1

ATOMS, MOLECULES &

STOCHIOMETRY II
 2

Empirical & Molecular formula

Oxidation Number

Solution Concentration

Chemical equation & Stoichiometry

Limiting Reagent
By the end of this chapter, you should 3
be able to:
Understand how molecular and empirical formulas
Understand
are used to convey chemical information

Determine oxidation number of atoms in molecule or

Determine
ionic compound

Express solution concentration in few different

Express
terms

Balance Balance chemical equation using appropriate method

Solve Solve problems related to stoichiometry

4
 CHEMICAL FORMULA 5

• The expression for the composition of molecules and

ionic compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
• Composition = The element present + The ratios of
atoms are combined

Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

 Molecular Formula Empirical Formula 6
Shows the exact number of atoms of each Express the presence elements and the
element in the smallest unit of a substance. simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms.

O2 CO2 molecular formula for Hydrazine, N2H4

The subscript numeral indicates the no. of empirical formula with NH2
atoms of an element present
The empirical formula DOES NOT
The relationship between empirical formula (EF) and indicate the actual number of atoms
molecular formula (MF): that combine in a molecule.

MF = EF x n Some of substances have similar empirical and

Where n = 1, 2, 3,…
Or molecular formula.
Examples: Ammonia, NH3, Methane, CH4,
Molar mass = empirical formula molar mass x n
 Molecular Formula Empirical Formula 7

Try this out!!

Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:
a) Dimethyl fumurate, C8H12O4
b) Caffeine, C8H10N4O2
c) Valinin, C8H8O3
d) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

Answer:
a) C2H3O
b) C4H5N2O
c) Same as MF
d) Same as MF
Determining a chemical formula from experimental data

Example 1 : 8
When analyzed, a compound was found to contain 25.5% Mg and 74.5% Cl by mass.
a) What is the empirical formula of the compound?
b) What is the molecular formula if the
Solution molar mass of the compound is 95 g/mol ?
Assume that the mass of the sample compound = 100 g
Mass of Mg = 25.5 g and Cl = 74.5 g MF = EF x n
Element Mg Cl Molar mass = EF molar mass x n
Mass (g) 25.5 74.5 95 g/mol = [22 + (2x 35.5) g/mol] x n
No. of mole 25.5/24 74.5/35.5 Divide with atomic 95 = 95n
mass of an element n =1
= 1.063 = 2.098
Ratio 1.063/1.063 2.098/1.063 Divide with the
=1 =2 lowest number Since n=1,
The molecular formula of the compound is
Empirical formula of the compound = MgCl2 MgCl2
Determining
Example a chemical formula from experimental data
Example 2: 9
Question1
AWhen
0.8233 g of aorganic
analyzed, compoundsample containing
was found to containelements C,H 74.5%
25.5% Mg and and OCl was ignited and produced 2.455
by mass. g of
carbon dioxide
What is the andformula
empirical 0.6003ofgtheofcompound?
water. If the relative molecular mass of the compound is 296,
determine the molecular formula.
Determining a chemical formula from experimental data
Try This!! 10
What is the molecular formula of a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen if
combustion of 1.05 g of the compound produces 3.30 g CO2 and 1.35 g H2O and its molar mass is
about 70 g/mol?

Ans:
C5H10
12
Oxidation number
13

An atoms’s oxidation number, also called

oxidation state, signifies the number of
charges of the atom would have in a
molecule (or an ionic compound) if
electrons were transferred completely.
Rules to assign Oxidation number
14
1) Free element (uncombined state)
-each atom has an oxidation number of zero
Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0
2) Monoatomic ions (for ions composed of only one atom)
- The oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ions.
Li+, Fe3+ O2-
Li = +1 Fe = +3 O = -2
3) The oxidation number of oxygen is usually -2. However, in H2O2
and O22- it is 1.
+2 MgO -2 +1 H2O -2
Oxidation number
15
4) The oxidation number Hydrogen is +1 except when it bonded
to metals in the binary compounds. For example LiH, NaH and
CaH2, the oxidation number of H is -1.

