Original Manuscript SCIENCE PROGRESS
Science Progress
Effects of oxyhydrogen gas 2020, Vol. 103(2) 1–14
Ó The Author(s) 2020
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performance of a small- DOI: 10.1177/0036850420921685
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capacity diesel engine
Ali Hussain Kazim1 , Muhammad Bilal Khan1,
Rabia Nazir2, Aqsa Shabbir3, Muhammad Salman
Abbasi1, Hamza Abdul Rab1 and Nabeel Shahid
Qureishi1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology,
Lahore, Pakistan
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology,
Lahore, Pakistan
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore,
Pakistan
Abstract
Compression ignition engines are one of the world’s largest consumers of fossil oil but have energy
extraction efficiency limited to 35%. Addition of hydrogen alongside diesel fuel has been found to
improve engine performance and efficiency; however, after a certain limit, hydrogen begins to show
adverse effects, mainly because the ratio of oxygen to fuel decreases. This can be overcome by using
oxyhydrogen, which is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas.
In this study, effects of addition of oxyhydrogen generated by electrolysis, with varying flows at the
intake manifold, on a 315 cc compression ignition engine alongside diesel were analyzed.
The engine was mounted on a Thepra test bed and torque measurements were taken at predeter-
mined test points for diesel and 6 and 10 standard cubic feet per hour flowrates of oxyhydrogen.
H10 showed the maximum improvement in engine performance equating to a 22.4% increase in
both torque and power at 3000 r/min, and a 19.4% increase in efficiency at 2600 r/min was
recorded. The large increase in engine performance as compared to previous results is because of
high oxyhydrogen flowrate to displacement volume ratio.
The oxyhydrogen flowrate to displacement ratio is the most important factor as it is directly
impacts engine performance. The difference in engine performance because of oxyhydrogen
Corresponding author:
Aqsa Shabbir, Department of Electrical Engineering, Lahore College for Women University, Lahore 54000,
Punjab, Pakistan.
Email: [email protected]
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2 Science Progress 103(2)
becomes prominent at higher engine speed due to high suction pressure. No experimental flow-
rates of oxyhydrogen showed any adverse effect on the engine performance.
Keywords
Oxyhydrogen, diesel engine, compression ignition, alternative fuels, fuel consumption
Introduction
Use of fossil fuels is increasing globally to fulfill energy demands of the modern
world. The reserves of fossil fuels are depleting at an exponential rate.1 Oil is
expected to last 34 years at current trend of consumption; coal, about 107 years;
and natural gas, about 37 years.2 Energy is extracted from fossil fuels by combus-
tion. Much of this energy is lost during conversion to useful work due to inefficien-
cies in the conversion system.
Compression ignition (CI) engines, which power the heavy machinery of the world,
are also used extensively for automobile and marine transportation due to their high
torque and efficiency and their ability to run on lean air fuel mixtures as compared to
spark ignition (SI) engines, which mainly use diesel or heavy fuel oil (HFO) as the
source of energy. The efficiency of CI Engines varies from 20% to 35% with maximum
efficiency recorded with diesel only is about 54.4%.3 The basic problem for CI engines
is improper mixing of air and fuel because fuel is injected near the end of the compres-
sion stroke. Also, combustion occurs spontaneously at any point in the air–fuel mix-
ture. The spontaneous combustion occurs at multiple points throughout the power
stroke. These points act as centers of flame propagation.4 Adding a fuel with high
flame travel speed would result in complete combustion of the diesel fuel immediately
after the first spontaneous combustion giving high torque and power.
