UNIT 15 IRREDUCIBILITY AND FIELD

EXTENSIONS
Structure
15.1 Introduction
0b.jectives
15.2 Irreducibility in Q[x]
15.3 Field Extensions
Prime Fields
Finite Fields
15.4 Summary
15.5 Solutions/Answers

15.31 INTRODUCTION
In the pqevious unit we discussed various kinds of integral domains, including unique
factorisation domains. Over there you saw that Z[x] and Q[x] are UFDs. Thus, the prime
and irreducible elements coincide in these rings. In this unit we will give you a method for
obtaining the prime (or irreducible) elemcnts of Z[x] and Q[x]. This is the Eisenstein
criterion, which can also be used for obtaining the irreducible elements of any polynonlial
ring over a UFD.

After'this we will introduce you to field extensions and subfields. We will use irreducible
polynomials for obtaining field extensions of a field F from Frx]. We will also show you
that evay field is a field extension of Q or Z, for some prime p. Because of this we call Q
and the Z,s prime fields. We will discuss these fields briefly.

Finally, we will look at finite fiqlds. Thcse fields were introduced by the young French
mathematician Evariste Galois (Fig. 1) while he was exploring number theory. We will
discuss somc properties of finite fields which will show us how to classify tbem.

Before reading this unil wc suggest that you go through the definitions of irreducibility from Pig. .I: Evariste Galois
(181 1-1832)
Unit 14. We also suggest that you go through Units 3 and 4 of the Linear Algebra course if
you want to understand the proof of Theorem 7 of this unit. We have kept the proof
optional. But once you know what a vector space and its basis are, then the proof is very
simple.

Objectives
Atter reading this unit, you should be able to
e prove and use Eisenstein's criteriorlfor irreducibility in ~ [ xand
] Q[x];
o obtain field extensions of a field F from F[xl;
e obtain the prime field of any field;
use the fact that any finite field F has pn elements, where char F = p and dim F = n.
z~

15.2 IRREDUCIBILITY IN Q[X]

In Unit 14 we introduced you to irreducible polynomials in F[x], where F is a field. We also
stated the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, which said that a polynomial over C is
irreducible iff it is linear. You also learnt that if a polynomial over R is irreducible, it must
have degree 1 or degree 2. Thus, any po'lynomial over R of degree more than 2 is reducible.
And, using the quadratic formula, we know which quadratic polynomials over R are
irreducible.

NOWlet us look at polynomials over Q. Again, as for any field F,a linear polynomial over
U is irreducible. Also, by using the quadratic fom~ulawe can explicitly obtain the roots of
any quadratic polynomial over Q , and hence figure out whether it is irreducible 9r not. But,
.Integral h m a i n s and Fields cail YOU tell whether 2x7 + 3x5 - 6x4 + 3x3 + 12 is irreducible over Q or tlot? In two seconds '
we can tell you that it is irreducible, by using the Eisenstein criterion. This criterion was
discovered by the nineteenth century mathematician Ferdinand Eisenstein. In this section we
will build up the theory for proving this useful criterion.
Let us start with a r' faition. 4

Definition: Let f(x) = a, + alx + ... + anxn E Z[X]. We defini: the content of f[xf to be
the g.c.d of the integers %, a ,,..., a,.

We say that f(X) is primitive if the content of f(x) is 1.

For example, the content of 3x2 + 6x + 12 is the g.c.d. of 3 , 6 and 12, i.e., 3. Thus, this
polynomial is not primitive. But x5 + 3x2 + 4x - 5 is primitive, since the g.c.d of
1,0,0,3,4,-5 is 1.
You may like to try the following exercises now.

E 1) What are the contents of the following polynomials over Z?

- E 2) Prove that any polynomial f(x) E Z[x] can be written as dg(x), where d is the content
of f(x) and g(x) is a primitive
t polynomial.

We will now prove that the product of primitive polynomials i's a primitive polynomial.
This result is well known as Gauss' lemma. r

Theorem 1: Let f(x) and g(x) be primitive polynomials. Then so is f(x) g(x).
ProoC Let f(x) .a0 + a1 x + ... + ,xn E Z[x] and

g(x) = bo + b,x + ... + bmx? E Z[X], wherethe

g.c.d of a , al, ...,a, is 1 and the g.c.d of b , b ...,b is 1. Now
0 0 1' m

where c, = abbk+ alb,-, + ... + akbo.