5) Group IA metals are +1,

IIA metals are +2 and
fluorine is always –1.
Oxidation number
16
6) Neutral molecule
The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms must be zero.
Example: H2O = 2H + O
= 2(+1) + (-2) = 0

7) Polyatomic ion
The sum of the oxidation number of all the elements in the ion
must be equal to the net charge of the ion.
Example, NH4+
Oxidation of N= -3 and H= +1
Thus, NH4= (-3) + 4(+1) = +1 NH4+
Oxidation number
17
Try this!
Determine the oxidation number of C in
a) C2O42- b) CO32-
Oxidation number

TRY THIS !!! 18

Determine the oxidation number of the following underlined elements:

a) HNO3 b) MnO4- c) CrO42- d) H2SO4

a. Oxidation no of O = - 2
H = +1
Let oxidation no of N be x
1 + x + 3(-2) = 0
x = +5

Answer:
b) +7
c) +6
d) +6
19
Chemical equation
20
Chemical Reaction
A process in which a substance (or substances) is changed into one or
more new substances

Chemical Equation
Uses chemical symbols to describe briefly the changes that occur in a
chemical reaction.
General reaction:

▪ A and B are reactants whereas C and D are the products.

▪ Arrow means ‘ to produce’
Chemical equation
21

Example: Three ways of representing the reaction of H2 with O2 to form H2O

Chemical equation
22

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 produce 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 produce 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 produce 80.6 g MgO
IS NOT
2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 grams MgO
Balancing chemical equation
23

Example:
Ethane reacts with oxygen to produces carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Balancing chemical equation
24

1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct formulas in the
left side (reactants) and right side (product) of the equation.
Example:
Ethane reacts with oxygen to produces carbon dioxide and water
C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

1. Change the numbers in front of the formulas (coefficients) to make the

number of atoms of each element the same on both sides of the equation.
REMEMBER !! Do not change the subscripts.

2CO2 NOT C2O4

Balancing chemical equation
25
3. Start to balance by balancing the elements that appear only once on each side
of the equation.

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H (appear once) but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon
on right multiply CO2 by 2
on left

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen multiply H2O by 3

on left on right

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

Balancing chemical equation
26
4. Balance the elements that appear in two or more formulas on the
same side of the equation.

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen 7
on left (2x2) (3x1) multiply O2 by
2
= 7 oxygen on right
7
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O remove fraction multiply both sides by 2
2

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

Balancing chemical equation
27
5. Check to make sure that you have the same number of each type of
atom on both sides of the equation.

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

Reactants Products
4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
Balancing chemical equation
28
Exercise
Balance the following chemical equation:
a) NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + NO
b) NH3 + O2 → H2O + N2

Ans:
a) 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
b) 4NH3 + 3O2 → 6H2O + 2N2
Chemical equation containing ionic compounds with polyatomic ions
29
Example:
Aqueous strontium chloride react with aqueous lithium phosphate produces
solid strontium phosphate and aqueous lithium chloride
SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)
Balancing chemical equation
30

1. Write the chemical equation by writing the chemical formula for each of the
reactants and products. If the equation is provided, proceed to step 2.

Example:
Aqueous strontium chloride react with aqueous lithium phosphate produces
solid strontium phosphate and aqueous lithium chloride
SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)

2. Identify the ions present on both sides of the equation:

Sr3+ Cl- Li+ PO4-
Balancing chemical equation

3. Balance metal ions (cations) first. If polyatomic cation exists on both sides
31
of the equation, balance it as a unit.

SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq) start with Sr3+ or Li+

3 Sr3+
1Sr3+ multiply SrCl2 by 3
on right
on left

3SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + LiCl(aq)

3 Li+ 1 Li+
on left on right multiply LiCl by 3

3SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3LiCl(aq)

Balancing chemical equation
32
4. Balance nonmetal ions (anions) second. If polyatomic anion exists on both sides of the
equation, balance it as a unit.