Hydrogen, a highly combustible fuel, has a flammability range of 4%–75% by
volume in air which is very high as compared to diesel’s 0.7%–5% by volume. It
also has a high diffusion coefficient, 0.61 cm2 s21, thus it can produce a homoge-
neous air–fuel mixture inside the combustion chamber.5 Hydrogen also has a high
laminar flame velocity, the speed at which flame propagates, and thus, rapid com-
bustion occurs.6 Hydrogen air mixtures have a minimum ignition energy (MIE) of
0.065 MJ, significantly less than the hydrocarbon air mixture MIE, 0.2–0.3 MJ.7
Although low MIE is preferable for combustion, it may result in ignition of the air–
fuel mixture before the engine completes its compression stroke. Hydrogen alone
cannot be used in CI engines because it would require a very high compression ratio
due to hydrogen’s high auto ignition temperature, 858 K.8 It can be used as a sup-
porting fuel to diesel in a CI engine. It has shown promising results, increasing effi-
ciency and torque output of a CI engine.9–13 However, induction of hydrogen with
diesel affects the air–fuel ratio of the diesel engine, which limits the amount of
hydrogen that can be added for favorable results. This is because hydrogen uses up
some of the oxygen present in the air and thus results in poor diesel combustion
and decreased efficiency.14,15
As a solution to the low oxygen problem, oxyhydrogen (HHO) was introduced.
HHO is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. When H2 and O2 are in the ratio 2:1
Kazim et al. 3
by volume, the mixture is called Brown’s Gas.16 When HHO is injected into a CI
engine, all the hydrogen is accompanied by the stoichiometric amount of oxygen
required by hydrogen for combustion. Thus, diesel will have proper supply of oxy-
gen even at high flowrates of HHO. HHO can be expected to improve engine’s
combustion characteristics greatly and in turn improve the engine performance.
This study analyses the use of HHO alongside diesel in CI engine using an engine
which has a swept volume of 315 cc, far less than any of previous research. Such
small engine, if made more efficient by the use of HHO, could be used to in small
automobiles and motorbikes which contribute to a large fraction of the fossil fuel
used world over.
Literature survey
Hydrogen and oxygen can be generated separately by many chemical reactions.
Oxygen can also be extracted from air. But the most effective and efficient method
of producing hydrogen and oxygen simultaneously with a near stoichiometric con-
dition is by electrolysis of water. Water itself is a poor conductor; however, due to
the presence of an ionizing agent such as metal hydroxides and halides, water
becomes a conductor. It forms H+ and OH ions which can travel across a poten-
tial to conduct electricity.17 The production of HHO depends upon many factors.18
It has been found that the rate of HHO produced is directly proportional to the
current applied across the electrodes, inversely proportional to the distance between
the electrodes, ionizing agent, and type of electrode. The research of K. Aydin and
Kenanoğlu8 concludes that the optimum condition for HHO production is the use
of plate-type electrodes, a minimum distance of 10 mm in series, with sodium
hydroxide as ionizing agent. Production of HHO requires a direct current (DC)
with a minimum voltage of 1.8 V,19 which can be supplied by an automobile engine
battery for on-deck production or from other renewable energy sources for off-deck
production.20 Off-deck production of HHO causes storage problems as it is a
highly combustible gas. However, hydrogen and oxygen can be stored separately
after electrolysis and remixed in an automobile. The most effective metal to be used
as electrode has been found to be Nickel.21 Nickel has high electrical conductivity
and low cost. Also, it does not react with oxygen. At the anode, oxygen is produced
in monoatomic form at first stage of reaction.22 It is highly reactive and thus can
corrode almost all metals. The energy needed for electrolysis of water to produce
HHO is the same as the energy released by combustion of same amount of hydro-
gen, that is, 240 kJ mol21.23 Hence, HHO, in automobiles, cannot be used as a sole
fuel. Energy is required to produce HHO. In an on-deck arrangement with an auto-
mobile engine, deriving power from the battery to produce HHO, it will only act as
an enhancer, improving the amount of energy that is extracted from diesel.
