 Introduction

 The Light Microscope

o Parts of a Microscope
o Handling and Care of the Microscope
o How to use the Microscope
 Cell Structures as seen under the Light and Electron Microscope
o Cell Structure under Light Microscope
o The Cell as seen under the Electron Microscope
 Structure and Functions of the Cell Organelles
 Comparison between Plant Cells and Animal Cells
 Cell Specialization/Cell Differentiation 
o Tissues
o Organs
o Organ System

Introduction

 The bodies of living organisms are made up of small microscopic units

called cells. The cells make up the structures of the living organisms
and are responsible for carrying out various biological processes in the
bodies of the living organisms.
 Some organisms are made up of a single cell only e.g. amoeba and
other bacteria in the kingdom monera. These organisms are known as
unicellular organisms.
 Other organisms are composed of many cells and are said to be
multicellular. Most plants and animals are multicellular.
 A cell is the basic functional unit of an organism.
 Being very small, the cell cannot be seen with a naked eye. A powerful
magnifying instrument is required. The microscope is used to view the
cells.
 Development of the light microscope
 In 1650, Zacharias Jansen invented the compound microscope which
combines two lenses for greater magnification.
 In 1665, Robert Hooke used an improved compound microscope to
observe cells.
 Between 1650 and 1700, Anthony Van Leewenhoeck developed a
better microscope with lenses which provided a greater magnification.
He used the microscope to view nuclei and unicellular organisms
including bacteria.
  The development of the electron microscope in 1930s significantly
improved microbial studies. Through this microscope, it was possible to
study very finer details of structures.

The Light Microscope

 This is the most commonly used microscope in schools and institutions

that do not focus on very fine details of the internal structures of cells.
 The light microscope uses a beam of light to illuminate the specimen
being studied.
 A microscope is a delicate and expensive instrument that should be
handled with care. It is imperative to understand the parts and functions
of various parts of a microscope.
 In a light microscope, the eye piece and the objective lenses both
contribute to the magnification of the specimen.
 The total magnification of the specimen viewed under a light microscope
will be given by:
 Magnification= Eyepiece lens magnification X Objective lens
magnification
 In particular, if the eyepiece lens magnification is X10 and objective lens
magnification power is X8, then the total magnification of the specimen
would be:
Magnification=Eyepiece magnification X Objective lens magnification
= 10 X8
=X80.
Parts of a Microscope
Part of the
Function of the Part 
Microscope

 Limb  Supports the body tube and stage

 Base  Provides firm and steady support to the microscope

 Body Tube  Holds the eyepiece and the revolving nose piece

 Coarse  Raises or lowers the body tube for longer distances to bring the image into
adjustment knob  sharper focus

 Raises or lowers the body tube through smaller distances to bring the
 Fine adjustment
image into sharper focus. It is mostly used with the high power objective
knob
lens

 An aperture that regulates the amount of light passing through the
 Diaphragm
condenser to illuminate the specimen

 Contains a lens which contributes to the magnification of the specimen

 Eye-piece
under review.

Objective lens  Brings image into focus and magnifies it

Mirror  Reflects light through the condenser to the object on the stage

Revolving nose-  Holds the objective lenses in place and enables the change from one
piece objective lens to the other
Condenser  Concentrates light on the object on the stage

 Flat platform where specimen on the slide is placed. It has two clips to hold
Stage
the slide into position.

Handling and Care of the Microscope

The following rules should be observed when handling the microscope:

 Always use both hands when carrying the microscope. One hand
should hold the base to provide support while the other hand holds the
limb.
 Never place the microscope too close to the edge of the working bench
or table.
 Do not touch the mirror or the lenses with your fingers.
 Dirty lenses should be cleaned using a special soft lens tissue paper or
tissue paper moistened with ethanol. The other parts of the microscope
may be cleaned using a microscope.
 Do not wet any part of the microscope.
 Make sure the low power objective lens clicks into position in line with
the eye piece  before and after use.
 After use, always clean and store the microscope in a safe place, free
from moisture and  dust.

How to Use the Microscope

 Place the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from
you.
 Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position.
 Ensure that the diaphragm is fully open.
 Look through the eye-piece with one eye; meanwhile adjust the mirror
under the stage to ensure that maximum light can pass through. The
circular area seen is referred to as the field of view.
 Again look through the eyepiece while adjusting the mirror under the
stage to ensure that sufficient light is passing through the specimen.
 Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the low power objective lens to
the lowest point. Viewing through the eye-piece, turn the coarse
adjustment knob gently until the specimen comes into focus.
 Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into sharp focus. Make
a drawing of what you observe.
 For higher magnifications, turn the medium power objective lens into
position and adjust the focus using the coarse adjustment knob. For
 sharper images, use the fine adjustment
knob.
 If finer details are required, turn the high power objective lens into
position; now use only the fine adjustment knob to bring the details into
sharper focus.