3SrCl2(aq) + Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3LiCl(aq) Balance PO43- or Cl-

1 PO43- 2 PO43-
on left On right Multiply Li3PO4 by 2

3SrCl2(aq) + 2Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 3LiCl(aq)

6 Cl- 3 Cl-
On right
Replace 3 before LiCl with 6
on left

3SrCl2(aq) + 2Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6LiCl(aq)

Balancing chemical equation
33
5. Check to make certain that you have the same number of each type of
ion on both sides of the equation.

3SrCl2(aq) + 2Li3PO4(aq) → Sr3(PO4)2(s) + 6LiCl(aq)

Reactants Products
3 Sr3+ 3 Sr3+
6 Li+ 6 Li+
2 PO43- 2 PO43-
6 Cl- 6 Cl-
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry
34

The quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction

The numerical relationships between chemical amounts in a balanced

chemical equation
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry
35

Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar ratios

• Use moles to calculate the amount of product formed in a reaction – mole

method.

• The mole method: the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be

interpreted as the number of moles of each substance.
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry

• Example: 36
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mole 3 moles 2 moles

• The equation can be read as:

1 mole of N2 gas combines with 3 moles of H2 gas to form 2 moles of NH3 gas
• In stoichiometric calculation
– 3 moles of H2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 moles of NH3
– 1 mole N2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 mol NH3
– 1 mole N2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to 3 mol H2
• The conversion factors from this equivalence:
3 mol H2 and 2 mol NH3
2 mol NH3 3 mol H2
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry
37

The general approach for solving stoichiometry problems:

i. Write a balanced equation for the reaction.

ii. Convert the given amount of the reactant (gram @ other unit) to
number of moles.
iii. Use the mole ratio from the balanced equation to calculate the
number of moles of product formed.
iv. Convert the moles of product to gram ( or other units) of
product.
 38
A+B→C
How to determine the mass of C produced?

Mass (g) of Mass (g) of

compound A compound C

Use molar mass (g/mol) Use molar mass (g/mol) of

of compound A compound

Use mole ratio of A and C

Moles of from balanced equation Moles of
compound A compound C
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry
39
Example:
10.0 g of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3. How many grams of NH3 will be
formed?
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry

 Example: 10.0 g of H2 react completely with N2 to form NH3. How many grams of NH3 will be
40
formed?
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)

grams H2 moles of H2 moles of NH3 grams of NH3

No. moles of H2 = 10 g H2 x 1 mol H2 = 4.960 mol H2

2.016 g H2
2 mol NH3
No. moles of NH3 produced = 4.960 mol H2 x = 3.307 mol
3 mol H2
17.03 g NH3
Mass of NH3 produced = 3.307 mol x = 56.32 g of NH3
1 mol NH3

Other method (direct calculation):

mass of NH3 = 10 g H2 x 1 mol H2 x 2 mol NH3 17.03 g NH3

x 1 mol NH = 56.32 g NH3
2.016 g H2 3 mol H2 3
Chemical equation and Stoichiometry
41
Methanol burns in air according to the equation
2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 163 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what mass
of water is produced?

Ans:
183.4 g H2O
42
Limiting and excess reagent
43

Excess reagents - the reactants present in quantities

Limiting reagent - The reactant used up
greater than necessary to react with the quantity of the
first in a reaction
limiting reagent.
 44

Compare moles of Compare the amount of

product each reactant
each reactant produced
How to find limitng reagent
45
APPROACH 1
Find the limiting reagent by looking at the number of moles of each reactant.

1. Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

2. Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of
molar mass as a conversion factor).
3. Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the
calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product
produced.
5. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting
reagent.
 How to find limitng reagent
Example 46
Consider respiration, one of the most common chemical reactions on earth.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
What mass of carbon dioxide forms in the reaction of 25 grams of glucose with 40 grams of oxygen?
Step 1: Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy (same as given)

Step 2: Convert all given information into moles (most likely, using molar mass as a conversion factor).