Aydin et al. found an increase of 19.1% in maximum torque, 27% in maximum
power, and a 14% decrease in specific fuel consumption (SFC) when HHO was
injected through the intake manifold of a four-cylinder, 3657 cc engine. Hydrogen
Electronic Control Unit (HECU) was present to inject HHO which regulated the
4 Science Progress 103(2)
supply as per engine need.8 Uludamar found an increase of 1.3% in efficiency of a
3907 cc engine with HHO induction along with a small increase in the maximum
power and torque output of the engine.24 Baltacioglu et al. also reported an
increase in engine torque and power output when HHO was injected with 10%
and 15% biodiesel blends. The brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) decreased
and the maximum efficiency of the engine increased by 0.7%.25 Matienzo per-
formed similar experimentation on a 930 cc diesel engine and reported an average
increase of 2.79% in the efficiency.26 Yilmaz et al. also reported an increase in the
thermal efficiency and maximum torque output of a 3567 cc engine with HHO
flowrate of 5 L/min (LPM). A control unit had been introduced to improve fuel
economy that would reduce the HHO production below the engine speeds of 1750
r/min. It was observed that HHO had adverse impact on the engine performance
without the use of a control unit below the speed of 1750 r/min. This may have
been due to pre-ignition of the fuel or the inability of the engine to draw in hydro-
gen due to low suction at this speed.27 Baltacioglu et al.28 posted similar results
indicating increased efficiency and torque of a 3600 cc diesel engine. In another
study, Arat et al.29 found that the efficiency of the engine increased with induction
of HHO compressed natural gas (CNG) Mixture through the air inlet. Many other
studies have been conducted using HHO as an additive fuel, through the intake
manifold, with diesel or biodiesel and found results complementing each other.29–
31
Another study analyzed the vibration response and found that the amplitude of
vibration of a diesel engine reduced with the addition of HHO.32 However, one of
the most recent studies by Rimkus et al.33 observed a 2.6% decrease in brake tor-
que and a 2% increase in SFC on a 1.9 L CI Engine. The adverse effect of HHO
addition was due to pre-ignition of fuel caused by the presence of small fractions
of monoatomic hydrogen and oxygen which reacted before the fuel mixture
reached the autoignition temperature.
Methodology
HHO generator
HHO was produced by an Ironside Group HHO Generator (Figure 1). The gen-
erator comprised an electrical unit which plugged into the alternating current (AC)
mains. The electrical unit outputs 35 V 0–60 A DC power. This DC power is sup-
plied to square plate reactor, which produced HHO gas. HHO gas flowed through
the bubbler and then a flow meter before entering the engine intake manifold. The
generator was capable of producing up to 10 standard cubic feet per hour (SCFH)
or 4.72 LPM. The reactor specifications are given in Table 1.
Concentrated potassium hydroxide solution is used because KOH has higher
solubility and affinity for water as compared to sodium hydroxide and thus pro-
duces a highly ionized solution containing hydrogen and hydroxide ions. When a
potential is applied across this solution, the hydroxide ions move toward the anode
and give off oxygen, while the hydrogen ions move toward the cathode producing
hydrogen gas. Figure 2 shows the components for the production of HHO gas.
Kazim et al. 5
Figure 1. HHO generator.
Table 1. General specifications of HHO reactor.
Plate material Stainless steel (316-L)
Plate dimensions 16.5 cm 3 16.5 cm 3 0.1 cm
No. of plates 24
Electrode configuration Two center anodes, with cathode at both ends
Plate spacing 2 mm
Electrical input 35 V 0–60 A
HHO flow rate Up to 10 SCFH
HHO: oxyhydrogen; SCFH: standard cubic feet per hour.
Engine and test bed
A Lombardini 15LD 315 Diesel Engine was used on Thepra Hydraulic Brake
Engine Test Bed. The Lombardini 15LD series is specifically designed for this
Thepra Test Bed. The engine specifications are listed in Table 2. Thepra Test Bed
used during experimentation has a digital torque meter and a tachometer with least
counts of 0.1 N m and 1 r/min. The test bed employs a highly viscous oil which the
engine has to pump through a valve. Changing the valve opening changes the load
that is applied onto the engine. The engine and test bed arrangement are shown in
Figure 3.
6 Science Progress 103(2)
Figure 2. Schematic for HHO generation.
Table 2. Engine specifications.
Number of cylinders 1
Bore (mm) 78
Stroke (mm) 66
Swept volume (cc) 315
Compression ratio 20.3:1
Power (kW) 5
Max. torque (N m) 15 at 2400 r/min
Figure 3. Engine mounted on Thepra test bed.
