ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

18CS33
MODULE – 2
THE COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
THE BASIC GATES
PREREQUISITES:
Electronic circuits and systems can be divided into two broad categories – analog and digital. Analog
circuits are designed for use with small signals and are used in a linear fashion. Digital circuits are
generally used with large signals and are considered nonlinear. Any quantity that changes with time can
be represented as an analog signal or it can be treated as digital signal.
Digital electronics involves circuits that have exactly two possible states. A system having only
two states is said to be binary. The binary number system is widely used in digital electronics.
Hexa-Decimal Decimal Binary Hexa-Decimal Decimal Binary
0 0 0000 8 8 1000
1 1 0001 9 9 1001
2 2 0010 A 10 1010
3 3 0011 B 11 1011
4 4 0100 C 12 1100
5 5 0101 D 13 1101
6 6 0110 E 14 1110
7 7 0111 F 15 1111

The operation of electronic circuits can be described in terms of its voltage levels – high (H) level and low
(L) level. This could be related to the binary number system by assigning L = 0 = F (false) and H = 1 = T
(true).

Symmetrical Signal & Asymmetrical Signal

The frequency is defined as, f = 1 / T where, T is the period of the signal.

Duty Cycle is a convenient measure of how symmetrical or how unsymmetrical a waveform is.
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, 𝐻𝐻 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, 𝐿𝐿 =
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

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REVIEW OF LOGIC GATES:

Truth Table
Circuit Symbol VHDL IC Details
A B X

NOT Gate: 0 - 1
X = ~A
X <= not A;
1 - 0
𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴̅

OR Gate: 0 0 0
0 1 1 X=A|B
1 0 1 X <= A or B;

𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 1 1 1

AND Gate: 0 0 0
0 1 0 X=A&B
1 0 0 X <= A and B;
𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴. 𝐵𝐵 1 1 1

NOR Gate: 0 0 1
0 1 0 X = ~(A | B)
1 0 0 X <= A nor B;

𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵� 1 1 0
NAND Gate: 0 0 1
0 1 1 X = ~(A & B)
1 0 1 X <= A nand B;

𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵� 1 1 0
XOR Gate: 0 0 0
0 1 1 X=A^B
1 0 1 X <= A xor B;
𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴⨁𝐵𝐵
1 1 0
= 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�
XNOR Gate: 0 0 1
0 1 0
X = ~(A ^ B)
1 0 0
X <= A xnor B;
𝑋𝑋 = 𝐴𝐴⨀𝐵𝐵
1 1 1
= 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

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Universality of NOR Gate:

Universality of NAND Gate:

Bubbled AND Gate:

Bubbled AND gate and NOR gate are equivalent

De Morgan’s First Theorem:

The complement of a sum equals the product of the complements. 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵�
��������

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Proof:
A B A+B ��������
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 𝐴𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅. 𝐵𝐵�
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
NOR Gate Bubbled AND Gate
Bubbled OR Gate:

Bubbled OR gate and NAND gate are equivalent

De Morgan’s Second Theorem:

The complement of a sum equals the product of the complements. ���� = 𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵�
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
Proof:
A B AB ����
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴̅ 𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵�
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
NAND Gate Bubbled OR Gate

Duality Theorem: Starting with a Boolean relation, you can derive another Boolean relation by –
1. Changing each OR sign to an AND sign
2. Changing each AND sign to an OR sign
3. Complementing any 0 or 1appearing in the expression.
Example: 1. We say that, A+0 = A; the dual is, A.1 = A
2. Consider, A(B+C) = AB + AC
By changing the OR and AND operation, we get the dual relation:
A + BC = (A+B)(A+C)

Laws of Boolean Algebra:

 The following laws are of immense use in the simplification of Boolean expressions.

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 Note that, if A is a variable, then either A = 0 or A = 1. Also, when A = 0, A ≠ 1;
and when A = 1, A ≠ 0.

De Morgan’s First Theorem:-

The complement of sum is equal to the product of the complements.
(A + B)’ = A’ . B’ i.e., a bubbled AND gate & a NOR gate are equivalent.
De Morgan’s Second Theorem:-
The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the compliments.
(A . B)’ = A’ + B’ i.e., a bubbled OR gate & a NAND gate are equivalent.

