MECH 3408

Mechanics of Fluids

Pipe flows and flow kinematics

Dr. Jiyun Song

Office: HW7-01
Email: [email protected]
 Review on similitude
Similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype
(the real thing) performance from model observations.

(1) Geometric similarity (length scale factor)

(2) Kinematic similarity (velocity scale factor)
(3) Dynamic similarity

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 Viscous flows in pipes
• Definitions of Reynolds number (3 forms)
𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = Notes:
𝜇 ν
𝜌: density, V: velocity, D: pipe diameter
𝑉𝐷 𝑄𝐷 4𝑄 𝜇 : dynamic viscosity, ν= 𝜇Τ𝜌 : kinematic viscosity
𝑅𝑒 = =𝜋 =
ν 4
𝐷2ν 𝜋𝐷ν 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= =𝜋 , Q: volume flow rate
𝐴 𝐷2
4𝑄 4𝑚ሶ 4
𝑅𝑒 = = mass flow rate: 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝑄
𝜋𝐷ν 𝜌𝜋𝐷ν

Engineers in different fields like to use different forms of Re.

Reference: Book Chapter 8

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 Viscous flows in pipes
• For circular pipes
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
ν
• For noncircular ducts
𝑉𝐷ℎ
𝑅𝑒 =
ν
Dh =4A/P (hydraulic diameter)
The factor of 4 is included so that
for circular pipes, the diameter and
hydraulic diameter are equal.

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 Velocity profiles for fully-developed flows
(a) Laminar flow (Re < 2100) (b) Turbulent flow (Re > 4000)

𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥

❑ Parabolic shape ❑ Steep near the wall (Large shear stress)

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❑ Average velocity: 𝑉 = 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 ❑ Almost uniform in the middle
2 4
❑ Average velocity: 𝑉 ≅ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥
5

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Understanding laminar and turbulent flow https://youtu.be/9A-uUG0WR0w
 Entrance region
▪ Developing flow and fully-developed flow Will be linked to Chapter 9 in
the future.

o Boundary layer: Viscous

effects are important near
the pipe wall (shear
stress);
o Inviscid core: Viscous
effects are negligible in
the middle.
Figure source: Cambridge Engineering library

▪ Dimensionless entrance length (le/D):

𝑙𝑒 Notes:
= 0.06𝑅𝑒 for laminar flow The shape of the velocity profile in the
𝐷
pipe depends on whether the flow is
𝑙𝑒 laminar or turbulent, so does the length
= 4.4(𝑅𝑒)1/6 for turbulent flow of the entrance region, le.
𝐷
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https://youtu.be/AFq6MDRsfu0
 Entrance region
▪ Dimensionless entrance length (le/D):
for laminar flow 𝑙𝑒
= 0.06𝑅𝑒 (1)
𝐷
𝑙𝑒
for turbulent flow = 4.4(𝑅𝑒)1/6 (2)
𝐷
▪ Examples:
(a) Water (20 ºC) in a pipe with D=2cm at V = 3m/s
𝑉𝐷 3∗0.02
𝑅𝑒 = ν = 1.004∗10−6 = 59,760 > 4000 (turbulent)
𝑙𝑒 = 4.4(𝑅𝑒)1/6 D = 4.4(59,760)1/6 ∗ 0.02 =0.55m
(b) SAE 30 Oil (20 ºC) in a pipe with D=2cm at V =0.6m/s
𝑉𝐷 0.6∗0.02
𝑅𝑒 = ν = 1.673∗10−4 = 71.7 < 2100 (laminar)
𝑙𝑒 = 0.06𝑅𝑒 D = 0.06 ∗ 71.7 ∗ 0.02 = 0.08m
(c) Air (20 ºC) in a D=0.3m duct at 30m/s
𝑉𝐷 30∗0.3
𝑅𝑒 = = = 595,632 > 4000 (turbulent)
ν 1.511∗10−5
𝑙𝑒 = 4.4(𝑅𝑒)1/6 D = 4.4(595,632)1/6 ∗ 0.3 =12.1m

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 Energy equation between Point 1 and Point 2 along a pipeline

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ 𝑇 + ℎ𝐿 + ℎ𝑚
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑃
: Pressure head
𝛾
𝛾: specific weight 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉2
: Velocity head
2𝑔
z : Elevation head
ℎ𝑝 : Energy(head) added by pump
ℎ 𝑇 : Energy consumed (head loss) by turbine
ℎ𝐿 : Major head loss due to friction
ℎ𝑚 : Minor head loss due to valves, bends, tees, etc.
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 Major head loss (hL) in pipe flow
Darcy-Weisbach equation:

𝑙 𝑉2 o Valid for any fully developed, steady,

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 incompressible pipe flow
𝐷 2𝑔 o Valid for both laminar and turbulent flows

Friction factor f
hL: major head loss in pipe flow due to
▪ Different for laminar or turbulent flows.
friction, ▪ Pipe friction is due to viscous effects
f : friction factor, when fluid molecules move against pipe
l : pipe length, walls (possibly rough).
D : pipe diameter for round pipes, or Therefore, 𝑓 = ∅ 𝑅𝑒, 𝜀/𝐷
hydraulic diameter for noncircular pipes, Re: related to viscous effects
V : velocity, 𝜀/D: dimensionless roughness factor
g : acceleration due to gravity. 𝜀: roughness length of pipes
depending on pipe materials, age, etc.
▪ Methods: Get f from Moody Chart or
equations.
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Moody chart: (solutions to friction factor f)
(1) (2) https://youtu.be/PgAXycpuZqM
(3)
Zone 4

f
𝜀/𝐷
Zone 1

Zone 3

Zone
2 (3)

(1) (2) 𝑅𝑒
Zone 1 at left hand side of Line (1) Laminar flow: f depends on Re only
Zone 4 at right hand side of Line (3) Fully developed turbulent flow: f depends on 𝜀/𝐷 only
Zone 3 between Line (2) and Line (3) Transitional turbulent flow: f depends on both Re and 𝜀/𝐷
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Zone 2 between Line (1) and Line (2) Laminar-turbulent transition zone: Unknown (hard to reach this zone)
❖ Equations derived from Moody Chart
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❑ Laminar flow: 𝑓=
𝑅𝑒
1.11
❑ Turbulent flow: 1 𝜀/𝐷 6.9 Colebrook
= −1.81 log + equation
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒

New

Notes:
Old pipes will be rougher than new
pipes due to rust / calcium carbonate
on the pipe walls.