Kazim et al. 7
Table 3. Properties of diesel.
Density 833.1 kg m
Cloud point –2°C
Pour point –6°C
Flash point 62°C
Aniline point 67.5°C
Calorific value 45.5 MJ kg21
CCI 40.9
CCI: Calculated Cetane Index.
The engine used in this experimentation has a swept volume of 315 cc far less
than any of previous research. Such small engine if made efficient could be used to
in small automobile and motorbikes which contribute to large fraction of the fossil
fuel used world-wide.
Fuel
Services of the Fuel Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Punjab, Lahore were employed for the testing of the diesel that was used in the
experimentation. ASTM D4737 standard was employed for the calculation of the
cetane index of the fuel. The fuel sample was distilled and every 10 mL recovery
temperatures were noted. The results of the experimental analysis of the fuel are
given in Table 3.
Experimental procedure
Before each experimentation, the engine was warmed to its operating oil tempera-
ture of 80°C at medium-load, full throttle. Then, the engine load was reduced to
zero. After operating the engine at zero load for a few minutes, the load was
increased gradually and adjusted for specific predefined engine speed. A video
camera was installed to record any minor changes in the engine rotations per min-
ute and torque at experimental point, while the fuel consumption was measured
manually, four times, when the engine was in steady state. Once the minimum
speed point was reached, that is, 1000 r/min, the load was gradually reduced to
zero while taking measurements at the predefined engine speed, again. For each
measurement, a total of 200 data points obtained from the video were averaged to
attain a single-plot point. This was done for diesel and 6 SCFH (H6) and 10
SCFH (H10) flowrates of HHO.
Results and discussion
Effect on engine torque
The introduction of HHO into the engine cylinder along with air resulted in an
increase in torque (Figure 4).
8 Science Progress 103(2)
Figure 4. Variation of torque with engine speed.
This corresponds to our initial hypothesis that HHO induction would improve
combustion and cements previous researches.8,18,25–28 No limiting engine speed nor
any experimental flowrate was observed to have an adverse impact on engine per-
formance contradictory to the findings of Rimkus et al.33 This negates the possibil-
ity of monoatomic hydrogen and monoatomic oxygen entering the combustion
chamber and causing premature combustion as suggested by Rimkus.
Furthermore, we observe that the curves tend to converge at low engine speed indi-
cating that there may be a point 1000 r/min where the suction pressure of the
engine is so low that it is unable to suck hydrogen in as suggested by Yilmaz
et al.27 However, this engines lowest operable speed was 1000 r/min.
Comparing this to other studies,8,18,25–28 we see that none reported such drastic
increase in torque to a maximum of 22.4%. This is due to the fact that the engine
used is of significantly low capacity while the flowrate is high. This informs us of
another factor at play, the ratio of flowrate to engine capacity.
Effect on engine power
Figure 5 shows the power curve for the engine. The power curves are found to be
almost linear. This is because the engine has a relatively flat torque curve making
torque a constant in the empirical relationship of power, torque, and engine speed.
Thus, power becomes directly dependant on engine speed. As there is a slight dip in
power for diesel after 2900 r/min, it can be said that the maximum power point of
Kazim et al. 9
Figure 5. Variation of power with engine speed.
the power curve has shifted to the right for HHO. At H10, for such a small engine,
the power output is higher than diesel at all points with a difference of 0.527 kW
at the peak corresponding to a 22.4% change. Moreover, a 12% increase is seen for
H6.
Effect on engine efficiency
The efficiency plotted against engine speed is shown in Figure 6.
It is observed that the efficiency of the engine is greatly improved with a 19.4%
increase for H10 and a 8.6% increase for H6. This again cements our initial hypoth-
esis that the combustion of diesel is improved with HHO induction and more
energy is released by diesel than before. This can also be related to Carnot’s law.