T o prove the result we shall assume that it is false, ar,d then reach a contradiction. So,.
suppose that f(xj g(x) is not primitive. Then the g.c.d of co, c,, ...,,,,c is greater than 1, and
hence some prime p must divide it. Thus, p 1 ci V i = 0, 1, ..., m+n..Since f(x) is primitive,
p does not divide some ai. Let r be the Ieast integer such that pja,. Similarly, let s be the
least integer such that pjb,.
Now consider

By ourchojce of r and s, p ( %,p ( a l , ...,g 1 a,,, and p(bo, plbl, ..., P 1 bs-l. Also PICWS,
Therefore, plc,, - (Q b,, +... + 4-1 b,,~ +ar+] bS-l + ... + ho)
i.e., p 1 a, b,.
t ,

= p ( a, or p I b,, since p is a prime.

But p 1 hand p b,. So we reach a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition is false. That
is, our theorem is true.
Let us shift our attention to polynomials over Q now.
1 1
Consider any polynomial over Q, say f(x) = x 3 + - r2+ 3x + - . If we take the 1.c.m of
5.4 5 3
 -11the denominators, is., of 2,5,1 and 3, i.e., 30 and multiply f(x) by it, what do we get? Irreducibility and Field
We get Extensions

Using the same process. we can multiply any f(x) E Q[xl by a i,u~tableinteger d so that'df(x),
E Z[X]. We will use this fact while relatine irreducibility in Q[x] with irreducibility in Z[x].

Theorem 2: Kf(x) E Z[x] is irreducible in Z[x], then it is irreducible in Q[x].

ProoB: Let us suppose that f(x) is not irreducible over Q[x]. Then vde should ;each a
contradiction. So let f(x) = g(x) h(x) in Qlx], where neither g(x) nor h(x) is unit, i t . ,
deg g(x) > 8, deg Wx) > 0. Since g(x) E Qlxl. 3 m E 2: such that mg(x) E Zkl. Similarly,
3 ne Z such that nh(x) E Z[x]. Then,
mnf(x) = mg(x) nh(x) ... (1)
Now, let us use E2. By E2, f(x) = rfi(x), mg(x) = sgl (x), nh(x) = th, (x), where r, s and t are
the contents of f(x), mg (x) and nR (x) and fl(x),gl(x), hl(x) are primitive polynomials of
psirive degree.

Thus, (1) gives us

Since gl(x) and hl(x) arc: primitive, Theorem 1 says that gl(x) hl(x) is primitive. Thus, the
content of the right hand side polynomial in (2) is st. But the content of the left hand side
polynomial in (2) is mnr. 'Thus, (2) says that mnr = st.

-
Hence, using the cancellation law in (2), we get f,(x) = g,(x) hl(x).

Therefore, f(x) rfi(x) = (rgl(x)) h,(x) in Z[x], where neither rpl(x) nor hl(x) is a unit. This
contradicts the fact that f(x) is irreducible in Z[x].
Thus, our supposition is false. Hence, f(x) must be irreducible in Q[x].

What this result says is that to check irreducibility of ii polynoniial in Qlx], it is enough to
check it in Z[x]. And, for checking it in Zlx] we Qave the terrific Eisenstein's criterion, that
we mentioned at the beginning of this stkction.

Theorem 3 (Eisenstein's Criterion) : Let f(x) .:t4) .t a l x + .... + a,,xn E Z[x].

Suppose that for some prirne number p;

i) Pel a,
ii) plao. pIa1, ..., pla,,-1, and
iii) p2.+lb.
Then f(x) is irreducible in Z[xj (il~itltie~~ce
in Q[x().
Proof: Can you guess our method o f proof? By conlradiction, clnce again! So suppose f ( x )
is reducible in Z[x].

Let f(x) = g(x) h(x),

where g(x) = bO+ bl x + ... + b,,, xIT1,111>0 arid

h (x) = co + c l x -t- ... + c,xr, r > 0.