No moles of C6H12O6 = 25 g / 180.06 g/mol = 0.1388 mol No moles of O2= 40 g / 32 g/mol = 1.25 mol

Step 3: Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated ratio to the actual ratio.
From the equation,
1 mol C6H12O6 reacts with 6 mol O2
For C6H12O6 For O2
0.1388 mol of C6H12O6 needs 1.25 mol of O2 needs
6 mol O2 1 mol C6H12O6
0.1388 mol C6H12O6 x 1 mol C H O = 0.8328 mol O2 1.25 mol O x = 0.208 mol C6H12O6
6 12 6
2 6 mol O 2

plenty of O2 left since we have 1.25 mol O2 There won't be enough C6H12O6 since we only have 0.1388 mol C6H12O6
So, C6H12O6 is the limiting reagent.
 How to find limitng reagent
Example 47
Consider respiration, one of the most common chemical reactions on earth.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
What mass of carbon dioxide forms in the reaction of 25 grams of glucose with 40 grams of oxygen?

Step 4: Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of other reactant @ products
From the equation,
1 mol C6H12O6 produces 6 mol CO2
0.1388 mol of C6H12O6 will produces
6 mol CO
0.1388 mol C6H12O6 x 1 mol C H 2O = 0.8328 mol CO2
6 12 6

Thus, mass of CO2 = 0.8328 mol x 44.01 g/mol

= 36.65 g
How to find limitng reagent
48
APPROACH 2
Find the limiting reagent by calculating and comparing the amount of product each
reactant will produce.

1. Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

2. Convert the given information into moles.
3. Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product produced.
4. The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent.
5. The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reagent.
6. To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of excess reagent
consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.
 How to find limitng reagent

Example 49
Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide possible if 2.40 g Mg reacts with 10.0 g O2
Mg+ O2 → MgO
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy
Step 1: Balance the chemical equation .

Step 2: Convert the given information into moles.

No moles of Mg = 2.4 g / 24.31 g/mol No moles of O2 = 10.0 g / 32 g/mol
= 0.09872 mol = 0.3125 mol

Step 3: Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product produced
For Mg, For O2,
2 mol Mg produces 2 mol MgO 1 mol O2 produces 2 mol MgO
Thus, mass of MgO produced: Thus, mass of MgO produced:
2 mol of MgO 2 mol of MgO
0.09872 mol of Mg x x 40.31 g/mol MgO 0.3125 mol of O x x 40.31 g/mol of MgO
2 mol of Mg 2
1 mol of o2
= 3.98 g MgO = 25.2 g MgO

Step 4: The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent.
Mg produces less MgO than does O2 (3.98 g MgO vs. 25.2 g MgO), therefore Mg is the limiting reagent in this reaction.
 50
TRY THIS !!!
1. What is the limiting reagent if 85.1 grams of C2H3Br3 were reacted with
53.7 grams of O2?
4C2H3Br3 + 11O2 → 8 CO2 + 6 H2O + 6 Br2
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy

Ans:
C2H3Br3is the limiting reagent.
 51
TRY THIS !!!
2. What is the grams of NaNO3 produced if 11.4 g of Pb(NO3)2 react with
15.1 g of NaI?
( Na= 22.99 g/mol, Pb= 207.2 g/mol, I= 126.90 g/mol, N= 14.01 g/mol, O=
16.00 g/mol)
Pb(NO3)2 + NaI → PbI2 + NaNO3
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy

Ans:
Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting reagent. NaNO3 produced is 5.85 g
52
 The amount of substances in
gas form are usually
measured in volume unit.

 1 mole of gas at standard

temperature and pressure
(s.t.p.) (T = 273.15 K, P = 1
atm) and occupies a volume of
22.4 dm3 known as molar
volume.
Concentration of
substance is the
quantity of solute
present in a given
quantity of solution.
Solution Concentration

Concentration can be expressed in terms of:

55

Molarity, M
(mol L-1)

Part per million Molality, m

(ppm) Concentration (mol kg-1)

Percentage by
mass or volume
( % w/w, v/v, w/v)
Solution Concentration
56

Solution is a mixture of solute and solvent. Concentration can be expressed in terms of:

a. Molarity: Number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 (1000 cm3 @ 1-L) of solution
(unit = mol dm-3 @ mol L-1 ).

