration molarity of the precursor
solution, the carrier gas flux rate, and the synthesis temperature.
20 Explain the concept of composites.
• Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material are the best
example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural.
Laminates are composite material where different layers of materials give
them the specific character of a composite material having a specific
function to perform. Fabrics have no matrix to fall back on, but in them,
fibers of different compositions combine to give them a specific character.
Reinforcing materials generally withstand maximum load and serve the
desirable properties. Further, though composite types are often
distinguishable from one another, no clear determination can be really
made.
• To facilitate definition, the accent is often shifted to the levels at which
differentiation take place viz., microscopic or macroscopic. In matrix-
based structural composites, the matrix serves two paramount purposes
viz., binding the reinforcement phases in place and deforming to distribute
the stresses among the constituent reinforcement materials under an
applied force. The demands on matrices are many. They may need to
temperature variations, be conductors or resistors of electricity, have
moisture sensitivity etc. This may offer weight advantages, ease of
handling and other merits which may also become applicable depending
on the purpose for which matrices are chosen. Solids that accommodate
stress to incorporate other constituents provide strong bonds for the
reinforcing phase are potential matrix materials. A few inorganic materials,
polymers and metals have found applications as matrix materials in the
designing of structural composites, with commendable success. These
materials remain elastic till failure occurs and show decreased failure
strain, when loaded in tension and compression.