Cell Structures as Seen under the Light and Electron Microscope

Cell Structure under Light Microscope

 The structures within the cell are referred to as organelles. Some of the
cell organelles that can be observed under the light microscope include
the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole and
chloroplasts.
 These cell organelles perform specific functions within the cell.

 
Animal Cell as shown above

Plant cell as shown above

The Cell as Seen under the Electron Microscope

 The electron microscope is more powerful than the light microscope. It

uses a beam of electrons to illuminate the specimen instead of light as
in the case of light microscope.
 Electron microscope can magnify an object up to 500,000 times.
 It also has a very high resolving power. Resolving power is the ability to
distinguish between separate things which are close to each other.
 The high resolving power makes the electron microscope a very
important research tool in microbiology.
 Through the electron microscope, very fine details of the cell can be
observed.

Fig. Animal Cell 

 Fig. Plant Cell

Structure and Functions of the Cell Organelles

a. Cell membrane
 The cell membrane, also known as plasma membrane or
plasmalemma consists of three layers when viewed under the
electron microscope. The three layers are composed of one layer
of phospholipid sandwiched between two protein layers.
 It is flexible and has pores. The cell membrane is important in
that:
 It encloses the cell contents.
 It allows for selective movement of materials in and out of
the cells. The pores allow materials particularly of small
molecular size to move in and out of the cells.
b. Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm consists of a fluid medium in which chemical reactions
take place. It contains organelles and other inclusions such as
starch, glycogen, fat droplets and many other dissolved
substances.
 Cytoplasm is not static; it undergoes a movement known as
cytoplasmic streaming.
  It provides a suitable medium for cellular reactions to take place.

c. Mitochondrion
 Mitochondrion is a sausage shaped organelle that provides sites
for respiratory reactions that yield energy for the cell. Mitochondria
is thus, referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
 It is bound by two membranes. The inner membrane is greatly
folded into cristae to increase surface area for respiration.
 The arrangement and number of mitochondria in a cell depends
on the cell energy requirements. Cells that require large amounts
of energy contain high amount of mitochondria.
 Such cells include muscle cell, sperm cell, apical meristem cells,
and kidney cell.
 Mitochondria are self replicative that is they can divide to form
new ones.

d. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Endoplasmic reticulum appears as a series of interconnected
channels, running throughout the cytoplasm.
 Their membranes are continuous with the outer membrane of the
nuclear membrane.
 Some endoplasmic reticula have granules called ribosomes on
their surfaces and are referred to as rough or granular
endoplasmic reticula. Endoplasmic reticula that are not associated
with ribosomes are called smooth endoplasmic reticula.
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins while the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum transports lipids.
  Generally, endoplasmic reticula also act as storage areas for
synthesized molecules such as enzymes. They also contribute to
mechanical support.
e. Ribosomes
 These are spherical in shape. While some are bound to the
endoplasmic reticula, some ribosomes are scattered within the
cytoplasm (free ribosomes). Their largest dimension is 25
nanometres.
 They are synthesised in the nucleolus.
 They form sites for protein synthesis.
f. Lysosomes
 These are spherical sac-like organelles bound by a single
membrane. They contain lytic enzymes which break down large
molecules, destroy worn out organelles or even the entire cells.
 Lysosomes also play crucial role in digestion in unicellular
organisms.
 The lysosomes are also vital in breakdown of bacteria and other
harmful microbes that might have been ingested in food. This
explains their high relative abundance in injured or infected cells.
 The membrane of the lysosomes are intact. This is important
because if the enzymes leak out, they may destroy the whole cell.
g. Golgi bodies/Golgi apparatus
 These are stacks of membrane bound tube like sacs. They are
found close to the cell membrane.
 Golgi bodies perform the following functions:
 They package and transport glycoproteins.
 They are involved in secretion of synthesized proteins and
carbohydrates.
 They manufacture lysosomes.
 Note: Golgi bodies are abundant in cells that are active in
secretion. For instance pancreatic cells which secrete enzymes
and the nerve cells which secrete neurotransmitter substances.
h. Centrioles
 These are rod shaped structures located just outside the nuclear
membrane.
 They take part in cell division and also in the formation of cilia and
flagella in lower organisms.
 Plant cells lack centrioles.
i. Chloroplasts
  Chloroplasts are egg-shaped structures surrounded by two
membranes and contain a gel like stroma through which runs a
system of membranes that are stacked together to form grana.
 The granum contains chlorophyll which traps light energy that is
used during photosynthesis.
 It is in the chloroplasts that photosynthesis takes place.
j. Vacuoles
 These are sacs that are filled with fluid called cell sap. Vacuoles
vary in size.
 Animal cells contain small vacuoles which may be numerous in
the cells while plant cells contain one large centrally placed
vacuole.
 Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts thereby contributing to the
osmotic properties of the cell. This influences how materials move
in and out of the cell.
 In some unicellular organisms, food vacuole stores and digests
food substances while the contractile vacuole excretes unwanted
materials from the cell.
k. Cell wall
 This is the rigid outer cover of plant cells and some lower
organisms.
 In plants it is composed of cellulose fibres.
 Cell wall is important in that:
 It gives plant cells their definite shape
 It provides mechanical support and protection against
mechanical injury.
 The cell wall allows gases, water and other substances to
pass through it.
l. Nucleus
 Nucleus is a double membrane bound structure made up of a
viscous fluid known as nucleoplasm in which nucleolus and
chromatin materials are suspended. The nuclear membrane has
minute pores, nuclear pores which allow materials to move in and
out of the nucleus.
 Nucleus controls all the activities of the cell.
 Nucleolus is responsible for manufacture of ribosomes while
chromatin contains hereditary materials.
 Nucleus generally takes a sperical or oval shape.
Comparison between Plant Cells and Animal Cells