1) Commutative Law:-
A+B=B+A and A.B=B.A
2) Associative Law:-
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C and A . (BC) = (AB) . C
3) Distributive Law:-
A(B + C) = AB + AC

4) In relation to OR operation, the following laws hold good:-

A+0=A
A+A=A
A + 1 = 1 and
A + A’ = 1
5) In relation to AND operation, the following laws hold good:-
A.1=A
A.A=A
A.0=0
A . A’ = 0
A’’ = A

6) Some more useful Boolean relations:-

A + AB = A
A + A’B = A + B
A (A + B) = A
A (A’ + B) = AB
A + (B . C) = (A + B) (A + C)

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Simplification of Boolean Expressions:-
 The following hints are found to be of use, in reducing complex Boolean expressions –
1. If there are parentheses present in the given expression, they are removed first; since,
multiplication should precede addition.
E.g.:- AB + C (A + B) = AB + AC + BC
2. If there are several identical terms, all except one can be removed.
E.g.:- A + B + C + A . 1 = A + B + C + A = A + B + C
3. If a variable repeats in a term, only one variable may be retained.
E.g.:- A . A = A
B .B . C = BC
4. If in any term, both a variable & its complement are present, that term may be removed; since,
AA’ = 0.
E.g.:- XX’Y = 0 . Y = 0
5. Identify pairs of terms which contains same variables. If in a pair, a variable is absent in one term,
it can be removed.
E.g.:- ABCD + ABC = ABC (D + 1)
= ABC . 1 since, 1 + D =1
= ABC
6. If, in a pair of terms, several variables are common, and another variable is present in one term &
its complement is present in another term, this variable & its complement can be removed.
E.g.:- ABC + A’BC = BC (A’ + A)
= BC . 1 since, A’ + A = 1
= BC

KARNAUGH MAPS
MINIMUM FORMS OF SWITCHING FUNCTIONS:
When a function is realized using AND and OR gates, the cost of realizing the function is directly related
to the number of gates and gate inputs used. The Karnaugh map techniques developed, lead directly to
minimum cost two-level circuits composed of AND and OR gates. An expression consisting of a sum-of-
product terms corresponds directly to a two-level circuit composed of a group of AND gates feeding a
single OR gate (see the following Figure). Similarly, a product-of-sums expression corresponds to a two-
level circuit composed of OR gates feeding a single AND gate.
Therefore, to find minimum cost two-level AND-OR gate circuits, we must find minimum expressions in
sum-of-products or product-of-sums form.

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A minimum sum-of-products expression for a function is defined as a sum of product terms which
a) has a minimum number of terms and
b) of all those expressions which have the same minimum number of terms, has a minimum number
of literals.
The minimum sum of products corresponds directly to a minimum two-level gate circuit which has
a) a minimum number of gates and
b) a minimum number of gate inputs.
Unlike the minterm expansion for a function, the minimum sum of products is not necessarily unique; that
is, a given function may have two different minimum sum-of-products forms, each with the same number
of terms and the same number of literals.
Given a minterm expansion, the minimum sum-of products form can often be obtained by the following
procedure:
1. Combine terms by using 𝑋𝑋𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋(𝑌𝑌 ′ + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑋𝑋. Do this repeatedly to eliminate as many
literals as possible. A given term may be used more than once because X+X=X.
2. Eliminate redundant terms by using the theorems of Boolean Algebra.

A minimum product-of-sums expression for a function is defined as a product of sum terms which
a) has a minimum number of factors, and
b) of all those expressions which have the same number of factors, has a minimum number of
literals.
Unlike the maxterm expansion, the minimum product-of-sums form of a function is not necessarily
unique. Given a maxterm expansion, the minimum product of sums can often be obtained by a procedure
similar to that used in the minimum sum-of-products case, except that the theorem (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 ′ )(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌) = 𝑋𝑋
is used to combine terms.

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Y – Fundamental Min-
A B C A B C Y – Fundamental Sum Max-term
Product term
0 0 0 0 m0 0 0 0 0–A+B+C M0
0 0 1 0 m1 0 0 1 0 – A + B + 𝐶𝐶̅ M1
0 1 0 0 m2 0 1 0 0 – A + 𝐵𝐵� + C M2
0 1 1 1 – 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 m3 0 1 1 1 M3
1 0 0 0 m4 1 0 0 0 – 𝐴𝐴̅ + B + C M4
1 0 1 1 – 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 m5 1 0 1 1 M5
1 1 0 1 – 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶̅ ̇ m6 1 1 0 1 M6
1 1 1 1 – 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 m7 1 1 1 1 M7
YSOP = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 YPOS = (A + B + C) (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶̅ ) (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵� + 𝐶𝐶) (𝐴𝐴̅ + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)
= ∑m(1, 2, 4, 7). = ∏M(0, 1, 2, 4).