Thenn=degf=tiegg +dcgh=m+r,nnd

ak = bo ck + bl ckAl+ ... + bk c,, b'k = 0 , 1 ..., 11.

NOWa0 = b ~We.know that p 1 a),Thus, p 1 b0q, :. p I bo or p 1 cO.Sillce p' k p,, p cannot

divide both and co. Let us suppose tl!ar p I bo and p k CJ

Now let Us look at a,, = b, c,. Since pb a,,, we sce that pkb,,, :ind pkc,..Thus, we see lhal for
some i. pjbi. Let k be the least integer such that pkbk. NOIL'that 0 < k 5 111 < n.
Integral Domains and Fields merefore, p I aka

Since p I ak and p I bo, p ( b,, ...,p ( bk-,, we see that p ( ak- (bock+ .... + bk-,cl), i. e.,
p ( bkc,. But pi bk and pk co.So we reach a contradiction.
r Thus, f(x) must be irreducible in 21x1.
Let us illustrate the use of this criterion.
Example 1: Is 2x7 + 3x5 - 6x4 + 3x3 I- 12 irreducible in Q[x]?
Solution: By looking at the coefficients we see that the prime number 3 satisfies the
conditions given in Eisenstein's criterion.Therefore, the given polynomial is irreducible in
Q[xl.
Example 2: Let p be a prime number. Is Q[x]/<x3 - p =. a field?
Solution : From Unit 14 you know that for any field F, if f(x) is irreducible in F[x], then
<f(x)> isa maximal ideal of F[x].
Now, by Eisenstein's criterion, x3-p is irreducible since p satisfies the conditions given in
Theorem 3. Therefore, <x3-p> is a maximal ideal of Q[x].
From Unit 12 you also know that if R is a ring, and M is a maximal ideal of R, then RIRI
is a field.
Thus, Q[x] /<x3-p> is a field.
In this example we have brought out an important fact. We ask you to prove it in the
following exercise.

E 3) For any'n E N and prime number p, show .that xl'-p is irreducible over Q[xj. Note
that this shows us that we can obtain irredpcible polynomials of any degree over
Qhl.

Now let us look at another example of an irreducible polynomial. While solving this we
will show you how Theorem 3 can be used indirectly.
Example 3: Let p be a prime number. Show that
f(x) = xp-I + x P 2+ .... + x + 1 is irreducible in Z[x], f(x) iscalled the pth cyclotornic
polynomial.
Solution : To start with we would like you to note that f(x) = g(x) h(x) in Z[x] iff
f(x + 1) = g(x + 1) h(x t 1) in Z[x]. Thus, f(x) is irreducible in Z[x] iff f(x+l) is irreducible
in Z[x].

=-1 (xP + PC, xP-' + ... + x -t 1-I), (by the binomial theorem)
X

Now apply Eisenstein's criterion taking p as the prime. We find that f(x+l) is irreducible.
Therefore, f(x) is irreducible.
You can try these exercises now.

E 4) If a. + a,x + ..,. + a, x n E Z[X]is irreducible in Q[x], can you always find a prime p
that satisfies the conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) of Theorem 3?
E 5) Which of the following elements of .Z[x] are irreducible over Q? Irreducibility and Field
Extensions
a) x 2- 12
b) 8 x b 6x2 - 9x + 24
c) 5x + 1
E 6) Let p be a prime: integer. Let a be a non-zero non-unit square-free integer, i . ~ .b,2 k a
for any b€ Z. Show that Z[x]/<xP+a> is an integral domain.

E 7) Show that xp + 5 E z,[x] is not irreducible for any E E Z,.

(Hint: Does E 13 of Unit 13 help?)

So far we have used the fact that if f(x) E Z[X]is irreducible over Z, then it is also
irreducible over Q. Do you think we can have a similar relationship between irreducibilily in
Q[x] and R[xl? To answer this, consider f(x) = x2- 2. This is irreducib1.e in Q[x], but
f(x)= ( X - fi)(X + fi) in R[xl. Thus, we cannot extend irreducibility over Q to
irreducibility over W.