No. of mole of solute

Molarity (M) =
1 L of solution

b. Molality: Number of mole of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent (unit = mol kg-1).

No. of mole of solute

Molality (m) =
1 kg of solvent
Solution Concentration
57
EXAMPLE
Question 1
Calculate the molarity of the solution which prepared by dissolving 4.12 g of sucrose
(C12H22O11) in 600 cm3 of water.

Mr C12H22O11 = 342 g/mol

mole of sucrose = 4.12 g = 0.012 mole
342 g/mol
Molarity = 0.012 = 0.02 mol/dm3
600/1000
Solution Concentration
58
Question 2
Calculate the molality of solution containing 8.2 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in 400 g of
water.

mole of C2H6O2 = 8.2 = 0.1323 mol

2 (12) + 1 (6) + 2 (16)

Molality C2H6O2 = 0.1323 = 0.3308 mol/kg

400/1000
Solution Concentration
59
Question 3
64 g of benzene (C6H6) is dissolved in 80 g of toluene (C6H5CH3). Calculate the molality of
the solution.

n C6H6 = 64 g = 0.8205 mol

[12 (6) + 1 (6)] g/mol

Molality C6H5CH3 = n C6H6 = 0.8205 mol = 10.25 mol/kg

80/1000 kg 80/1000
Solution Concentration

Question 5 60
What is the mass of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) needed to prepare 0.5 M in 500 mL of
volumetric flask?
Mr H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + 32 + (16 x 4)
= 98 g/mol
Mole of H2SO4 = 0.5 mol/L X 0.5 L= 0.25 mol
Mass of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol X 0.25 mol = 24.5 g

Question 6
25.3 g of KNO3 was dissolved in 125 ml of water. What is the molality of the
solution? (Density of water = 1.00 g/mL)
Mr KNO3 = 101.1 g/mol
Mole of KNO3 25.3 g / 101.1 g/mol = 0.25 mol
Mass of H2O (solution) = 125 mL X 1.00 g/mL= 125 g
Molality of the solution = 0.25 mol = 2.0 mol/kg
125 /1000
Solution Concentration
61

Solution is a mixture of solute and solvent. Concentration can be expressed in terms of:

c. Percentage by mass or volume

Mass of solute
Mass (w/w) percent = x 100
Mass of solution
volume of solute
Volume (v/v) percent = x 100
volume of solution
mass of solute(g)
w/v percent = x 100
volume of solution (mL)
Solution Concentration
62
Example
1. A 40.0 g of NaCl is dissolved in 320.0 g of water. Find the mass
percentage of NaCl in the solution.

Mass of solution = Mass of NaCl + Mass of water

= 40 g + 320 g = 360 g

Thus, mass percentage of NaCl in solution

Mass of NaCl
= x 100%
Mass of Solution
40 g
= x 100%
360 g
= 11.11 %
Solution Concentration
63
Try This!
Calculate the % (w/v) of a solution prepared by dissolving 7.5 grams of NaCl in
enough water to give 150 mL of solution

Ans:
5 mL
Solution Concentration
64

Solution is a mixture of solute and solvent. Concentration can be expressed in terms of:

d. ppm
Very dilute concentration expressed in part per million (ppm)

Mass or volume of solute

ppm = x 106
Mass or volume of solution
Solution Concentration
65
Solution Concentration
66
Example
1. A 7.00 mL sample of solution has 4.5 x 10-5 g of calcium ion. Calculate the
concentration in each of the following units:
a) %(w/v) b) ppt c) ppm

a) %(w/v) = (g of solute/ mL solution) x 100%

= (4.5 x 10-5 g / 7 mL) x 100%
= 6.429 x 10-4 %

b) ppt = (g of solute/ mL solution) x 100%

= (4.5 x 10-5 g / 7 mL) x 1000
= 6.429 x 10-3

c) ppm = (g of solute/ mL solution) x 100%

= (4.5 x 10-5 g / 7 mL) x 106
= 6.429
67