𝑌𝑌𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑌𝑌𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)(𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐶𝐶)

SOP Circuit Diagram: POS Circuit Diagram:

No. of Gates = 4 No. of Gates = 4

No. of Gate Inputs = 9 No. of Gate Inputs = 9

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Example: Adders & Subtractors
Adder circuit is a combinational digital circuit that is used for adding two numbers. A typical adder
circuit produces a sum bit (denoted by S) and a carry bit (denoted by C) as the output. Adder circuits are
of two types: Half adder ad Full adder.
Subtractor is the one which used to subtract two binary numbers (digits) and provides Difference and
Borrow as an output.
Half Adder & Half Subtractor:

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵� 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, 𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷, 𝐷𝐷 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵� 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵

Full Adder & Full Subtractor:
A B Ci S Co A B Ci D Bo
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

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1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sum, S = ∑m (1, 2, 4, 7) = ∏M(0, 3 , 5, 6). Difference, D = ∑m (1, 2, 4, 7) = ∏M(0, 3, 5, 6).
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷. , 𝐷𝐷 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
����) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵 ���)� + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴⨁𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 ⊙ 𝐵𝐵) 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴⨁𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 ⊙ 𝐵𝐵)
����������
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴⨁𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵𝐵) ����������
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐷𝐷 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴⨁𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 ⊕ 𝐵𝐵)
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑺𝑺 = 𝑨𝑨 ⊕ 𝑩𝑩 ⊕ 𝑪𝑪 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑫𝑫 = 𝑨𝑨 ⊕ 𝑩𝑩 ⊕ 𝑪𝑪

Carry Out, Co = ∑m (3, 5, 6, 7) = ∏M(0, 1, 2, 4). Borrow, Bo = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 7) = ∏M(0, 4, 5, 6).

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝐶𝐶̅ (𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 = 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 � 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨𝑨
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩 = 𝑨𝑨 � 𝑪𝑪

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TWO AND THREE VARIABLE KARNAUGH MAPS:

Just like a truth table, the Karnaugh map of a function specifies the value of the function for every
combination of values of the independent variables. The following Figure shows the truth table for a
function F and the corresponding Karnaugh map:

The following Figure shows a three-variable truth table and the corresponding Karnaugh map:

Example: Write the Karnaugh Map for – (a) f = ∑m (1, 3, 5) (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 ′ + 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎′
(c) F = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)
Solution: (a) f = ∑m (1, 3, 5) (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐 ′ + 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎′ (c) F = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7)

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Example: Find two different minimum sum-of-products expressions for the function G = ∑m (0, 2, 3, 4, 5,
7).
Solution: Given, G = ∑m (0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7);

FOUR-VARIABLE KARNAUGH MAPS:

The following Figure shows the location of minterms on a four-variable map & plot of four-variable
expression 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑′ on a Karnaugh map:

f 𝑎𝑎�𝑏𝑏� 𝑎𝑎�𝑏𝑏 ab 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏� f 00 01 11 10

𝑐𝑐̅𝑑𝑑̅ 0 4 12 8
00
1 5 13 9
𝑐𝑐̅d 01
3 7 15 11
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 11
2 6 14 10
𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑̅ 10

f (a, b, c, d) =

Example: Write the Karnaugh map for (a) 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑧𝑧 ′ + 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 + 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑦𝑦

(b) 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵�𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶̅

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Solution:

𝑤𝑤
�𝑥𝑥̅ 𝑤𝑤
�𝑥𝑥 wx 𝑤𝑤𝑥𝑥̅ 0 1
f Y

𝑦𝑦�𝑧𝑧̅ 00

𝑦𝑦�𝑧𝑧 01

𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 11

𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧̅ 10

f (w, x, y, z) = Y (A, B, C) =

Example: Write the Karnaugh map for (a) f1 = = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13); (b) f2 = = ∑m (2, 3, 5, 7,
8, 10, 11, 15).
Solution: (a) Given, f1 = = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13) & f2 = = ∑m (2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15);

DETERMINATION OF MINIMUM EXPRESSIONS USING ESSENTIAL PRIME

IMPLICANTS:
Any single 1 or any group of 1’s which can be combined together on a map of the function F represents a
product term which is called an implicant of F. Several implicants of F MAY BE POSSIBLE. A product
term implicant is called a prime implicant if it cannot be combined with another term to eliminate a
variable.

The following Figure shows the flowchart for determining a Minimum Sum of Products using a Karnaugh
Map with an Example.

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1. Choose a minterm (a 1) which has not yet been covered.

2. Find all 1’s and X’s adjacent to that minterm (Check the n adjacent squares on an n-variable map.
3. If a single term covers the minterm and all of the adjacent 1’s and X’s, then that term is an
essential prime implicant, so select that term. (Note that don’t-care terms are treated like 1’s in
steps 2 and 3 but not in step 1.)
4. Repeat steps 1, 2, and 3 until all essential prime implicants have been chosen.
5. Find a minimum set of prime implicants which cover the remaining 1’s on the map. (If there is
more than one such set, choose a set with a minimum number of literals.)