But, we can generalise the fact that irreducibility in Z[x] implies irreducibility in Q[x]. This
is not only true for Z and Q; it is true for any UFD R and its field of quotients F (see Sec.
12.5). Let us state this relationship explicitly.

Theorem 4: Let R be a UFD with field of quotients F.

i) If f(x) ;R[x] is an irreducible primitive polynomial, then it is also irreducible in F[x].

'ii) (Eisenstein's Criterion) Let f(x) = % + a,x + ... + a, x% R[x] and p E R be a
prime element such that p 1 a,, p2 k a0 and p I q for 0 5 i < n.Then f(x) is iqeducible
in F[xl.

The proof of this result is on the same lines as that of Theorems 2 and 3. We will not be
doing it here. But if you are interested, you should try and prove the result yourself.

Now, we have already pointed out that if F is a field and f(x) is irreducible over F, then
F[x]/<f(x)> is field. How is this field related to F? That is part of what we will discuss in
the next section.

15.3 FIELD EXTENSIONS

In this section we shall discuss subfields and field extensions. To start with let us define
these tenns. By now the definition may be quite obvious to you.

Definition: A non-kmpty subset S of a field F is called a subfield of F if it is a field

with respect to the operations on F. If S$F, then S is galled a proper subfield of F.

A field K is called a field extension of F if F is a subfield of K. Thus, Q is a subfieid of

R and R is a field extension of Q. Similarly, C is a field extension of Q as well as of R.
Note that a non-empty subset S of a field F is a subfield of F iff

i) S is a subgroup of (F,+), and

ii) the set of all non-zero elements of S forms a subgroup of the group of non-zero
elements of F under multiplication.

Thus, by Theorem 1 of Unit 3, we have the following theorem:

Theorem 5: A non-empty subset S of a field F is a subfield of F if and only if

i) a E S, b E S 3a-b E S, and

ii) a ~ S , b ~ S , b f 0 3 a b - ' ~ S .

Why don't you use Theorem 5 to do the following exercise now.

Integral Domains and Fields
E 8) Show that I
,a) Q + iQ is a subfield of C.

Now, let us look at a particular field extecsion of a field F. Since F[x] is an integral domain,
we can obtain its field of quotients (see Unit 12). We denote this field by F(x). Then F is a
subfield of F(x). Thus, F(x) is a field extension of F. Its elements are expressions of the
form -f(x)
, where f(x), g(x) E F[x] and g(x) # 0.
g(x)
There is another way of obtaining a field extension of a field F from F[i]. We can look at
quotient rings of F[x] by its maximal ideals. You know that an ideal is maximal in F[x] iff
it is generated by an irreducible polynomial over F.
So, Flx]/<f(x)> is a field iff f(x) is irreducible over F.

Now, given any f(x) E F[x], such that deg f(x) > 0, we will show that there is a field
monomorphism from F into F[x]/d(x)>. This will show that F[x)/<f(x)> contains an
isomorphic copy of F; and hence, we can say. that it contains F.
So, let us define 0 : F+ F[x]/d(x)>: $(a) = a + <f(x)>.

Then $ (a+b) = @ (a) + $ (b), and

Thus, $ is a ring homomorphism.

What is Ker $ 7

Ker Q = {aeF ] a + d(x)> = <f(x)>)

Thus, 41 is 1-1, and hence an inclusion.

Hence, F is embedded in F[x]/<f(x)>.

Thus, if f(x) is irreducible in F[x], then F[x]/<f(x)> is a tield extension of F.

Now for a related exercise i

E 9) Which of the following rings are field extensions of Q?

a) Q[x]/<x3 .t lo>',
b) R[x]/<x2 -t 2>,
c) Q3

" d) Q[x]/<x2-5~+ 6>.

Well, we have looked at field extensions of any field F. Now let us looR at certain fields, one
of which F will be an extension of.