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 Minor head loss (hm) in pipe flow
Minor head loss is due to different components in the pipeline system
(elbows, bends, tees, valves, etc.)

𝑉2
ℎ𝑚 = 𝐾𝐿 ❑ KL can be derived from experiments.
2𝑔
∆𝑃 𝑉2
ℎ𝑚 = = 𝐾𝐿
hm: minor head loss in pipe flow 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
due to pipe components,
Therefore,
KL: minor loss coefficient,
𝐾𝐿 = ∅ 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦 ℎ𝑚 ∆𝑃 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝐾𝐿 = 2 = =
V : velocity, 𝑉 /2𝑔 1/2𝜌𝑉 2 1/2𝜌𝑉 2
g : acceleration due to gravity.
P1 V P2

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Minor loss coefficients for pipe components

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 Pipe surge (Water hammer)
❑ Water hammer is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid in motion is forced to stop
or change direction suddenly (a momentum change). This phenomenon commonly occurs
with a valve closed suddenly at an end of a pipeline system. The pressure wave can cause
numerous problems (noise, vibration, pipe collapse).
❑ Surge tanks are installed before a valve to reduce the effects of water hammer.

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https://youtu.be/xoLmVFAFjn4
 New chapter: Fluid kinematics
Fluid kinematics: flow motions (distance, velocity, acceleration, etc.)
All matters/objects on earth are constituted by molecules. If we want
to study the motion of an object, we can try:
(a) A molecular approach:
Study the motion of a body by analysing every molecule of a body
(microscopic approach), which will be very time-consuming and
tedious.
(b) A continuum approach:
Study average properties (e.g. pressure, density, velocity) evaluated
over a small volume containing a large number of molecules
(collection of molecules). These properties will be assumed to vary
continuously throughout the fluid.

Ref: Book chapter 4 15

 Two methods to study mechanics of continuous objects
Eulerian approach: Lagrangian approach:
Property is a function of time and Tag and follow individual fluid
position in space. particles as they move about and
e.g. T = T(xo, yo, t) determine how the properties of
these particles change.
Property is a function of time.
e.g. TA = TA(t).

Weather station vs sensor-laden pigeon

Eulerian approach with Cartesian coordinate system:

Origin: (0,0)
Lagrangian coordinate system:
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Origin: always moves with the particle
Eulerian approach: One, two, and three dimensional flows
Generally, a fluid flow in nature is a rather complex three-
dimensional (3D) and time-dependent phenomenon, which is
difficult to calculate.
3D problem:
In many situations, it is possible to make reasonable
assumptions to simplify a 3D problem to a 2D one or even a
1D one at times that allow a much easier understanding and
calculation without sacrificing needed accuracy.

2D problem: 1D problem:
2D Example: Flow through a 1D Example: Fully-developed flow
diverging duct

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 Steady and unsteady flows
Properties of fluid flow (pressure, velocity, density, etc.) can be functions of space
and time. If the properties at every point in the flow do not depend upon time, it is
called a steady flow. Mathematically speaking for steady flows,
𝑑𝑃
=0
𝑑𝑡

where P is any property (pressure, velocity, density, etc.)

Steady flow: P = f (x, y, z) (The property is not dependent on time)

Unsteady flow: P = f (x, y, z, t) (The property is dependent on time)

Daily life example:

Water flow out of a tap which has just been opened is unsteady but will become
steady after a while (if you do not change the faucet).

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 Streamline, Pathline, and Streakline
▪ For steady flow, the 3 lines are the same;
▪ For unsteady flow, they are different.
A streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity field.

(a) Definition of Streamline (b) Function of Streamline

For a two-dimensional & steady flow,

Streamline
function: 19
 Flow visualization
Pathline is the line traced by a given particle.
This is generated by injecting a dye into the
fluid and following its path by photography or
other means.

Streakline concentrates on fluid particles

that have gone through a fixed station or
point. At some instant of time the position
of all these particles are marked and a line
is drawn through them. Such a line is called
a streakline.

Streamlines are easily generated mathematically while pathlines and streaklines are
obtained through experiments.

Ref source: MDP project of Cambridge-MIT institute.

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Flow visualization

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Examples on streamline derivation

Streamline function:

Notes: You may plot more

lines with different C
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 Notes: You may plot more
lines with different C

Additional comments on streamlines:

We use streamlines to visualize the fluid flow. The streamlines are actually a group of
lines (could be countless if you want to plot, for example with different C in the lecture
example question), so one of the streamlines will definitely pass through the origin (0,
0).
The statement "One streamline will pass through the origin" is always true, to my best of
knowledge. This is also a clue for you to answer questions about streamlines in
homework or exam. For example, the question may ask you to determine the streamline
through the origin (0,0).

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Summary
• Viscous flows in pipes (Lab experiment topics)
Pipe flow (major and minor head losses)
Pipe surge (water hammer and surge tank)
• Fluid kinematics (how to describe fluid motion)

Thanks for your attention!

Any questions, let me know.

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