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PAIRS, QUADS, AND OCTETS:
Pairs: The following K-map contains a pair of 1s that are horizontally adjacent. Two adjacent 1s, such as
these are called a pair. A pair eliminates one variable and its complement.

Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

The sum-of-product equation is:
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 0 0
𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐷𝐷 ′ = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐷𝐷 + 𝐷𝐷 ′ ) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
0 0 0 0
𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 0 1 0
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
0 0 1 0
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Quad: A quad is a group of four 1s that are horizontally or vertically adjacent. A quad eliminates two
variables and their complements.
Y
𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�
0 0 1 0 The sum-of-product equation is:
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴′ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐶𝐶 + 𝐶𝐶 ′ ) = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
0 0 1 0
𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 0 1 0

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 0 0 1 0

�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

The Octet: The octet is a group of eight 1s, as shown in the following Fig. An octet eliminates three
variables and their complements.

Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

The sum-of-product equation is:
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 1 1
𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴′ = 𝐴𝐴(𝐵𝐵 + 𝐵𝐵′) = 𝐴𝐴
0 0 1 1
𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 0 1 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
0 0 1 1
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

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KARNAUGH SIMPLIFICATIONS:
A pair eliminates one variable and its complement. A quad eliminates two variables and their
complements. An octet eliminates three variables and their complements. Because of this, after drawing
the K-map, first encircle the octets, then the quads, and finally the pairs, to get highest simplification.
Example: Using K-map, simplify; Y = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14).
Solution:
Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 1 1

1 0 1 1
𝐶𝐶̅ D
1 0 0 0
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1 1 1 1 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 ′ + 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ′ + 𝐴𝐴′𝐵𝐵′𝐷𝐷
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Overlapping Groups: Always overlap groups.

Y1 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y2 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 0 0
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Y1 = Y2 =
Rolling the Map:

Y3 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y4 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 0 0 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Y3 = Y4 =

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Rolling and Overlapping:

Y1 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y2 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

1 1 0 0
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�
1 1 0 0 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

� �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Y1 = Y2 =

𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y4 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y5 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Y3 = Y4 = Y5 =

Eliminating Redundant Groups: After encircling groups, eliminate any redundant groups. This is a
group whose 1s are already used by other groups.

𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D 𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

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Homework:
1] Determine the minimum sum-of-products for –
a) f1 (a, b, c) = ∑(1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
b) f2 (a, b, c) = Π (2, 4, 7)
c) f3 (a, b, c, d) = 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑑𝑑′ + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 ′ + 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏′𝑑𝑑
2] Determine the minimum product-of-sums for –
a) f1 (a, b, c) = ∑ (0, 1, 2,3, 4, 6, 7)
b) f2 (a, b, c) = Π (1, 4, 5)
c) f3 (a, b, c, d) = 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝑑𝑑′ + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 ′ + 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏′𝑑𝑑
3] Solve for the simplified Boolean expression using K-Map:
a) 𝑓𝑓1 (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑) = 𝑎𝑎�𝑐𝑐̅𝑑𝑑 + 𝑎𝑎�𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑏𝑏�𝑐𝑐̅𝑑𝑑̅ + 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏�𝑐𝑐 + 𝑎𝑎�𝑏𝑏�𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑̅
b) 𝑓𝑓2 (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, 𝑑𝑑) = �𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑̅��𝑎𝑎� + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑑𝑑̅��𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏� + 𝑐𝑐̅ + 𝑑𝑑��𝑎𝑎� + 𝑏𝑏� + 𝑐𝑐̅ + 𝑑𝑑̅�(𝑎𝑎� + 𝑏𝑏� + 𝑐𝑐̅ +
𝑑𝑑)
4] Find the minimum sum-of-products for –
(a) f1 (a, b, c) = m0 + m2 + m5 + m6 (b) f2 (d, e, f) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 4)
(c) f3 (r, s, t) = 𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡 ′ + 𝑟𝑟 ′ 𝑠𝑠 ′ + 𝑟𝑟′𝑠𝑠) (d) f4 (x, y, z) = M0 . M5
5] Design a 3-input, 1-output, minimal two-level gate combinational circuit; which has an output equal to
1 when majority of its inputs are at logic 1, and has output 0 when majority of inputs are at logic 0.
6] Design a minimal sum and minimal product combinational gate circuit to generate the odd parity bit
for an 8421 BCD code.