15.3.1 Prime Fields

Let us consider any field F. Can we say anything about what its subfields look like? Yes, we
can say somethidg about one of its subfields. Let us prove this very startling and useful fact.
Before going into the proof we suggest that you do a quick revision.of Theorems 3 , 4 and 8
of Unit 12. Well, .here's the result.
Theorem 6 : Every field contains a subfield isomorphic to Q or to Zp,for some prime
number p.
Proof : Let F be a field. Define a function Irreducibility and Field
Extensions
f: Z -, F : f(n) = n.1 = 1 + 1 + .:.. + 1 (n times).
~nE 11 of Unit 12 you have shown that f is a ring homomorphism and Kerf =,pZ, where p
is the characteristic of F.
NOW,from Theorem 8 of Unit 12 you know that qhar F = 0 or char F = p, a prime. SO let
us look at these' two cases separately.
Case 1 (chhr F = 0) : In this case f is one-one. :.Z = f(Z). Thus, f(Z) is an integral
domain contained in the field F. Since F is a field, it will also contain the field of quotients
of f(Z). This will be isomorphic' to the field of quotients of Z, i.e., Q. Thus, F has a
subfield which is isomorphic to Q.
Case 2 (char F = p, for some prime p) :
Sincap is a prime number, ZIpZ is a field.
~ l s oby
, applying the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism to f, we get Z/pZ f(Z).
Thus, f(Z) is isomorphic to Zp and is contained in F. Hence, F has a subfield isomorphic to
ZP.
Let us reword Theorem 6 slightly. What it says is Lhat :
Let F be. a field.
i ) If char F = 0, then F has a subfield isomorphic to Q.
i i ) 1'f char F = p, then P has a subfield isomorphic to Z,.
Because of this property of Q arid Zp (where p is a prime number) we call these fields
prime fields.
n u s , the prime fields are Q, Z,, Z,, Z5, etc.
We call the subfield isomorphic to a prime field (obtained in Theorem 6),the prime
subfield of the given field.
I.@ us again reword Theorem 6 in terms of field extensions. What it says is that every
field Is a Weld extension of a prime field.
Now, suppose a field F is an extension of a field K.Are the prime subfields of K and F
isomorphic or not? To'answer this let us look at char K and char F. We want to know if
char K = char F or not. Since F is a field extension of K, the unity of F and K is the same,
namely, 1. Therefore, the least fksitive integer n such that n.1 = 0 is the same for F as well
as K. Thus, char K = char F. Therefore, the prime subfields of K and F are isomorphic.
So, now cah you do the following exercises?

E 10) Show that the smallest subfield of any field is its prime subfield. '
E 11) Let F be a field which has no proper subfields. Show that F is isomorphic to a
prime field.
E 12) Obtain the prime subfields of.R, Zg and the field given in E 15 of Unit 12.
E 131 Show that given any field, if we know its characteristic then we can obtain its
prime subfield, and vice versa.

A very important fact, brought out by E 10 and E 11 is that: a field is a prime field iff
it has no proper subfields.
Now let us 1ook:at certain field extensions of the fields 2,.

15.3.2 Finite Fields

You.have dealt a lot with the finite fields Z,. Now we will look at field extensions of these
fields. You know that any finite field F has characteristic p, for some prime p. And then F is
Integral Domaine and Fields an extension of Z,. Suppose P contains q elements. Then q must be a power of p. That is
what we will prove now.

Theorem 7 :.Let F be a finite field having q elements and characteristic p. Then = p", f ~ ;
some positive integer n.

The proof of this result uses the concepts of a vector space and its basis. These are discussed
in Block 1 of the Linear Algebra course. So, if you want to go through the proof, we
suggest that you quickly revise Units 3 and 4 of the Linear Algebra course. If you are not
interested in the proof, you may skip it.

Proof of Theorem 7 : Since char F = p, F has a prime subfield which is isomorphic to

Zp.We lose nothing ff we assume that the prime subfield is Zp. We first show that F is a
vector space over Zp with finite dimensiqn.

Recall that a set V is a vwtor space over a field K if

ij we can define a binary operaiion + on V sucli that (V, +) is an abelian group,

ii) we can define a 'scalar multiplication'. : K x V -+ V such that V a, b E K and

V,W E V,

(a + b). v = a.v + b.v

(ab). v = a. (b.v)

1.v = v.