HHO induction into the combustion chamber increases the combustion tempera-
ture.34 Higher flame velocity also enhances the combustion properties.6,7 Carnot’s
efficiency of the cycle is improved as the temperature difference between the source
and the sink is increased. The optimum flowrate of HHO as found in this study is
10 SCFH. However, we must take the flowrate to cc ratio into account. Higher the
value of this ratio, higher would be the peak efficiency. The maximum efficiency
observed for the engine running on HHO–diesel mixture is 24.24%. The maximum
efficiency observed for diesel is 20.8%. Hence, HHO has increased the maximum
efficiency by 3.4%.
10 Science Progress 103(2)
Figure 6. Variation of efficiency with engine speed.
Conclusion
From the results, we conclude that addition of HHO along with diesel in a small-
capacity diesel engine greatly improved all performance factors of the engine. The
minimum percentage increase in efficiency recorded is 2.5% and 10.5% for H6 and
H10, while the minimum increase in torque is 8% and 15%. These parameters are
significantly larger than any previous research. The simple explanation is that after
the first spontaneous combustion in the power stroke of the diesel engine, the
hydrogen ignites instantly causing the entirety of diesel to burn at a single moment.
As hydrogen is accompanied with its required molar oxygen, we do not observe
any adverse effect. Furthermore, such small engine is provided a much larger
amount of HHO. If such an on-deck production system is developed, these small-
capacity engine could power much of the smaller automobiles as they would be
providing larger torque at a greater efficiency. We conclude that such systems
would be much better than existing systems. We see that the engine performance is
improved throughout the range of engine speed although the change is much sig-
nificant at speed over 2400 r/min. The most important conclusion that we draw
from this study is that no adverse effects of HHO addition were observed, neither
any limiting speed nor critical point for all test flow rates.
Kazim et al. 11
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to the administration of the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan for providing us the equipment
and work space necessary for performing this study. We are also thankful to the Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan for providing us access to
their Fuel Testing Laboratory for analysis of diesel fuel used in this experimental work.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.
ORCID iD
Ali Hussain Kazim https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2869-3983
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Author biographies
Ali Hussain Kazim Ph.D. (Georgia Institute of Technology, USA), currently serving as an
Assistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering
and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. He was a Visiting Researcher at University of Texas at
Dallas, USA. His current research interests include diesel engines, thermal properties, solar
radiation management, thermoelectric and thermophotovoltaics.
Muhammad Bilal Khan completed his B.S in Mechanical Engineering in the year 2019 from the
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan and is currently pursuing a
Masters degree in Mechanical Engineering from the National University of Sciences and
Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan. His area of research includes alternative fuels and
bio-lubricants.
Rabia Nazir Ph.D. (University of Canterbury, New Zealand). She is currently serving
UET Lahore as an Assistant Professor. Her current research interests include smart grid
technologies, power converter design, implementations and control, renewable and distribu-
ted generation technologies.
Aqsa Shabbir Ph.D. (Joint Degree from Ghent University, Belgium, and Ludwig-Maximillian
University of Munich, Germany). She was a Visiting Researcher with the Max Planck
Institute for Plasma Physics, Garching, Germany, and the Culham Centre for Fusion
Energy, U.K. Currently she is an Associate Professor with the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Lahore College for Women University. Her current research interests include
pattern recognition, machine learning, advanced data analysis for nuclear fusion, power
electronics, and renewable energy generation.
Muhammad Salman Abbasi Ph.D. (Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea) He won SKKU
global leader award during Ph.D. studies. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor
at Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology,
Lahore, Pakistan. His research interest includes electric field effects on droplets, modelling
multiphase flow problems in COMSOL Multiphysics, complex interfacial phenomenon and
heat transfer.
14 Science Progress 103(2)
Hamza Abdul Rab got his B.S degree in Mechanical Engineering from the University of
Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan in the year 2019. He is currently employed
as a Graduate Trainee Engineer at Fatima Fertilizers Pvt. Ltd., Sheikhupura, Pakistan.
Nabeel Shahid Qureishi received his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering in the year 2019
from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. He is currently work-
ing as a Management Trainee at Engro Fertilizers Pvt. Ltd., Daharki, Pakistan.