QUINE McCLUSKEY (QM) METHOD

The Karnaugh map method is an effective way to simplify switching functions which have a small
number of variables. When the number of variables is large or if several functions must be simplified, the
use of a digital computer is desirable.
The Quine-McCluskey method provides a systematic simplification procedure which can be readily
programmed for a digital computer. The Quine-McCluskey method reduces the minterm expansion
(standard sum-of-products form) of a function to obtain a minimum sum of products.

DETERMINATION OF PRIME IMPLICANTS:

 In order to apply the Quine-McCluskey method to determine a minimum sum-of-products
expression for a function, the function must be given as a sum of minterms.
 In the first part of the Quine-McCluskey method, all of the prime implicants of a function are
systematically formed by combining minterms.

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 Two minterms will combine if they differ in exactly one variable. The examples given below
show both the binary notation and its algebraic equivalent.

 In order to find all of the prime implicants, all possible pairs of minterms should be compared and
combined whenever possible. To reduce the required number of comparisons, the binary
minterms are sorted into groups according to the number of 1’s in each term.
Now, function; f(a, b, c, d) = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14) can be represented by following list of
minterms:

 In this list, the term in group 0 has zero 1’s, the terms in
group 1 have one 1, those in group 2 have two 1’s, and
those in group 3 have three 1’s.
 Two terms can be combined if they differ in exactly one
variable. Only terms in adjacent groups must be compared.
 First, we will compare the term in group 0 with all of the
terms in group 1.Terms 0000 and 0001 can be combined to
eliminate the fourth variable, which yields 000– (𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′).
 Similarly, 0 and 2 combine to form 00–0 (𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏′𝑑𝑑′), and 0 and 8 combine to form –000 (𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′𝑑𝑑′).
The resulting terms are listed in Column II of the following Table.
 Whenever two terms combine, the corresponding decimal numbers differ by a power of 2 (1, 2, 4,
8, etc.).
 Since the comparison of group 0 with groups 2 and 3 is unnecessary, we proceed to compare
terms in groups 1 and 2. Comparing term 1 with all terms in group 2, we find that it combines
with 5 and 9 but not with 6 or 10. Similarly, term 2 combines only with 6 and 10, and term 8 only
with 9 and 10. The resulting terms are listed in Column 2.
 Each time a term is combined with another term, it is checked off. Also note that, a term may be
used more than once. Even though two terms have already been combined with other terms, they
still must be compared and combined if possible.
 At this stage, we may generate redundant terms, but these redundant terms will be eliminated
later.

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 We finish with Column 1 by comparing terms in groups 2 and 3. New terms are formed by
combining terms 5 and 7, 6 and 7, 6 and 14, and 10 and 14.
a b c d f Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
0 0 0 0 1 abcd abcd abcd
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
 Note that the terms in Column 2 have been divided into groups. In order to combine two terms,
the terms must have the same variables, and the terms must differ in exactly one of these
variables. Thus, it is necessary only to compare terms which have dashes (missing variables) in
corresponding places and which differ by exactly one in the number of 1’s.
 Terms in the first group in Column 2 need only be compared with terms in the second group
which have dashes in the same places. Term 000– (0, 1) combines only with term 100– (8, 9) to
yield –00– (𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′).
 The resulting term is listed in Column 3 along with the designation 0, 1, 8, 9 to indicate that it
was formed by combining minterms 0, 1, 8, and 9.
 Term (0, 2) combines only with (8, 10), and term (0, 8) combines with both (1, 9) and (2, 10).
 Again, the terms which have been combined are checked off. Comparing terms from the second
and third groups in Column 2, we find that (2,6) combines with (10, 14), and (2, 10) combines
with (6,14).
 Note that there are three pairs of duplicate terms in Column 3. These duplicate terms were formed
in each case by combining the same set of four minterms in a different order.

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 After deleting the duplicate terms, we compare terms from the two groups in Column 3. Because
no further combination is possible, the process terminates.

 In general, we would keep comparing terms and forming new groups of terms and new columns
until no more terms could be combined. The terms which have not been checked off because they
cannot be combined with other terms are called prime implicants. Because every minterm has
been included in at least one of the prime implicants, the function is equal to the sum of its prime
implicants. In this example we have;

Definition:
 Given a function F of n variables, a product term P is an implicant of F iff for every combination
of values of the n variables for which P = 1, F is also equal to 1.
 A prime implicant of a function F is a product term implicant which is no longer an implicant if
any literal is deleted from it.

Consider an Example:

o In the above function, the implicant 𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′ is not a prime implicant because a can be eliminated,
and the resulting term 𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′ is still an implicant of F. The implicants 𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 ′ and 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 are prime
implicants because if we delete a literal from either term, the term will no longer be an implicant
of F.