Now, we know that (F, +) is an abelian group. We also know that the multiplication in
F will satisfy ell the conditions that the scalar multiplication should satisfy. Thus, F is a
vector space over 2,. Since F is a finite field, it has a finite dimerision over Z,,.
Let di- F = n. Then we can find a,,. .., .p,a F such that
P
F=Z,a, +Zpazc..+Zpan.
We will show that F has pn elements.
Now, any element of F is of the form
bla, + bza2+ ... +,bnq,,where b,, ..., b, E Zp. ,

Now, since o(ZJ = p, bl can be any one of its p elements.

Similarly, each of b, b,, ....,bn has p choices. And, carresponding to each of these choices
we get a distinct element of F. Thus, the number of elements in F is
p x p x...xp (n times)=pn.,
The utility of this result is something similar to that of Lagrange's theorem. Using this
result we know that, for instance, no fieldpf order'26 exists. But does a field of order 25
exist? Does Theorem 7 answer this question? .It only says that a field of order 25 can exist.
But it does not say that it does exist. The followhg.exciting result, the proof of which is
beyond the scope of this course, gives us the required answer. This result was obtained by
the American mathematician ~ . kMoore . in 1893.
Theorem 8 : For any prime number p and nE N, there exists a field with pn elements.
IyIoreover, any two finite fields having the same number of elementseareisomorphic.
Now, you can utilise your knowledge of finite fields to solve the following exercises. The
first exercise is a generalisation of E 13 in Unit 13.

E 14) Let F be a finite field with pn elements. Show that a p = a V a E F.h ~ hence.
d

show that XP" - x = (x-ai).

aiE F

(Hint : Note that (F\ { O ) , . ) is a grwp of order pn-1 .)

E 15) Let F be a finite field with pn elements. Define f : F 4 F : f(a) = ap. Show that f is Irreducibility and Field '
an automorphism of F of order n, i e., f is an isomorphism such that f =I, and Extensions
fr.fIforr<n.
f is called the Frobenius
automorphism of F, aftevthe
E 16) Let F be a field such that a E F iff a is a rodt of x27-x E F[x]. mathematician Georg Fmbenius
a) What is char F? ,1848-1917).

b) Is Z 2 G F?
c) Is Q c F?
d) Is F G Q? Why?

E 17) Any two infinite fields att: isomorphic. True or false? Why? Remember that
isoinorphic structures must have the same algebraic properties.

We close our discussion on field extensions now. Let us go over the points that we have
covered in this unit.

15.4 SUMMARY
We have discussed the following points in this unit.

1) Gauss' lemma, i.e., the'product of primitive polynomials is primitive.

2) Eisenstein's irreducibility criterion for polynomials over Z and Q. This states that if
f(x) = + a, x + ... + a,x" E [XIand there is a prime p E Z such thai
i) p I ai 'v' i = 0 , 1 . ...,n-1.
lr
ii) p a,,, and
iii) pz4 %,
then f(x) is irreducible over Z' (and hence over Q).

3) For any n E N, we can obtain an irreducible polynomial over Q of degree n.

4) Definitions and examples of subfields and field extensions.

5) Different ways of obtaining field extensions of a field F from F[x].

6) Every field contains a subfield isomorphic to a prime field.

The prime fields are Q or Zp,
for some prime p.

7) The number of elements in a finite field F is pU',where char F = p and dim F = n.

z~
n
8) Given a prime number p'and n E N, there cxists a field containing p elements. Any
two finite fields with the same number of elements are isomorphic.

9) If F is a finite field with pn elements, then xpn- x is a product of pn linear polynomials

over F.

Now we have reached the end of this unit as well as this course. We hope that we have been
able to give you a basic understanding of the nature of groups, rings and fields. We also hope
that you enjoyed going through this course.