While there exist many similarities between plant and animal cells, there are a
number of differences.

Plant cell  Animal cell 

 Usually large  Smaller in size 

 Regular in shape  Irregular in shape 

 Has a cell wall  Has no cell wall

 Usually has no vacuoles but when present, they are

 Usually has a large central vacuole often temporary and small structures within the
cytoplasm

 Cytoplasm and nucleus are usually  Cytoplasm occupies most space in the cell with the
located towards the periphery of the cell nucleus usually centrally placed

 Some have chloroplasts  Has no chloroplasts

 Usually more store oils, starch and

 Store glycogen and fats
proteins.

 Has no centriole.  Has centrioles

Cell Specialization/Cell Differentiation

 This refers to the process by which a cell becomes structurally modified

to perform specific functions
 While cells have a basic outline, they become differentiated to perform
specific functions.
 In particular, the root hair cell has extended surface for absorption while
the sperm cell has a tail-like extension for swimming towards the ovum.

Tissues

A tissue is a group of cells of a particular type that are grouped together to

perform the same function.

a. Tissue types in animals

i. Epithelial tissue- This is a thin continuous layer of cells for lining
and protection of
internal and external surfaces.
ii. Skeletal muscle - This is a bundle or sheets of elongated cells
with fibres that can contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings
about movement.
iii. Blood tissue - This is a fluid containing red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets. The main functions of blood tissue are
transportation of nutrients and gases as well as protection of the
body against infections.
 iv. Connective tissue - This tissue consists of strong fibres that
connects other tissues and organs thereby holding them in
position.

b. Tissue types in plants

i. Epidermal tissue- This is a single thin layer of cells covering the
outer surfaces. It protects inner tissues of plants from mechanical
damage and infection.
ii. Palisade tissue- This is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts
containing chlorophyll. It has a site for the absorption of light
energy and manufacture of food by photosynthesis.
iii. Parenchyma tissue- This tissue consists of special thin walled
irregularly shaped cells. They form packaging and storage cells.
iv. Conducting tissue/Vascular bundle- This tissue consists of
xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and dissolved mineral
salts in a plant while phloem conducts food substances in
solution.
Organs

 An organ is a group of specialized tissues that are grouped together to

perform a common function.
 Organs in animals include:
a. Heart- composed of connective, muscle, epithelial and blood
tissues.
b. Kidney - Composed of connective, epithelial and muscle tissues
c. Brain- Composed of epithelial, connective tissues
d. Lungs- Composed of epithelial, connective tissues.

 Organs in plants include:

a. Roots- composed of epidermal, conducting and parenchyma
tissues.
b. Flowers- This is composed of epidermal, conducting tissues.
c. Stem- Composed of conducting, parenchyma, and epidermal
tissues and palisade tissues in some cases
 d. Leaves- Composed of palisade, conducting and epidermal
tissues.

Organ System

 This is a group of organs whose functions are coordinated and

synchronized to perform the same function.
 Organ systems are more pronounced in animals than in plants
 Organ systems in animals include
a. Digestive system composed of organs such as oesophagus,
stomach, intestines and their associated glands.
b. Circulatory system composed of the heart, blood vessels (arteries,
veins, capillaries).
c. Excretory this is composed of kidney, liver, and blood vessels.
d. Respiratory system composed of trachea, bronchus, and lungs.
e. Reproductive system composed of the reproductive organs and
associated glands.
f. Nervous systems composed of the brain, spinal cord, eye, ear
organs.