The Quine-McCluskey method, as previously illustrated, finds all of the product term implicants of a
function. The implicants which are nonprime are checked off in the process of combining terms, so that
the remaining terms are prime implicants. Any nonprime term in a sum-of-products expression can thus
be replaced with a prime implicant, which reduces the number of literals and simplifies the expression.

THE PRIME IMPLICANT CHART:

 The second part of the Quine-McCluskey method employs a prime implicant chart to select a
minimum set of prime implicants. The minterms of the function are listed across the top of the
chart, and the prime implicants are listed down the side. A prime implicant is equal to a sum of
minterms, and the prime implicant is said to cover these minterms. If a prime implicant covers a
given minterm, an X is placed at the intersection of the corresponding row and column. The

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following Table shows the prime implicant. All of the prime implicants (terms which have not
been checked off in the above Table) are listed on the left.
- 0 1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 14
(0, 1, 8, 9) (𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑐𝑐 ′ )
(0, 2, 8, 10) (𝑏𝑏′𝑑𝑑′)
(2, 6, 10, 14) (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐′)
(1, 5) (𝑎𝑎′𝑐𝑐′𝑑𝑑)
(5, 7) (𝑎𝑎′ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)
(6, 7) (𝑎𝑎′𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)
 In the first row, X’s are placed in columns 0, 1, 8, and 9, because prime implicant 𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′ was formed
from the sum of minterms 0, 1, 8, and 9. Similarly, the all other X’s are placed.
 If a minterm is covered by only one prime implicant, then that prime implicant is called an
essential prime implicant and must be included in the minimum sum of products. Essential prime
implicants are easy to find using the prime implicant chart. If a given column contains only one
X, then the corresponding row is an essential prime implicant. In the above Table, columns 9 and
14 each contain one X, so prime implicants 𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐′ and 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐′ are essential.
 Each time a prime implicant is selected for inclusion in the minimum sum, the corresponding row
should be crossed out. After doing this, the columns which correspond to all minterms covered by
that prime implicant should also be crossed out.
 A minimum set of prime implicants must now be chosen to cover the remaining columns. In this
example, the resulting minimum sum of products is –

Example: Solve using QM method: F= ∑m (0, 1, 2, 5, 6, 7).

Solution:
a b c F Column 1 Column 2
1 0 0 abc abc
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

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The following Table shows the resulting prime implicants chart:
- 0 1 2 5 6 7

Therefore, F =

NOTE: A prime implicant chart which has two or more X’s in every column is called a cyclic prime
implicant chart.

Example: Solve, using Quine Mc-Cluskey method & K-Map method: F = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15).
Solution:
Quine Mc-Clusky method:
A B C D F Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
0 0 0 0 ABCD ABCD ABCD
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1

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-
- 0 1 2 8 10 11 14 15
(0, 1) (𝐴𝐴′𝐵𝐵′𝐶𝐶′)
(0, 2, 8, 10) (𝐵𝐵′𝐷𝐷′)
(10, 11, 14, 15) (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
Therefore, F = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵′𝐷𝐷 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶′ ′

K-Map Method:

F 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�

𝐶𝐶̅ D

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
F= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵′𝐷𝐷 ′ + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶′
�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Homework: Using Quine-McClusky method, simplify;

a) Y = ∑m (0, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
b) Y = ∑m (2, 6, 7).

PATRICK’S METHOD:
 Petrick’s method is a technique for determining all minimum sum-of-products solutions from a
prime implicant chart. The example discussed above has two minimum solutions. As the number
of variables increases, the number of prime implicants and the complexity of the prime implicant
chart may increase significantly. In such cases, a large amount of trial and error may be required
to find the minimum solution(s).
 Petrick’s method is a more systematic way of finding all minimum solutions from a prime
implicant chart than the method used previously. Before applying Petrick’s method, all essential
prime implicants and the minterms they cover should be removed from the chart.

Consider the following Table:

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 First, we will label the rows of the table P1, P2, P3, etc. We will form a logic function, P, which
is true when all of the minterms in the chart have been covered. Let P1 be a logic variable which
is true when the prime implicant in row P1 is included in the solution, P2 be a logic variable
which is true when the prime implicant in row P2 is included in the solution, etc.
 Since, column 0 has X’s in rows P1 and P2, we must choose row P1 or P2 in order to cover
minterm 0. Therefore, the expression (P1+P2) must be true.
 In order to cover minterm 1, we must choose row P1 or P3; therefore, (P2+P3) must be true. In
order to cover minterm 2, (P2+P4) must be true.
 Similarly, in order to cover minterms 5, 6, and 7, the expressions (P3+P5), (P4+P6) and (P5+P6)
must be true.
 Since we must cover all of the minterms, the following function must be true:

 The next step is to reduce P to a minimum sum-of-products. This is easy because there are no
complements. First, we multiply out, using (𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌)(𝑋𝑋 + 𝑍𝑍) = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑌 and the ordinary
distributive law:

 Next we use 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋 to eliminate redundant terms from P, which gives;

 Because P must be true (P = 1) in order to cover all of the minterms, we can translate the equation
back into words as follows. In order to cover all of the minterms, we must choose rows P1 and P4
and P5, or rows P1 and P2 and P5 and P6, or . . . or rows P2 and P3 and P6.
 Although there are five possible solutions, only two of these have the minimum number of rows.
Thus, the two solutions with the minimum number of prime implicants are obtained by choosing
rows P1, P4, and P5 or rows P2, P3, and P6.
 Thus; 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑎𝑎′ 𝑏𝑏 ′ + 𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐 ′ + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜r F = a'c' + b'c + ab are two minimum solutions.
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SIMPLIFICATION OF INCOMPLETELY SPECIFIED FUNCTIONS:
In some digital systems, certain input conditions never occur during normal operation; therefore, the
corresponding output never appears. Since the output never appears, it is indicated by an X in the truth
table. The X is called a don’t-care condition.
Remember these points about don’t-care conditions:
1. Given the truth table, draw the K-map and transfer 0s, 1s, and don’t-care terms.
2. Encircle the actual 1s on the K-map in the largest groups you can find treating don’t cares as 1s.
3. After the actual1s have been included in the groups, disregard the remaining don’t cares by
visualizing them as 0s.
Example: Consider the following truth table with don’t care conditions for all the inputs from 1010 to
1111.
A B C D Y A B C D Y Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 X 𝐶𝐶̅ D
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 X
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 X 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 X �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 X Y=

0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 X

Problem: What is the simplest logic circuit for –

a) Y1 = F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0) + ∑d (8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15)
b) Y2 = F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (0) + ∑d (12, 13, 14, 15)
c) Y3 = F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (7) + ∑d (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15).
Solution:
(a)

𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
� Therefore, Y1 = 𝐵𝐵′𝐶𝐶′𝐷𝐷′

𝐶𝐶̅ D

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

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(b)
𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�
Y2
Therefore, Y2 = 𝐴𝐴′𝐵𝐵′𝐶𝐶′𝐷𝐷′ 𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�

𝐶𝐶̅ D

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
(c)
Y3 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� �
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵�

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�

𝐶𝐶̅ D Therefore, Y3 = BCD

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

Don’t-Care Conditions in Quine McCluskey Method:

o In the process of finding the prime implicants, we will treat the don’t-care terms as if they were
required minterms. In this way, they can be combined with other minterms to eliminate as many
literals as possible. When forming the prime implicant chart, the don’t-cares are not listed at the
top.
o This way, when the prime implicant chart is solved, all of the required minterms will be covered
by one of the selected prime implicants. However, the don’t-care terms are not included in the
final solution unless they have been used in the process of forming one of the selected prime
implicants.

Homework: Using Quine-McCluskey method (same questions can be asked to solve by using Patrick’s
method also), simplify;
a) f (a, b, c, d) = ∑m (3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15) + ∑d (2)
b) f (a, b, c, d) = ∑m (1, 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15)
c) f (a, b, c, d) = ∑m (0, 1,0 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15)
d) f (a, b, c, d) = ∑m (1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13) + ∑d (2, 9, 5)
e) f(a, b, c, d) = ∑m (9, 12, 13, 15) + ∑d (1, 4, 5, 7, 81 11, 14).

Example: Solve using QM method: F (A, B, C, D) = ∑m (2, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13) + ∑d (1, 10, 15).
Solution: The don’t-care terms are treated like required minterms when finding the prime implicants:

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A B C D F Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
0 0 0 0 ABCD ABCD ABCD
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1

The don’t-care columns are omitted when forming the prime implicant chart:
- 2 3 7 9 11 13

Therefore, F =

SIMPLIFICATION USING MAP-ENTERED VARIABLES:

Although the Quine-McCluskey method can be used with functions with a fairly large number of
variables, it is not very efficient for functions that have many variables and relatively few terms. Some of
these functions can be simplified by using a modification of the Karnaugh map method. By using map-
entered variables, Karnaugh map techniques can be extended to simplify functions with more than four or
five variables. The following Figure shows a four-variable map with two additional variables entered in
the squares in the map.