E 2) Let f(x) = % + a, x + ... + a n x b n dlet the content of f(x) be d. k t ai = dbi V i =

0,1, ...,
n. Then the g.c.d of b,,bl ,......;, b, is 4. Thus,
g(x) = bo + b, x .e ....
+ b,xn is primitive. Also,
Integral Domains and Fields E 3) f(x) = X" - p = a0 + al X + .... + a,,xn,
where%=-p,a,=O= ...... =a,,,a,=l
Thus,p I a i V i = O , 1 ,......,~ ~ - l , ~ ~ ) ~ , ~ j a , , .
So, by the Eisenstein criterion, f(x) isirreducible over Q.
E 4) Not necessariIy.
For example, there is no p that satisfies the conditions for f(x) in Example 3.

E5) All of. them. (a) and (b), because of Eisenstein's criterion; and (c), because any
linear polynomial isirreducible.
+
Since a # 0, 1,3a prime q such that q 1 a. Also q2 1a, since a is square-free.
Then, using q as the prime, we can apply Eisenstein's criterion to find that xp + a
is irreducible in Z[x]. Thus, it is a prime element of Z[xT. Hence, c xp + a > is a
prime ideal of Z[x].
Hence the result.

By E 13 of Unit 13 we know that a p= a V a e Zp. Now consider

XP + ii E ZpCx1.
pya is a zero of this polynomial, since
- - - -
(pya)~+; = p - a + a = p = O inZp.

Thus, x p + is reducible over Zp.

a) Q + iQ is a non-empty subset of C.
Now, let a+i5 and c+id be in Q-+iQ.
Then (a + ib) - (c + id) = (a - c) + i (b - d) G Q + iQ.
Further, let c + id # 0, so that c2 + d 2 # 0.
C-id
Then (c + id)-I = ----
c2 + d 2

Thus, (a + ib) (c + id)-' = (a + ib) (C - id)

cZ+ d2

- (.ac + bd)2 + (bc - ad)

c2 + d c2 + d2 + Q,

Thus, Q + iQ is a subfield of C.

b) 2 E Z + f i but
~2-I P Z + lh Z. Therefore,
Z + 6Z is 11ut a field, and hence not a subfield of R.

Let F be a field and K be a subfield of F, Then,-we have just seen that both K and
F have isomorphic prime subfieIds.
Thus, K contains the prime subfield of F.
Thus, we have shown that every subfield of F must contain its prime subfield.
Hence, this is the smallest subfield of F. ,

F must contain a prime subfield. But it contains no proper subfield. Hence, it must
be its own prime subfield. That is, F must be isomorphic to a prime field.
Q, Z g , Z2 , since their characteristics are 0,5 and 2, respectively.

Let F be a field. Firstly, let us assume that char F = p is known. Then, by

Theorem 6, we bow the prime.subfield of F. Conversely, let K bethe prime
subfield of F. Then we know char K,and as shown before E 10, char F = char K.
So we know char F.
E 14). Since (F\ (O},.) is a group of order pn - 1, apn-' = 1 Irredueihilitj. and Fiela
Extensions

:. apn = a vaE F\.{o}. AISO = 0.

Thus, apn = a V a E F.
Now, xpn - x E F[x] can have at the most pn roots in F (by Theorem 7 of Unit
13).
Also, each of the pn elements of F is a root. Thus, these are all the roots of
xpn- x.

= f(a) + f(b).
f(ab) = (ab)P = aP bP = f(a) f(b).
f is 1 - 1, by E 10(c) of Unit 12.
Hence, Im f has the same number of elements as the domain off, i.e., F. Further;
Im f E F :. Im f = F, i.e., f is onto.
Hence, f is an automorphism.
Now, f "(a) = [f(a)ln=. (aP)" = apn = a V a E F.
.. f n = I . ,

Also, for r .:n, f '(a) = ap'

Now, we can't have a?, = a V a E F, because'this would mean that the polynomial
xpr2x E F[x] has more than prroots. This would contradict Theorem 7 of Unit 13.
:.
Thus, f r (a) f a for some a E F. fr f I if r < n.
Hence, o(f) = n.
E 16) a E F iff a27= a, i.e., a33= a.

b) ' No, since char Z2 # char F.

c) No.

d) Nb, since F L.Q 3 char F = c h i Q = 0.

E 17) False.
For example, .Q and R are both infinite, but Q has no proper subfields, while R
does. Thus, Q and 'R are riot isomorphic.