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When E appears in a square, this means that if E = 1, the corresponding minterm is present in the function
G, and if E = 0, the minterm is absent. Thus, the map represents the six-variable function;

Example: Simplify Y (A, B, C) = ∑m (2, 6, 7) by using entered variable map method by taking –
a) “C” as map entered variable
b) “A as map entered variables.
Solution: Let Y = ∑m (2, 6, 7)
A B C Y A B YC B C YA
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 (c) A’ A
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 B’ 0 C
1 0 0 0 B C’ 1
1 0 1 0 (a) A’ A (b) B’ B
1 1 0 1 Y = AB + BC’
B’ 0 0 C’ 0 1
1 1 1 1 B C’ 1 C 0 A
YC = BC’ + AB YA = AB + BC’
Simplification is similar to K-map method. In Fig (a), C’ is grouped with 1 to get a larger group as 1 can
be written ac 1 = 1 + C’. Similarly, A is grouped with 1 in Fig (b).
Now, the product term representing each group is obtained by including map entered variable (MEV) in
the group as an additional ANDed term.
Hence, for Fig (a): 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴. For Fig (b): 𝑌𝑌 = 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶̅ + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴.

Consider the EBM shown in Fig (c). This has only two product terms; and doesn’t need a separate
coverage for 1. This is because, one can write 1 = C + C’, and C is included in one group and C’ is
included in other group.

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Example: Simplify Y (A, B, C) = ∑m (1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14) by using entered variable map method by
taking – a) “D” as map entered variable
b) “C and D” as map entered variables.
Solution:

Example: Solve by using (a) K-Map method & (b) MEV method taking “D” as map entered variable:
𝐹𝐹(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷) = 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷𝐷 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + (𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶); where 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴′𝐶𝐶 is a don’t-care term.
Solution: Given 𝐹𝐹(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷) = 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷𝐷 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + (𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶)
i.e., 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶(𝐷𝐷 + 𝐷𝐷 ′ ) + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝐷𝐷 + 𝐷𝐷 ′ ) + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷𝐷 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + [𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶(𝐷𝐷 + 𝐷𝐷 ′ )]
or 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷𝐷 ′ + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶 ′ 𝐷𝐷 + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐷𝐷 ′ + 𝐴𝐴′ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + (𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 ′ + 𝐴𝐴𝐵𝐵′ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶)
i.e., F = ∑m (0, 1, 6, 7, 15) + ∑d (10, 11).

Y 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵� 𝐴𝐴̅𝐵𝐵 AB A𝐵𝐵� Y(A, B, C, D) =

𝐶𝐶̅ 𝐷𝐷
�

𝐶𝐶̅ D

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶

�
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷

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MEV method taking “D” as map entered variable:
A B C D Y YD
0 0 0 0 1
1
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0
0
0 0 1 1 0 Y A A’

0 1 0 0 0
0 𝐵𝐵′𝐶𝐶′
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 𝐵𝐵′𝐶𝐶
1
0 1 1 1 1
BC
1 0 0 0 0
0
1 0 0 1 0 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵′

1 0 1 0 X
X Y (A, B, C) =
1 0 1 1 X
1 1 0 0 0
0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0
D
1 1 1 1 1

Exercise:
a) Design (a) Binary-to-Gray Code Converter, and (b) Gray-to-Binary Code Converter
b) A switching circuit has two control inputs (C1 and C2), two data inputs (X1 and X2), and one
output (Z). The circuit performs one of the logic operations AND, OR, EQU (equivalence), or
XOR (exclusive OR) on the two data inputs. The function performed depends on the control
inputs:

(i) Derive a truth table for Z

(ii) Use a Karnaugh Map to find minimum AN-OR Gate Circuit to realize Z.
c) A logic circuit realizing the function f has four inputs a, b, c, d. The three inputs a, b, and c are
the binary representation of the digits 0 through 7 with a being the most significant bit. The input

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d is an odd-parity bit; that is, the value of d is such that a, b, c, and d always contains an odd
number of 1’s. (For example, the digit 1 is represented by abc = 001 and d = 0, and the digit 3 is
represented by abcd = 0111.) The function f has value 1 if the input digit is a prime number. (A
number is prime if it is divisible only by itself and 1; 1 is considered to be prime, and 0 is not.)
a. Draw a Karnaugh map for f
b. Find all prime implicants of f
c. Find all minimum sum of products for f
d. Find all prime implicants of f’
e. Find all minimum product of sums for f.

Try these: Design a minimal sum combinational circuit to –

a) Find the 9s complement of BCD numbers
b) Convert BCD to Excess-3
c) Multiply two 2-bit numbers
d) Output a 1 when an illegal BCD code occurs
e) Output the 2s complement of a 4-bit binary number.

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